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Documente Cultură
MUSLIMS IN SPAIN
i. Religious Conditions
The sons of the Spanish soil were the „Nature Worshippers‟.
The second major religious faction was Jews.
The Gothic rulers, who were Roman Catholic, victimized Jews.
Jews were forcibly converted to Christianity.
Climax of intolerance 694 A.D – when Jews were sold with exception of
children who were to be converted to Christianity.
Jewish uprising had occurred but it failed miserably.
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Algeciras
Tariq captured Algeciras without any difficulty and made it the base camp for
his men.
Battle of Barbate
Both troops came face to face on the banks of Barbate River (Guadal quiver).
The army of Roderick was four times larger than that of Tariq.
Tariq burnt the boats in the sea as to obviate idea or attempt of fleeing in
anyone‟s mind.
The companions of Roderick also included followers of former king, Witiza.
They deserted king Roderick and joined Count Julian.
The battle lasted for a week.
Roderick was defeated and drowned.
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Conquest of Cordova
Cordova was an important city of Spain, situated along the river Guadal
quiver.
Mughalith ar-Rumi, commander of one detachment of Tariq‟s army, marched
towards cordova and conquered it.
Siege of Merida
Roderick‟s Queen Agela, Arabs called her Ayela, was in Merida city.
Merida was a strongly defended city of Spain.
Musa warned its governor Saracus to surrender or pay Jizya, but he refused.
Musa sieged the city for six months and eventually captured it.
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Conclusion
The victories of Musa and Tariq were spectacular.
They were brave, competent and valiant generals.
Later, Walid bin Abdul Malik recalled both of them.
“In swiftness of execution and completeness of success, this expedition into Spain
holds a unique place in medieval Military annals.”
(P. K. Hitti)
Introduction:
He was grandson of Hisham, the 10th Caliph of Umayyads.
He fled to North Africa after the battle of zab in 750 A.D.
He escaped assassination at the hands of North African governor, Ibn Habib al-Fahri.
Being a son of Berber mother, he reached Centa, North Africa where his maternal
uncles lived.
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Yemenites were thus ready to welcome any ruler who could emancipate them
from oppressive rule of Qaisites.
They supported AR-I when he landed in Spain.
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Charlemagne‟s Invasion
Charlemagne, the emperor of Franks, invaded Spain and was also supported by
the Abbasids of Baghdad and Muslim rebels of Sargossa.
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In 777 A.D, Charlemagne invaded Spain to derive out Islam from Al-Andulus.
A blue eyed son-in-law of Yusuf Al-Fahri also invited the Franks.
As the Christians passed the Pyrenees and reached Sargossa, they were defended
by Hussain bin Yahya Al-Ansari.
On its retreat, the Christian Army was attacked by the Basques.
They were defeated at Pamplona.
Roland, the nephew of emperor, was also killed by his own fellow Christians at
Roncesvalles pass in 778 A.D.
AR-I as Administrator
Besides being, a matchless general of the day, he also proved to be very good
administrator.
He divided Spain into six provinces.
Each province had a governor called Wali.
Later on, a Prime Minister, called Hajib was also appointed.
The first Hajib was Abu Ghalib Tamam.
And last of AR-I‟s Hajib was a eunuch Mansur.
AR-I also reorganized the governmental system.
Cultural Achievements
i. Establishment of cities; He established and embellished cities mosques,
bridges, water channels and fortresses called ribats especially in Cordova.
ii. Palace of Rusafa; AR-I‟s nostalgia of his birth place is beautifully
reflected in Palace of Rusafa. It was his private dwelling, full of gardens,
like the palace of his grandfather Hisham.
iii. Grand Mosque of Cordova; This is an eternal Masterpiece of Muslim
grandeur and sublimity in the world. Its construction started in 786 A.D. It
is rectangular in shape, pulpit made of gold, ivory and costly stones
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Introduction:
AR-II was an energetic, artisan of the Umayyad Spanish unity and a zealous
patron of Music, art, science and astronomy.
He was a wise and sagacious ruler endowed with political insight, administrative
acumen and military foresightedness.
His reign has been symbolized as an age of peace and prosperity which the
Muslim Spain had not enjoyed before.
His foreign policy based on the principles of defending his kingdom against all
aggressors, the organization of administrative system, the patronage of art and
science, speak of his thrity years of pacified rule.
During his reign, the Arabian culture, language and lifestyle so influenced the
Spanish Christians that these Mozarabs or Arabicized Christians were fully
imbued with the Arabic ways of life despite the strong disapproval of their
fanatical co-religionists.
A period of Prosperity
AR-II‟s reign of thirty years was comparatively far more peaceful than that of his
predecessors.
It was a period of prosperity which was unprecedented for the Spanish Muslims.
The prediction of Hakam, his father, came true to a great extent when he advised
his son, “Peaceful are the provinces, which I hand down to you. They are a couch
on which you may repose undisturbed. I have taken care that no rebellion shall
break in upon your sleep.”
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Issue of Blasphemy
Some Christians of Cordova launched a political Movement under the guise of
religion.
This was a reaction of the Spanish church, against Islam and Muslim rule in
Spain.
Some fanatic Christians had adopted the way of seeking martyrdom by
blaspheming Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H).
They were canonized as the martyred saints.
AR-II summoned the church council in Cordova and ordered them to stop the
blasphemous acts.
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i. Yahya bin Yahya, a theologian: He was a student of Imam Malik and was
responsible for the introduction of Malik school of thought in Spain. AR-II
gave great respect to Yahya who one‟s revolted against his father Al-Hakam.
All the Judicial departments were under control of Yahya.
ii. Ziryab, A Musician: Ali bin Nafe surnamed as Ziryab was a Persian and
celebrated court musician of Haroon-ul-Rasheed, the Abbasid Caliph.
However, Ishaq Mawasili, his teacher out of jealousy sent him away. Thus,
AR-II, a great lover of Music, patronized this talented artist in his royal court.
Here Ziryab, revolutionized the customs, the manners and lifestyles of
Spanish people.
iii. Sultana Tarub, A Woman: AR-II was highly in love with Sultana Tarub. She
was crazy about gold. She wanted her son Abdullah to be AR-II‟s successor
but AR-II disliked him and wanted his another son Muhammad as his
successor. Tarub along with Nasr, the eunuch, planned to give poison to the
Emir when he was sick but he plot was disclosed.
iv. Nasr, the eunuch: He was the powerful eunuch. He exercised great influence
on AR-II.
Public Works
Under his wise administration, the revenue of Al-Andulus was considerably
increased.
He spent a huge amount of money for building palaces, bridges, and laying out
pleasure gardens, public baths, street lights, new hospitals and public health
department during his time.
Conclusion
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It is also believed that he invented an instrument of his own which had five
strings.
That instrument supposedly excelled the „Udul-al-Shabut‟ invented by Zalat, a
renowned singer of Baghdad.
Conlcusion
Ziryab was undoubtedly an epitome of Muslim expertise in art in general and
Music in specific.
He was a devoted artisan who regaled Spanish people with his awesomely
composed music and attractive voice.
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Introduction:
AR-III was undoubtedly the greatest and most remarkable ruler of Umayyad
Spain.
When he ascended to the Spanish throne, his kingdom was in a deplorable
condition with revolts on all sides and the Christians in the north, and the fatimids
in the north Africa threatening to advance.
But, Salute to his resoluteness bravery, gallantry and prudence that wrenched
order out of disorder and restored peace with a vision.
He made Islamic Spain most powerful, richest and prestigious state to this extent
that this glory, splendour and grandeur became the hallmark of his reign.
The achievements of this, “Meek, Generous and Wonderful ruler” were equally
remarkable and great both on the fields of battle and in the arts of peace.
As Hitti says, “The young Emir was the man of the honour.”
AR-III‟s Conquests
i. Jaen, Elvira, Archedonia
These three cities were captured from the allies of Ibne Habsud within
a short span of three months.
ii. Muhammad Ibne Ibrahim of Seville
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AR-III as a Caliph
AR-III assumed the title of Caliph, „An-Nasir li Din illah‟, The Defender of
religion of Allah, in 929 A.D
He issued gold coins to compete with the Fatimids and Byzantines in international
markets.
His rule as a caliph lasted from 929 to 961 A.D.
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Development of Agriculture
Scientist of his age introduced new arts of agriculture and horticulture for better
production of crops.
During his rule Spain presented spectacle of highly cultivated and richly
productive garden.
Spain became famous for zoological and botanical gardens.
Sugarcane, rice, oranges, cotton fruits and other oriental plants were introduced.
In a way, Spain became food basket for Europe.
Development of Industry
Industry got boost in his reign.
Silk, Cotton, Wool, Leather and Metal in Seville, Cordova, and other cities added
to the wealth of Spain.
The silk from Valencia, weapon from Toledo, leather and books from Cordova,
were supplied to the rest of the world.
Saddles made of silk were considered superior in the whole of Spain.
Trade
Due to industrial development, and conducive environment, import and export
increased revenues and prosperity of Spain.
Trade was mainly carried with Byzantines and with the Muslims (Baghdad and
Damascus), with Mediterranean Island and Tunisia.
Development of Music
Mut‟a, a pupil of Ziryab captivated heart of AR-III.
He composed poems rare in the east.
He composed new forms of poetical and musical composition.
Medinat-ul-Zahra
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Conclusion
AR-III was blessed with extraordinary administrative capacity, industry and
daring.
Al-Maqqari says that he was the mildest and the most enlightened sovereign that
ever ruled the country.
“His weakness, generosity, and his love of justice, became proverbial.”
His ideas were typical of a modern monarch rather than those of a medieval ruler.
Like Sher Shah of India, he personally looked after the every minute details of his
administration.
He was tolerant and won the public sympathy by reducing lawful and abolishing
unauthorized taxes.
“Never before was Cordova, so prosperous, Andulusia so rich, and the state so
triumphant.”
(P. K. Hitti)
“He raised the ruined country to a tradition such as the wildest imaginations can
hardly conjure up.”
(Lan Pool)
i. Internal Conflict
Internal rivalries ate away the consolidation of the Empire like termites.
It cultivated hazardous effects and chronic impacts over the Empire.
The omens of disintegration became too obvious to be conceived much
earlier.
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The provinces in the far off suffered ignorance and ill-administration of the
center.
This diluted the solidarity of the provinces with the center.
Besides, no measures were taken to ensure security and peace in the Empire
after it spread to far north in Africa.
v. Succession Controversies
The Arab tradition of electing a caliph was based on age, maturity or in
some cases blood relative of the ancestor ruler.
Thus, a definite succession law was non-existent in the Spanish Empire
which led to the controversies among the aspirants to the throne.
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x. Christian Invasion
The Christians of Europe never tolerated the Muslim existence in Spain
Thus, the kept launching attacks on Muslim Spain
It weakened Muslim power a great deal and contributed to its final downfall.
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Thus, his work is more than a simple record of past events, rather it is an account
of moral lessons and philosophical points regarding human history.
HIS WORKS
„MUQADMA‟ is the greatest evidence of his fame.
It is the first volume of his renowned work „Kitab-ul-Ibar‟.
It is detailed history of Arabs, Persians and Berbers.
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i. Ibne Bajah
He was the most celebrated philosopher in Spain.
He was born at Sargossa in 11th C.
He gave new life to philosophy after Ibne Sina.
He became disciple of Farabi.
He gave in fact a neo-platonic interpretation of Aristotle in conservative line.
His masterpiece „Tdbir-al-Mutawahid‟
v. Ben Gabriel
His philosophical work is „Yanbu al-Hayya‟.
He was a Jew and was called Jewish Plato.
He worked on neo-platism.
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“It has remained a medical Bible for a longer time than any other book.”
(Dr. Osler)
o Dante, the Italian poet, paid high tribute to Ibne Sina.
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IBNE KHALDUN
Introduction
Born in 1332 at Tunis in a Spanish family.
Ibne khaldun was the most eminent and unique historical philosopher and social
scientist of Muslim Spain during the 14th C.
He formulated cyclic theory of national progress and decay based on his popular
concept of „al-asabiyya‟ or „Social Solidarity‟.
“Ibne Khaldun has taken a view of history so comprehensive and philosophic that no
Arab, indeed no European had done so ever.”
(P. K. Hitti)
Being the learned scholar of his time, he held several posts at „Fas‟ before
entering in the service of „Sultan of Granada‟.
Intellectual Life
He started writing in 1382 A.D.
He became professor at Al-Azhar University, Cairo.
Later on, he served as Qazi of Cairo.
Historiography
He was a keen observer of contemporary politics.
MUQADDAMAH
„Muqadammah‟ is Ibne Khaldun‟s masterpiece in study of sociology and
understanding of human history.
It explains forces of cohesion and solidarity.
It formulates a theory of Historical development.
It elaborates Role of climate, geography, moral and spiritual forces in rise and fall
of nations.
It promulgates laws of national progress and decay.
It elucidates origin of society and civilization.
IBNE SINA
Introduction:
His full name was Abu Ali Hussian Ibne Sina.
In the west, he is knows as „Avicenna‟.
He obtained great fame in the field of medicine.
“In this physician, philosopher and poet, Arab science culminates or one might say
incarnates.”
(P. K. Hitti)
Early Life
Born in 980 A.D near Bukhara.
He spent most of his lifetime in eastern part of Muslim world.
He had the honour to cure „Sultan of Bukhara‟ in his teenage.
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Achievement in Medicine
Ibne Sina was an unrivalled expert in the field of medicine.
He commenced writing at the age of 21.
He wrote more than 200 books on various subjects.
Al-Qanun-al-Tib
Sina‟s masterpiece on medicine, „Al-Qanun-al-tib‟ was a detailed account of
medicinal straits and issues in his age.
It was encyclopedic piece on medicine.
It was translated into Latin and other languages of the world.
It was regarded as final codification of Greco-Arab medical thought.
It throws light upon diseases, symptoms and drugs to cure them.
A veteran writer and historian commented about this book by saying;
“It has remained a medial Bible for a longer period than any other book in the
history.”
(P. K. Hitti)
Achievements in Philosophy
Ibne Sina was a concurrent philosopher beside physician.
His novel work on philosophy was „Kitab-al-Shifa‟.
Kitab-al-Shifa
It was an encyclopedic work on philosophy in the Sina‟s times.
It was impacted and modified by Neo-Platonism and Muslim theology.
It is generally believed that harmonization of Greek philosophy with Islam was
commenced by „Al-Kindi‟, continued by „Al-Farabi‟ and completed by „Ibne
Sina.‟
It was through him that the Greek system, particularly that of Philosophy, was
rendered capable of incorporation with Islam.
It was due to his unmatched endeavours and achievements that renowned Italian
poet „DANTE, paid tribute him by placing him in the company of Plato and
Aristotle.
As a Father of Geology
He wrote a book on mountains and earth‟s interior.
He gave the scientific reasons for earthquake.
Thus, he was considered as the Father of Geology.
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Achievements in Music
He wrote commentaries on some earlier works of Music.
He also produced some original treatise in his book „Al-Shifa‟.
Those desertions were translated into Latin and held high influence in Europe.
Literary Achievements
The best known rhythmic work of Ibne Sina was in form of an ode.
The ode was titled as, „The Descent of Soul into the Body from Higher Sphere.‟
The musical composition of this ode was extraordinary
This ode is retained in mind by a number of students in the east and sung by heart.
Conclusion
Ibne Sina was undoubtedly the greatest of Muslim intellectuals, Philosophers and
Scientist that Muslim world ever produced.
For centuries afterwards, he remained the source of guidance and satisfied the
thirsty of the knowledge.
“Spain and not Italy was cradle of the rebirth of Europe. After sinking lower I and lower
in barbarianism, it had reached the darkest depth of ignorance and degradation when the
cities of Baghdad, Cairo, Cordova, Toledo were growing centers of civilization and
intellectual activity. It was there that the new life arose which was to grow ino a new
phase of human evolution. From the time when the influence of their culture made itself,
began the stirring of a new life.”
(Robert Briffault)
“It was by way of Spain that the longest works of Aristotle reached western Christendom
to revolutionize scholastic philosophy and theology.”
(Hearnshaw)
“The whole of Europe except Italy was in a state of barbarianism it was the civilization
of Islam which fused light into Europe.”
(John W. Cambell)
“The student flocked from the France, England, germany and every part of Europe to
drink from the fountain of learning which flowed only in the city of Moors.”
(Lane Poole)
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“In the eighth century, the Moors conquered Spain and as if by magic, a splendid
civilization sprang into being.”
(C. T. Gorham)
Spirit of Discovery
Spirit of discovery was the outcome of renaissance.
This spirit was inculcated in minds of Europeans when they acquired knowledge
at Muslims universities.
Discovery of America was practical manifestation of this spirit.
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Individualism
Individualism was spirit of renaissance.
It was derived from Islamic culture and spirit.
Individual became more important than church and their ilk for the first time in
the history.
i. Educational Institutions
University of Granada
Educational Institutes at Cordova.
„Baitul Hikma‟ in Baghdad.
„Nizamiah‟
„Darul Hikma‟ at Cairo.
ii. Translations
Toledo Translatory School.
Separated from Muslim Spain in 11th Century.
Attracted scholars and translators from all over Europe.
All masterpieces of Muslim world were translated.
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“The Great social and cultural progress of Cordova inspired awe and
admiration in the hearts of European travelers.”
(R. Dozy)
vi. Conquest of Christian lands by Muslims
Spain
Sicily
Toledo
Introduction
Islamic revolution and the teachings of the Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) were never
confined to the Arabian Peninsula.
It spread far and wide into European and African lands.
The journey started during the caliphate of Hazrat Umar (R.A) and ended in the
days of Walid bin Abdul Malik, the Umayyad Caliph.
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The then governor of Egypt, Maqukas, took refuge in the fort of „Kistat‟.
Hazrat Umar (R.A) sent reinforcement of 10,000 Muslims to quicken the
conquest.
After seven months of prolonged siege, the city fell in the hands of Muslims.
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She was very influential and notorious due to her alleged super-natural powers.
Hass‟an was defeated at her hands and Muslim army suffered huge losses.
Nearly half a decade later, Hass‟an returned with mighty army and routed Queen
Wamiya.
This became a decisive victory for Muslim authority and power in North Africa.
OTTOMANS OF TURKEY
Introduction
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Conquest of Constantinople
He began with building a fort of Rumeli Hisa on the European side of Bosporus to
gain control of the water way and shrink Byzantine‟s communications with the
Black Sea as well as to assure passage of Ottoman troops from Anatolia to
Europe.
In February 1453 A.D, first troops occupied Byzantine seaports along the
Marmora Sea.
In May 1453 A.D, the rampart was demolished and the Ottoman troops entered
the Golden Horn.
Restructuring of Empire
He dismissed Grand Wazir Candash Halil and imprisoned him along with his
family.
Zaganos Pasha replaced Halil and was given tremendous powers to exercise.
However, Muhammad-II himself controlled revenue, military and other very
important institutions of the Empire.
Administration setup was further divided into Chief Judge, Chief Treasurer and
Chief Scribe.
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Millet System
He put an end to feudal oppression and secured the lives of those oppressed by
feuds.
He revived old traditions of peaceful living and preserved the old customs.
Religious freedom and security prevailed in his rule.
Moldavia
The state of Moldavia was ruled by Stephen, The Great who aimed at gaining
control over Black Sea and The Crimea.
Later on, Muhammad-II and Stephen signed a peace treaty which neutralized the
Walachia territory.
Muhammad-II then moved to deal with Karaman who was fomenting revolt in
Anatolia.
Revolt of Vlad IV
Vlad IV invaded northern territories of Bulgaria which alarmed Muhammad-II
instantly.
Muhammad-II‟s severe retaliation brought Wallachia under his rule.
However, he returned the territory to Vlad‟s brother who promised to pay tribute
to Muhammad-II.
Economic Development
Native industry flourished enormously in his era.
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Conclusion
Muhammad-II is regarded as the most ablest of Ottoman rulers.
An apt statesman, strong soldier, efficient administrator and astute emperor.
In his era, literature, science, philosophy, arts and music all flourished richly.
His conquests justified his title of Al-Fatah, the Victorious.
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Invasion of Hungary
One hundred thousand troops siege was laid against Louis – II of Hungary.
Sulaiman defeated him at Mohacs and Hungary became a province of Ottoman
Empire for 140 years.
Prior to that Hungary was regarded as rampart of Europe against Turks.
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Architectural Development
Mimar Sinan, chief architect.
Ottoman architecture reached its zenith in Suleiman‟s period.
Master pieces were;
i. Sulaimaniye Mosque
ii. Salimiye Mosque
iii. Restored Dome of the Rock
iv. Renovated Ka‟aba.
v. A Complex in Damascus.
Conclusion
His rule was like his name, magnanimous.
Justice, rule of law, fraternity and liberty was ensured to everyone.
His rule marked the apogee of power and apex of glory and grandeur of Ottoman
Empire.
He was regarded as the sacrosanct throughout his empire.
The Nile, The Jordan, The Tigris, The Euphrates, The Danube, The Hubris and
The Ilyssus rolled their waters within the shadow of Horse-tail of Sulaiman.
With the death of Sulaiman, the power of Turks began to wane.
Ottoman Tanzimat
Introduction
A period of Reforms. (1839-1876 A.D).
Ended with the first constitution era.
Origin
Emerged from the minds of reformist.
Sultan Mehumd-II and Abdul Melid-I were the pioneers.
Their recognition of the new needs of the modern trends in the new century.
Goals
Ambitious projects launched to combat the slow decline of the empire.
To stop the gradual decline of the empire by promoting ottomanism among the
people of the empire.
Reforms
Guarantee to ensure ottoman subject. Perfect security for their lives, honour and
property.
First ottoman paper bank notes in 1840 A.D
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Reorganization of Army. Formal recruiting, levying the army, fixing the duration.
Adoption of ottoman national anthem/flag.
Reorganization of Finance system on French model.
Establishment of first modern universities in academics.
Induction of non-Muslims in ottoman army.
Rail roads were constructed.
First stock exchange in Istanbul.
Pre-Islamic Architecture
Byzantine Architecture
More developed architecture.
Merged eastern and western architectural styles.
Main expertise was in church architecture.
Masterpiece: Church of St. Sophia at Constantinopole.
Coptic Architecture
In Egypt.
Ancient and outdated.
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3. Madinat-al-Zahra
He built the most magnificent palace called Medinat-ul-Zahra.
It was initiated after his beloved wife Zahra asked him to found a city and name it
after her name.
It was situated 25Kms away in the north-west of Cordova.
To attract inhabitants, he offered 400 dirhams to the settlers.
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A commentator of Aristotle
For him, Aristotle was the greatest thinker.
Aristotle was a perfect man having infallible truth.
Ibne Rushd interpreted Aristotlian thought with originality.
Averroism in Europe
He exerted tremendous influence on European thought.
12th – 16th Century.
During renaissance it flourished in Italy.
Many proudly declared themselves as Averroists.
His writings became prescribed studies in University of Venice and Paris.
Contribution in Medicine
An encyclopedic work, Al-Kulliyat-fi-al-Tibb.
Small pox not twice in life.
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Functions of Retina.
FATIMIDS OF EGYPT
Introduction
Objectives
Immediate aim: Liberation of Jerusalem
Unity and solidarity among Muslims.
Resolve disputes among members.
Political, social, economic emancipation of Muslims.
Safeguard independence and rights of Muslims.
Functions
Collective security
Peaceful resolution of disputes.
Joint and uniform foreign policy.
Technical cooperation.
Instances of Inefficiency
1971 – Indian Intrusion in East Pakistan (Bangladesh).
1973 – Arab-Israel War.
1980-88 Iran-Iraq War.
1990 – Iraqi invasion of Kuwait.
2001 – U.S invasion of Afghanistan.
2003 – U.S invasion of Iraq.
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Causes of Failure
Extreme poverty and uneven development.
High illiteracy rate. -65% average illiteracy rate.
Lack of skill and technical expertise.
Lesser role of woman in national development.
Military weakness.
Absence of democratic credentials.
Lack of leadership.
Internal cleavages.
Arab racism and other Muslim States.
Remedies
Collective Military Might must be set up on the pattern of NATO.
Strong and Independent Media.
Uplifting the under developed Muslim States.
Advancement in science and Technology.
Get rid of conservatism.
Discard belief in traditionalism.
Promote education.
Ameliorate the poor. Alleviate the Poverty.
Uniform sound foreign policy.
Establishing common markets.
Common currency on the model of EURO.
Wipe out internal differences.
Establish Islamic Development Banks.
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