63 Pages Handout For FTAAI

PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MUNTINLUPA
HANDOUTS FOR FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

Chapter 1 that we are interested in; the water
all wood contains water. Green wood contains a lot, dry
Fire technology is the study of chemistry and physics of wood less. But it all has some.
fire, combustible materials, extinguishing agents, hazardous Cellulose – tree cells are made of cellulose. When cellulose
and toxic materials, organization and function of fire is heated it changes. Up to about 200 centigrade, carbon
prevention and suppression techniques, fire protection dioxide and water vapour are given off. Above this
technique and system, fire command and fire management temperature, pyrolysis takes place. In this process, volatile
(supervision). gases are given off that catch fire. These burning gases give
off heat causing a chain reaction and the fire gets hotter. The
Nature and chemistry of fire fire gets hotter and at 450 centigrade, the carbon left behind
by the pyrolysis starts to burn. The wood goes through three
What is fire? stages burning
1. “smoking” stage as the water and co2 are driven off,
Fire is the exothermic reaction of combustion(burning),
producing heat and light.
Combustion
A type of oxidation reaction that occurs when a combustible

fuel is exposed to a source of heat in the presence of
oxygen. The oxidation of the molecules that make up fuel is
an exothermic reaction, meaning it releases energy.
The Oxford English dictionary defines fire as “the state of

burning, in which substances combine chemically with
oxygen from the air and give out bright light, heat, and
smoke”
there are some key words in that definition: 2. “flame” in which the volatile pyrolysis gases are driven off,
substances (fuel) – the thing that burns burn, and raise the temperature
oxygen
heat
these things form the fire triangle.
3.“carbon burn” in which the fire reaches a high enough

temperature to generate glowing embers. Wood can be
converted to carbon (charcoal) by heating it without oxygen.
This prevents the pyrolysis gases igniting
Understanding The Elements Of Fire
(Creating fire from woods)

understanding fuel
it is worth noting that wood contains three main components
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water driven off, whilst the temperature needs to be higher,
the actual amount of energy that needs to be expended may
be lower. We’ll come to that.
Now it’s important to understand two things here:
the amount of input energy required to achieve is
proportional to the amount of material being heated. It takes
more energy to raise the temperature of a larger object. If
the same amount of energy is input to a large object as a
small one, it will raise the temperature less – possibly below
the point of combustion. So its easier to light small things
than large ones!
When an object is heated to a point beyond its surroundings,
it will begin to lose heat to its surroundings (through a variety
of mechanisms such as convection and conduction). If an
minerals - this is the non-burnable stuff like calcium, and object is heated too slowly, it will lose heat at an equivalent
potassium – this makes ash. rate and never achieve ignition.
(bluffers guide) (bluffers guide)

to start a fire, heat wood up, it gets rid of water and (non you have to heat up wood to get it to burn. The bigger it is,
flammable) co2 at the lower temperatures. Once you have the more heat this will take. The wetter the wood is, the more
got rid of this, it starts to give off burnable gases. Once you heat this will take. You have to heat carbon fuel (charcoal
get it hot enough (around 200 centigrade) these gases will etc.) To a higher temperature than wood to get it to burn
ignite. When they ignite, you get heat given off for the first (which takes more heat) but you usually don’t have to drive
time. This is when the fire “takes hold”. The heat given off by the water off (which takes less heat)
the gases gives off more gas, which catches fire in turn
giving off more heat. When the fire reaches 450 centigrade, 2.3 understanding air
the carbon left from the pyrolysis will catch fire and glow as it it is worth understanding that the available oxygen usually
burns without smoke or flame. limits the process of combustion. Adding oxygen will often
cause a fire to burn hotter and faster – the process that
2.2 understanding heat makes blacksmiths bellows work. This must be tempered
it is worth explaining that in the process of combustion, heat with understanding that you can blow the fuel away. In
is both an input and an output. Heat exists in combustible blowing out a candle, the gas (vapourized wax) is removed
material (fuel) in the form of chemical potential energy. That from the heat source and the candle goes out. Blowing hard
is to say that energy is stored in the chemical components of on glowing charcoal will make it burn faster since the
the fuel and can, given the right circumstances, be released. charcoal is unlikely to blow away. Blowing too hard when
We all know this – you burn wood to generate heat. Heat is fuel is flaming (burning vaporized hydrocarbons) may
also an input in that for the process to take place, the right extinguish it, blowing on glowing coals probably wont.
materials must be present and the temperature raised to the Now air can be added to the mix in a variety of ways – by
point at which the reaction begins. This is known as the blowing, through mechanical means (bellows or fanning) or
process of ignition. In burning wood, we raise the via scientific principles. Let’s take one of the most useful.
temperature of the wood to initially drive out water and then The chimney. Heat rises. We know this right? So as a fire
to the point at which the gases being to burn. This releases burns, the hot gases and vapours will rise up a chimney.
more energy that causes the carbon to burn. This draws more oxygen into the fire at the bottom. In
addition, if a wind is passing over a chimney, it lowers
pressure. This lower pressure makes the chimney draw still
more gas up through it and hence oxygen into the fire.
All fires need oxygen. Forcing oxygen onto a fire based on
gas risks blowing it out. Forcing oxygen into a carbon-based
fire will probably increase it temperature. The best way to
feed oxygen into a fire is to draw oxygen up through it (in the
same way as a chimney does)
Fire tetrahedron (pyramid)- fuel, heat, oxygen, and the

chemical reaction
this explains why it is in some ways easier to light dry wood Types of fire condition
than charcoal – there are no pyrolysis gases in charcoal to
burn. However since charcoal also doesn’t need to have the
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Smoldering- is a form of flameless combustion which occurs Incipient – this first stage begins when heat, oxygen and a
at the surface of the material in cellulosic substances that fuel source combine and have a chemical reaction resulting
can form a solid char. The presence of a smoldering fire is in fire. This is also known as “ignition” and is usually
characterized by extremely localized burning and the represented by a very small fire which often (and hopefully)
production of thick, tarry smoke. goes out on its own, before the following stages are
reached. Recognizing a fire in this stage provides your best
Flaming- bursting into flame or gases that emits light in chance at suppression or escape.
visible spectrum. Growth – the growth stage is where the structures fire load
and oxygen are used as fuel for the fire. There are numerous
Flammability ranges factors affecting the growth stage including where the fire
started, what combustibles are near it, ceiling height and the
Flash point- the minimum temperature at which fuel favour is potential for “thermal layering”. It is during this shortest of
momentarily ignited in air by an external ignition source. the 4 stages when a deadly “flashover” can occur; potentially
However this will not necesssarily sustain combustion and trapping, injuring or killing firefighters.
produce fire. Fully developed – when the growth stage has reached its
max and all combustible materials have been ignited, a fire
Flame or fire point- the minimum temperature at which is considered fully developed. This is the hottest phase of a
enough vapour is produced to allow continued combustion. fire and the most dangerous for anybody trapped within.
This is actually higher than flash point by few degrees. Decay – usually the longest stage of a fire, the decay
stage is characterized a significant decrease in oxygen or
Spontaneous ignition or auto-ignition point- the lowest fuel, putting an end to the fire. Two common dangers during
temperature at which a substance will ignite without any this stage are first – the existence of non-flaming
external ignition source. combustibles, which can potentially start a new fire if not fully
extinguished. Second, there is the danger of a backdraft
when oxygen is reintroduced to a volatile, confined space.
The 4 stages of a fire
By most standards including the international fire service Sources of heat

training association (ifsta) there are 4 stages of a fire. These
stages are incipient, growth, fully developed, and decay. The capacity of a physical system to perform work is called
The following is a brief overview of each stage. energy. There are different types of energy, such as heat
energy, mechanical energy, light energy, sound energy and
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electric energy. Heat energy is produced when there is a A. The earth received its heat from the sun through radiation.
transfer of heat from a warm object to a cool object. This is
an important form of energy as it is essential for day-to-day
B. Heat may be transferred by radiation from the burning
activities like cooking, ironing and the heating of water. Any
building to a neighboring building which may set a fire or be
object that can be used to derive heat is considered as a
scorced (heated to extreme dryness) by the intensity of the
source of heat energy. There are many sources of heat
transferred heat.
energy.
The sun is a part of our solar system. Thus, it is a natural 2. Convection- through molecular action of hot gases or
source of heat energy. Sunlight is important for the existence smoke or fumes.
of all living organisms on the planet. This form of heat
energy is also called solar energy. Example:
The heat energy that is found from the earth is called A. A fire in the corner of the room will heat the air directly
geothermal energy. Sustainable and clean geothermal around it. The heated air being lighter than the cooler air will
energy can be found in the hot water and rocks present in rise the ceiling. The displaced cooler air will take the place of
the shallow ground. It is also found in the molten rocks the risen heated air. As this process continues, the heat from
available in the extreme depth of the earth. the fire is diffused throughout the room and the spread of fire
is facilated.
The air around us is a very common source of heat energy
for heat pumps. Exhaust air is also a good heat source for 3. Conduction- through solid materials, that is direct contact.
heat pumps in buildings, both commercial and residential.
Example:
Heat energy can be generated by the burning of fuels. Fuel
can be defined as any combustible substance that can burn
and provide energy. A few examples of fuels are wood, A. When heat is applied on one end of the iron rod, the heat
kerosene, coal, charcoal, gasoline/petrol and oil. spreads throughout the entire rod.
Electricity is a form of energy that can be converted into heat B. Walls and floors may conduct heat from a burning portion
energy, thus, it's considered a source. For example, the and help spread the fire.
clothes iron that is used in our domestic household uses
electrical energy to generate heat. Physical state of fuels and its effect on combustion
Waste heat recovery is a process in which heat energy that A fuel is a substance which gives heat energy on
is excess for certain industrial processes is diverted to use in combustion. A fuel contains carbon and hydrogen as main
other work applications. There are many industrial combustible elements. Fuel is any material that can be made
applications that generate large amount of excess heat. to react with other substances so that it releases chemical or
Waste heat recovery boilers are used to channel this excess nuclear energy as heat or to be used for work. Heat energy
heat into other useful work applications. released by reactions of fuels is converted into mechanical
energy via a heat engine. Other times the heat itself is
Waste or effluent water is a possible source of heat energy valued for warmth, cooking, or industrial processes, as well
as it has a constant high temperature throughout the year. as the illumination that comes with combustion. Fuels are
For example, untreated and treated water from sewers and also used in the cells of organisms in a process known as
industrial waste water and condenser heat that is generated cellular respiration, where organic molecules are oxidized to
from refrigeration plants are used in making of electricity and release usable energy.
other industrial processes.
Types of fuels
Among others are chemical energy, mechanical energy, Liquid fuels

nuclear energy, and etc. Liquid fuels like furnace oil and are predominantly used in
industrial applications. Most liquid fuels in widespread use
are derived from the fossilized remains of dead plants and
Modes of heat transfer animals by exposure to heat and pressure in the earth's
crust. However, there are several types, such as hydrogen
1. Radiation- through the motion of air vacuum or the sun. fuel (for automotive uses), ethanol, jet fuel and biodiesel
which are all categorized as a liquid fuel.
Example:
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Types of liquid fuel they require less furnace space and
excess air for complete combustion
petroleum the cost of liquid fuel is relatively much
oils from distillation of petroleum higher as compared to solid fuel.
coal tar there is a greater risk of five hazards, in
shale-oil case of highly inflammable and volatile liquid
alcohols, etc. fuels.
Properties of liquid fuels Disadvantages they give bad odour.
Density is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the volume of the fuel at a reference temperature of 15°c.
special storage The
tanks are required for
Density unit of measurement for density is kg/m3 and measured by a hydrometer. It is important for storing
assessing ignition
liquid fuels.qualities
and other quantitative calculations. specially constructed burners and spraying
The specific gravity is a ratio, which is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume ofapparatus are required
oil to the weight of the for efficient burning of
same
Specific
liquid
volume of water at a given temperature. The density of fuel, relative to water is called specific fuels.E.g. light diesel oil
gravity.
gravity
has specific gravity as 0.85 - 0.87, furnace oil has 0.89 - 0.95.
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow. Viscosity depends on the temperature and
decreases as the temperature increases. Every oil has its own temperature - viscosity relationship and measurement by
Gross calorific
viscometer. It is important characteristic for storage and use of fuel oil. It influences the degreevalues for differentrequired
of pre-heating fuel oils
Viscosity Fuel oils Gross calorific value (kcal/kg)
for handling, storage and satisfactory atomization. Highly viscous oils may become difficult to pump, hard to light the
burner, and difficult to handle. The low atomization may result in the formation Fuel oil
of carbon 11,100
deposits on the burner
tips/walls. The pre-heating is necessary for proper atomization. Diesel oil 10,800
L.d.o 10,700
Flash The flash point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the fuel can be heated so that the vapour gives off flashes
Furnace oil10,500
point momentarily when an open flame is passed over it. The 66 °c is the flash point for furnace oil.
Lshs 10,600
Pour It is the fuel's lowest temperature at which it will pour or flow when cooled under prescribed conditions. It is a rough
point estimation of the lowest temperature at which fuel oil is ready to be pumped. Solid fuels
Specific Specific heat is the amount of calories needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of oil
Solid byrefers
fuel 10c. The unit of types
to various specific heat is
of solid material that are
heat kcal/kg0c. It varies from 0.22 to 0.28 depending on the oil specific gravity. used as fuel to produce energy and provide heating, usually
The calorific value measures the heat or energy produced. Gross calorific value released
(gcv) through
assumescombustion. Coal is classified into three
all vapour produced
during the combustion process is fully condensed and net calorific value (ncv) major types;the
assumes anthracite, bituminous,
water leaves with theand lignite. However,
Calorific there is noonclear
combustion products without fully being condensed. Fuels should be compared based the demarcation between
net calorific value. Thethem. Coal is further
value classified as semi-anthracite, semi-bituminous, and sub-
calorific value of fuel oils is much more consistent compare to coal (solid fule), for example kerosene and diesel oil got
the gcv 11,100 and 10,800 kcal/kg respectively. bituminous. Anthracite is the oldest coal from a geological
The amount of sulphur in the fuel oil depends on the source of the crude oil andperspective. It is a process.
on the refining hard coalThecomposed
sulphurmainly of carbon
Sulphur with little volatile content and practically no moisture.
content for the residual fuel oil is in the order of 2 - 4 %.
The ash value is related to the inorganic material or salts(compounds of sodium, vanadium, calcium, magnesium, silicon,
Ash iron, aluminium, nickel etc.) In the fuel oil and ash levels in distillate fuels areTypes of solid
negligible. Thefuel
residual fuels have higher
content ash levels. The ash has an erosive effect on the burner tips, causes damage to the refractories at high temperatures and
wood
gives rise to high temperature corrosion and fouling of equipments.
coal
Carbon Carbon residue indicates the tendency of oil to deposit a carbonaceous solid residue oil on a hot surface like burner and
shale
residue injection nozzle when its vaporizable constituents evaporate. The residual oil contains carbon residue of 1% or higher.
tanbark
The water content are low when it is supplied because the product at refinery site isbagasse
handled hot. The water content can
Water be maximum 1% which the upper limit. The water content can cause damage to thestraw inside surfaces of the furnace during
content combustion especially if it contains dissolved salts or it can cause spluttering of thecharcoal
flame at the burner tip, possibly
extinguishing the flame, reducing the flame temperature or lengthening the flame. coke
briquettes
Liquid fuels has the following advantages and
disadvantages: Solid fuels has the following advantages and disadvantages:
they posses higher calorific value per unit they are easy to transport.
mass as compare to solid fuels. the production cost is low.
they burn without dust, ash, clinkers. they are convenient to store without any
Advantages
easy to fire and fire can be extinguished risk of spontaneous explosion.
easily by stopping liquid fuel supply. they posses moderate ignition
Advantages easy to transport through pipes. temperature.
can be stored indefinitely without any loss. the ash contents are high.
they are clean in use and economic to they burn with clinker formation.
handle. Disadvantages large proportion of heat is wasted.
heat loss in chimney is very low due to their combustion operation cannot be
greater cleanliness. controlled easily.
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handling cost is high. Fuel gas is any one of a number of fuels that under ordinary
conditions are gaseous. Many fuel gases are composed of
woods characteristics hydrocarbons ,hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or mixtures
thereof. Such gases are sources of potential heat energy or
The woods are very easily available and most commonly light energy that can be readily transmitted and distributed
used solid fuel. The woods are used as fuel from ancient through pipes from the point of origin directly to the place of
time after the discovery of the fire. The 39 types of fuels and consumption. Fuel gas is contrasted with liquid fuels and
their characteristics wood is used in almost every village, from solid fuels, though some fuel gases are liquefied for
town and cities in india. The wood is used for industrial storage or transport. While their gaseous nature can be
purposes. Constituents of wood is vegetable tissue of trees advantageous, avoiding the difficulty of transporting solid
and bushes. The wood consists of mainly cellular tissue & fuel and the dangers of spillage inherent in liquid fuels, it can
lignin. It also consists of lesser parts of fat & tar and sugar. also be dangerous.
Types of gaseous fuel

Calorific value of wood
natural gas
Engineer a. Marjhevskee determined the calorific values of
liquefied petroleum gas (lpg)
different kinds of wood with the help of the samples taken
refinery gases
out from the same tree at different distances from centre as
methane from coal mines
follows.
fuel gases made from solid fuel
Kinds of Lowest calorific value Highest calorific value
gases derived from coal
wood (cal/kg) (cal/kg)
gases derived from waste and biomass
Oak 4729 4750
blast furnace gas
Birch 4695 4831
gases made from petroleum
Elm 4674 4833
gases from oil gasification
Alder 4745 4839
gases from some fermentation process
Pine 4818 5310
Fir 4887 4900
Gaseous fuels has the following advantages and
Lrch 4775 4840
disadvantages over solid or liquid fuels :
Coal classification
they are clean in use.
Coal is classified into three types as follows, even there is no
they do not require any special burner.
clear demarcation between them:
they can be conveyed easily through
1. Anthracite
pipelines to user, no need of manual
2. Bituminous
transportation.
3.lignite.
they can be easily lighted.
The coal is further classified as semi-anthracite, semi-
they have high heat contents therefore
bituminous and sub-bituminous. The anthracite is the oldest
Advantages provides higher temperatures.
coal from a geological perspective. It is a hard coal
to get economy in heat they can be pre-
composed mainly of carbon with little volatile content and
heated by the heat of hot waste gases.
without moisture. The lignite is the youngest coal from a
they burn without any shoot, smoke and
geological perspective and it is a soft coal composed mainly
ashes.
of volatile matter(combustible constituents of coal that
they are free from impurities found in
vaporize when coal is heated).
solid and liquid fuels.
And moisture content with low fixed carbon(carbon in its free
state, not combined with other elements).
very large storage tanks are needed.
The coals used in indian industry are bituminous and sub-
Disadvantages they are highly inflammable, the fire
bituminous coal. The chemical composition of coal has a
hazards are possible.
strong influence on its combustibility.
Properties of gaseous fuels
Chemical and physical properties of coal The fuel should be compared based on their net calorific
value and especially true for natural gas because increased
The chemical properties of coal refer to the various
hydrogen content results in high water formation during
elemental chemical constituents such as carbon, hydrogen,
combustion.
oxygen, and sulphur.
The physical properties of coal include the heating value,
1. Lpg
moisture content, volatile matter and ash.
Lpg may be defined as those hydrocarbons, which are
gaseous at normal atmospheric pressure but may be
Gaseous fuel
condensed to the liquid state at normal temperature by the
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application of moderate pressures. The lpg is a predominant  Human behavior during fire events
mixture of propane and butane with a small percentage of
unsaturated, some lighter c2 and heavier c5 fractions. The
 risk analysis, including economic factors
propane (c3h8), propylene (c3h6), iso-butane (c4h10) and  wildfire management[1]
butylenes (c4h8) are included in the range of lpg. The liquid
lpg evaporates to produce about 250 times volume of gas. Fire protection engineers identify risks and design
Lpg vapor is denser than air for example butane is about two safeguards that aid in preventing, controlling, and mitigating
times heavier then air and propane is about 1.5 times the effects of fires. Fire engineers assist architects, building
heavier then air. Consequently the vapors may flow along owners and developers in evaluating buildings' life safety
the ground and into drains sinking to the lowest level of the and property protection goals. Fire engineers are also
employed as fire investigators, including such very large-
surroundings and be ignited at a considerable distance from
scale cases as the analysis of the collapse of the world trade
the source of leakage. There should be adequate ground center. Nasa uses fire engineers in its space program to help
level of ventilation where lpg is stored therefore lpg cylinders improve safety.[2] fire engineers are also employed to provide
should not be stored in cellars or basements which have no 3rd party review for performance based fire engineering
ventilation at ground level. solutions submitted in support of local building regulation
applications.
2. Natural gas
Natural gas has high calorific value and requiring no storage Republic Act No. 9514 December 19, 2008
facilities. It mixes with air readily and does not produce Repealed PD 1185
smoke or soot. It did not contains sulphur. It is lighter than air
and disperses into air easily in case of leak. AN ACT ESTABLISHING A COMPREHENSIVE FIRE
The methane is the main constituent of natural gas and it is CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES, REPEALING
about 95% of the total volume. The other components are PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 1185 AND FOR OTHER
ethane, propane, butane, pentane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, PURPOSES
and traces of other gases. In these gases a very small
amounts of sulphur compounds are also present. The Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives
properties of methane are used when comparing the of the Philippines in Congress assembled::
properties of natural gas to other fuels because methane is
the largest component in natural gas. Section 1. This Act shall be known as the "Revised Fire
Code of the Philippines of 2008".
Chapter 2
Section 2. It is the policy of the State to ensure public safety
Fire engineering and promote economic development through the prevention
and suppression of all kinds of destructive fires and promote
Fire engineering is the application of science and the professionalization of the fire service as a profession.
engineering principles to protect people, property, and their Towards this end, the State shall enforce all laws, rules and
regulations to ensure adherence to standard fire prevention
environments from the harmful and destructive effects
and safety measures, and promote accountability for fire
of fire and smoke. It encompasses fire protection safety in the fire protection service and prevention service.
engineering which focuses on fire detection, suppression
and mitigation and fire safety engineering which focuses on
Section 3. Definition of Terms. - As used in this Fire Code,
human behavior and maintaining a tenable environment for the following words and phrases shall mean and be
evacuation from a fire. In the united states fire protection construed as indicated:
engineering is often used to include fire safety engineering.
The discipline of fire engineering includes, but is not Abatement - Any act that would remove
exclusive to: or neutralize a fire hazard.
Administrator - Any person who acts as

 fire detection - fire alarm systems and brigade call agent of the owner and manages the
systems use of a building for him.
 active fire protection - fire suppression systems
Blasting Agent - Any material or mixture
 passive fire protection - fire and smoke barriers, space
consisting of a fuel and oxidizer used to
separation set off explosives.
 smoke control and management
 Escape facilities - emergency exits, fire lifts, etc. Cellulose Nitrate Or Nitro Cellulose - A
highly combustible and explosive
 Building design, layout, and space planning compound produced by the reaction of
 Fire prevention programs nitric acid with a cellulose material.
 fire dynamics and fire modeling

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Cellulose Nitrate Plastic (Pyroxylin) - due to the incandescence of the
Any plastic substance, materials or conducting vapor.
compound having cellulose nitrate (nitro
cellulose) as base.
Ember - A hot piece or lump that
remains after a material has partially
Combustible, Flammable or burned, and is still oxidizing without the
Inflammable - Descriptive of materials manifestation of flames.
that are easily set on fire.
Finishes - Materials used as final
Combustible Fiber - Any readily ignitable coating of a surface for ornamental or
and free burning fiber such as cotton, protective purposes.
oakum, rags, waste cloth, waste paper,
kapok, hay, straw, Spanish moss,
Fire - The active principle of burning,
excelsior and other similar materials
characterized by the heat and light of
commonly used in commerce.
combustion.
Combustible Liquid - Any liquid having a

Fire Trap - A building unsafe in case of
flash point at or above 37.8_C (100_F).
fire because it will burn easily or
because it lacks adequate exits or fire
Corrosive Liquid - Any liquid which escapes.
causes fire when in contact with organic
matter or with certain chemicals.
Fire Alarm - Any visual or audible signal
produced by a device or system to warm
Curtain Board - A vertical panel of non- the occupants of the building or fire
combustible or fire resistive materials fighting elements of the presence or
attached to and extending below the danger of fire to enable them to
bottom chord of the roof trusses, to undertake immediate action to save life
divide the underside of the roof into and property and to suppress the fire.
separate compartments so that heat and
smoke will be directed upwards to a roof
Fire Door - A fire resistive door
vent.
prescribed for openings in fire
separation walls or partitions.
Cryogenic - Descriptive of any material
which by its nature or as a result of its
Fire Hazard - Any condition or act which
reaction with other elements produces a
increases or may cause an increase in
rapid drop in temperature of the
the probability of the occurrence of fire,
immediate surroundings.
or which may obstruct, delay, hinder or
interfere with fire fighting operations and
Damper - A normally open device the safeguarding of life and property.
installed inside an air duct system which
automatically closes to restrict the
Fire Lane - The portion of a roadway or
passage of smoke or fire.
publicway that should be kept opened
and unobstructed at all times for the
Distillation - The process of first raising expedient operation of fire fighting units.
the temperature in separate the more
volatile from the less volatile parts and
Fire Protective And Fire Safety Device -
then cooling and condensing the
Any device intended for the protection of
resulting vapor so as to produce a
buildings or persons to include but not
nearly purified substance.
limited to built-in protection system such
as sprinklers and other automatic
Duct System - A continuous extinguishing system, detectors for heat,
passageway for the transmission of air. smoke and combustion products and
other warning system components,
personal protective equipment such as
Dust - A finely powdered substance
fire blankets, helmets, fire suits, gloves
which, when mixed with air in the proper
and other garments that may be put on
proportion and ignited will cause an
or worn by persons to protect
explosion.
themselves during fire.
Electrical Arc - An extremely hot

Fire Safety Constructions - Refers to
luminous bridge formed by passage of
design and installation of walls, barriers,
an electric current across a space
doors, windows, vents, means of
between two conductors or terminals
egress, etc. integral to and incorporated
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into a building or structure in order to Jumper - A piece of metal or an
minimize danger to life from fire, smoke, electrical conductor used to bypass a
fumes or panic before the building is safety device in an electrical system.
evacuated. These features are also
designed to achieve, among others,
Occupancy - The purpose for which a
safe and rapid evacuation of people
building or portion thereof is used or
through means of egress sealed from
intended to be used.
smoke or fire, the confinement of fire or
smoke in the room or floor of origin and
delay their spread to other parts of the Occupant - Any person actually
building by means of smoke sealed and occupying and using a building or
fire resistant doors, walls and floors. It portions thereof by virtue of a lease
shall also mean to include the treatment contract with the owner or administrator
of buildings components or contents or by permission or sufferance of the
with flame retardant chemicals. latter.
Flash Point - The minimum temperature Organic Peroxide - A strong oxidizing

at which any material gives off vapor in organic compound which releases
sufficient concentration to form an oxygen readily. It causes fire when in
ignitable mixture with air. contact with combustible materials
especially under conditions of high
temperature.
Forcing -A process where a piece of
metal is heated prior to changing its
shape or dimensions. Overloading - The use of one or more
electrical appliances or devices which
draw or consume electrical current
Fulminate - A kind of stable explosive
beyond the designed capacity of the
compound which explodes by
existing electrical system.
percussion.
Owner - The person who holds the legal

Hazardous Operation/Process - Any act
right of possession or title to a building
of manufacturing, fabrication,
or real property.
conversion, etc., that uses or produces
materials which are likely to cause fires
or explosions. Oxidizing Material - A material that
readily yields oxygen in quantities
sufficient to stimulate or support
Horizontal Exit - Passageway from one
combustion.
building to another or through or around
a wall in approximately the same floor
level. Pressurized Or Forced Draft Burning
Equipment - Type or burner where the
fuel is subjected to pressure prior to
Hose Box - A box or cabinet where fire
discharge into the combustion chamber
hoses, valves and other equipment are
and/or which includes fans or other
stored and arranged for fire fighting.
provisions for the introduction of air at
above normal atmosphere pressure into
Hose Reel - A cylindrical device turning the same combustion chamber.
on an axis around which a fire hose is
wound and connected.
Public Assembly Building - Any building
or structure where fifty (50) or more
Hypergolic Fuel - A rocket or liquid people congregate, gather, or assemble
propellant which consist of combinations for any purpose.
of fuels and oxidizers which ignite
spontaneously on contact with each
Public Way - Any street, alley or other
other.
strip of land unobstructed from the
ground to the sky, deeded, dedicated or
Industrial Baking And Drying - The otherwise permanently appropriated for
industrial process of subjecting public use.
materials to heat for the purpose of
removing solvents or moisture from the
Pyrophoric - Descriptive of any
same, and/or to fuse certain chemical
substance that ignites spontaneously
salts to form a uniform glazing the
when exposed to air.
surface of materials being treated.
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Refining - A process where impurities c. Support and assist fire volunteers,
and/or deleterious materials are practitioners and fire volunteer
removed from a mixture in order to organizations in the country who shall
produce a pure element of compound. It undergo mandatory fire suppression,
shall also refer to partial distillation and inspection, rescue, emergency medical
electrolysis. services and related emergency
response trainings and competency
evaluations to be conducted by the BFP.
Self-Closing Doors - Automatic closing
In the case of the Fire practitiones, they
doors that are designed to confine
shall undergo mandatory continuous
smoke and heat and delay the spread of
professional education and competency
fire.
evaluation of their expertise, knowledge
and skills in the area of fire science,
Smelting - Melting or fusing of metallic engineering and technology to be
ores or compounds so as to separate conducted by the BFP;
impurities from pure metals.
The BFP may enter into external party
Sprinkler System - An integrated agreements for the conduct of training,
network of hydraulically designed piping education and evaluation of fire
installed in a building, structure or area volunteers, practitioners and fire
with outlets arranged in a systematic volunteer organizations, which shall be
pattern which automatically discharges under the full control and supervision of
water when activated by heat or the BFP: Provided, however, That
combustion products from a fire. during firefighting operations, fire
volunteer organizations shall be under
the direct operational control of the fire
Standpipe System - A system of vertical ground commanders of the BFP;
pipes in a building to which fire hoses
can be attached on each floor, including
a system by which water is made d. Enter into long term agreement, either
available to the outlets as needed. through public biddings or negotiations
in accordance with the provisions of
Republic Act No. 9184, otherwise known
Vestibule - A passage hall or as the Government Procurement
antechamber between the outer doors
Reform Act of 2003, for the acquisition
and the interior parts of a house or of fire prevention, fire protection and fire
building. fighting investigation, rescue,
paramedics, hazardous material
Vertical Shaft - An enclosed vertical handling equipment, supplies, materials
space of passage that extends from and related technical services
floor to floor, as well as from the base to necessary for the fire services;
the top of the building.
e. Enter into Memoranda of Agreement
Section 4. Applicability of The Code. - The provisions of with other departments, bureaus,
the Fire Code shall apply to all persons and all private and agencies, offices and corporations of the
public buildings, facilities or structures erected or government, as well as private
constructed before and after its effectivity. institutions, in order to define areas of
cooperation and coordination and
delineate responsibility on fire
Section 5. Responsibility for the Enforcement of this prevention education, fire safety, fire
Code. - This Code shall be administered and enforced by prevention, fire suppression and other
the Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP), under the direct matters of common concern;
supervision and control of the Chief of the Bureau of Fire
Protection, through the hierarchy of organization as provided
for in Chapter VI of Republic Act No. 6975. with the approval f. Call on the police, other law
of the Secretary of the Department of the Interior and Local enforcement agencies, and local
Government (DILG), the BFP, is hereby authorized to: government assistance to render
necessary assistance in the
enforcement of this Code;
a. Issue implementing rules and
regulations, and prescribe standards,
schedules of fees/fire service charges g. Designate a fire safety inspector
and administrative penalties therefore through his/her duly authorized
as provided in the pertinent provisions of representative, who shall conduct an
this Code; inspection of every building or structure
within his area of responsibility at least
once a year and every time the owner,
b. Reorganize the BFP as may be administrator or occupant shall renew
necessary and appropriate;
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his/her business permit or permit to offering of college courses on fire technology and fire
operate; protection engineering; propose amendments to the Fire
Code; advise the Chief, BFP on any matter brought to his
attention; and perform such other functions as directed on
No occupancy permit, business or
any matter brought to his attention and perform such other
permit to operate shall be issued without
functions as directed by higher authorities.
securing a Fire Safety Inspection
Certification (FSIC) from the Chief, BFP,
or his/her duly authorized Section 7. Inspections, Safety Measures, Fire Safety,
representative; Constructions, and Protective and/or Warning
Systems. - As may be defined and provided in the Rules
and Regulations, owners, administrators or occupants of
h. Inspect at reasonable time, any
buildings, structures and their premises or facilities and other
building, structure, installation or
responsible persons shall be required to comply with the
premises for dangerous or hazardous
following, as may be appropriate:
conditions or materials as set forth in
this Code, provided that in case of
single family dwelling, an inspection a. Inspection Requirement - A fire safety
must be upon the consent of the inspection shall be conducted by the
occupant or upon lawful order from the Chief, BFP or his duly authorized
proper court. The Chief, BFP or his/her representative as prerequisite to the
duly authorized representative shall grants of permits and/or licenses by
order the owner/occupant to remove local governments and other
hazardous materials and/or stop government agencies concerned, for
hazardous operation/process in the:
accordance with the standards set by
this Code or its implementing rules or
(1) Use or occupancy of
regulations or other pertinent laws;
buildings, structures, facilities
or their premises including the
i. Where conditions exist and are installation or fire protection
deemed hazardous to life and property, and fire safety equipment, and
to order the owner/occupant of any electrical system in any
building or structure to summarily abate building structure or facility;
such hazardous conditions; and
j. Require the building owner/occupant (2) Storage, handling and/or

to submit plans and specifications, and use of explosives or of
other pertinent documents of said combustible, flammable, toxic
building to ensure compliance with and other hazardous
applicable codes and standards; and materials;
k. Issue a written notice to the owner b. Safety Measures for Hazardous

and/or contractor to stop work on portion Materials - Fire safety measures shall
of any work due to absence, or in be required for the manufacture,
violation of approved plans and storage, handling and/or use of
specifications, permit and/or clearance hazardous materials involving:
or certification as approved by the Chief,
BFP or his/her duly authorized
(1) cellulose nitrate plastic of
representative. The notice shall state
any kind;
the nature of the violation and no work
shall be continued on that portion until
the violation has been corrected. (2) combustible fibers;
Section 6. Technical Staff. - The Chief, BFP shall (3) cellular materials such as
constitute a technical staff of highly qualified persons who foam, rubber, sponge rubber
are knowledgeable on fire prevention, fire safety, and fire and plastic foam;
suppression. They may be drawn not only from the organic
members of the BFP and other government offices and
agencies, but also from other sources. In the latter case, (4) flammable and
combustible liquids or gases
they will either be appointed into the service or hired as
consultants in accordance with law. The technical staff shall of any classification;
study, review and evaluate latest developments and
standards on fire technology; prepare plans/programs on fire (5) flammable paints,
safety, prevention and suppression and evaluate varnishes, stains and organic
implementation thereof; develop programs on the coatings;
professionalization of the fire service; coordinate with
appropriate government and private institutions for the
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(6) high-piled or widely spread properties of the substance; c)
combustible stock; The biological properties of
the substance. Without
limiting the definition of
(7) metallic magnesium in any
hazardous material, all
form;
dangerous goods,
combustible liquids and
(8) corrosive liquids, oxidizing chemicals are hazardous
materials, organic peroxide, materials.
nitromethane, ammonium
nitrate, or any amount of
c. Safety Measures for Hazardous
highly toxic, pyrophoric,
Operation/Processes - Fire Safety
hypergolic, or cryogenic
measures shall be required for the
materials or poisonous gases
following hazardous
as well as material
operation/processes:
compounds which when
exposed to heat or flame
become a fire conductor, or (1) welding or soldering;
generate excessive smoke or
toxic gases;
(2) industrial baking and
drying;
(9) blasting agents, explosives
and special industrial
(3) waste disposal;
explosive materials, blasting
caps, black powder, liquid
nitro-glycerine, dynamite, nitro (4) pressurized/forced-draft
cellulose, fulminates of any burning equipment;
kind, and plastic explosives
containing ammonium salt or
(5) smelting and forging;
chlorate;
(10) fireworks materials of any (6) motion picture projection

kind or form; using electrical arc lamps;
(11) matches in commercial (7) refining, distillation and

quantities; solvent extraction; and
(12) hot ashes, live coals and (8) such other operations or
embers; processes as may hereafter
be prescribed in the Rules
and Regulations.
(13) mineral, vegetable or
animal oils and other
derivatives/by products; d. Provision on Fire Safety Construction,
Protective and Warning System -
Owners, occupants or administrator or
(14) combustible waste buildings, structures and their premises
materials for recycling or or facilities, except such other buildings
resale; or structures as may be exempted in the
rules and regulations to be promulgated
under Section 5 hereof, shall
(15) explosive dusts and
incorporate and provide therein fire
vapors; and
safety construction, protective and
warning system, and shall develop and
(16) agriculture, forest, marine implement fire safety programs, to wit:
or mineral products which
may undergo spontaneous
(1) Fire protection features
combustion.
such as sprinkler systems,
hose boxes, hose reels or
(17) any other substance with standpipe systems and other
potential to cause harm to fire fighting equipment;
persons, property or the
environment because of one
(2) Fire Alarm systems;
or more of the following: a)
The chemical properties of the
substance; b) The physical
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(3) Fire walls to separate easy passage of fire fighting vehicles
adjoining buildings, or and equipment;
warehouses and storage
areas from other occupancies
(c) Prevention, interference or
in the same building;
obstruction of any operation of the Fire
Service, or of duly organized and
(4) Provisions for confining authorized fire brigades;
the fire at its source such as
fire resistive floors and walls
(d) Obstructing designated fire lanes or
extending up to the next floor
access to fire hydrants;
slab or roof, curtain boards
and other fire containing or
stopping components; (e) Overcrowding or admission of
persons beyond the authorized capacity
in movie houses, theaters, coliseums,
(5) Termination of all exits in
auditoriums or other public assembly
an area affording safe
buildings, except in other assembly
passage to a public way or
areas on the ground floor with open
safe dispersal area;
sides or open doors sufficient to provide
safe exits;
(6) Stairway, vertical shafts,
horizontal exits and other
(f) Locking fire exits during period when
means of egress sealed from
people are inside the building;
smoke and heat;
(g) Prevention or obstruction of the

(7) A fire exit plan for each
automatic closure of fire doors or smoke
floor of the building showing
partitions or dampers;
the routes from each other
room to appropriate exits,
displayed prominently on the (h) Use of fire protective of fire fighting
door of such room; equipment of the fire service other than
for fire fighting except in other
emergencies where their use are
(8) Self-closing fire resistive
justified;
doors leading to corridors;
(i) Giving false or malicious fire alarms;

(9) Fire dampers in
centralized airconditioning
ducts; (j) Smoking in prohibited areas as may
be determined by fire service, or
throwing of cigars, cigarettes, burning
(10) Roof vents for use by fire
objects in places which may start or
fighters; and
cause fire;
(11) Properly marked and

(k) Abandoning or leaving a building or
lighted exits with provision for
structure by the occupant or owner
emergency lights to
without appropriate safety measures;
adequately illuminate exit
ways in case of power failure.
(l) Removing. destroying, tampering or
obliterating any authorized mark, seal,
Section 8. Prohibited Acts. - The following are declared as
sign or tag posted or required by the fire
prohibited act and omission.
service for fire safety in any building,
structure or processing equipment; and
(a) Obstructing or blocking the exit ways
or across to buildings clearly marked for
(m) Use of jumpers or tampering with
fire safety purposes, such as but not
electrical wiring or overloading the
limited to aisles in interior rooms, any
electrical system beyond its designated
part of stairways, hallways, corridors,
capacity or such other practices that
vestibules, balconies or bridges leading
would tend to undermine the fire safety
to a stairway or exit of any kind, or
features of the electrical system.
tolerating or allowing said violations;
Section 9. Violation, Penalties and Abatement of Fire

(b) Constructing gates, entrances and
Hazard. - Fire hazards shall be abated immediately. The
walkways to buildings components and
Chief, BFP or his/her duly authorized representative, upon
yards which obstruct the orderly and
the report that a violation of this Code or other pertinent
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laws, rules and regulations is being committed, shall issue partial or total, of the building or structure. The expenses
notice/order to comply to the owner, administrator, occupant incurred by the government for such summary abatement
or other person responsible for the condition of the building shall be borne by the owner, administrator or occupant.
or structure, indicating among other things, the period within These expenses shall constitute a prior lien upon such
which compliance shall be effected, which shall be within ten property.
(10) to fifteen (15) days after the receipt of the notice/order,
depending on the reasonableness to adequately comply with
Section 10. Enforcement of The Lien. - If the owner,
the same.
administrator or occupant fails to reimburse the government
of the expenses incurred in the summary abatement within
If, after the lapse of the aforesaid period, the owner, ninety (90) days from the completion of such abatement, the
administrator, occupant or other responsible person failed to building or structure shall be sold at public auction in
comply, the Chief, BFP or his/her authorized representative accordance with existing laws and rules. No property subject
shall put up a sign in front of the building or structure that it is of lien under Section 9 hereof, may be sold at a price lower
fire hazard. Specifically, the notice shall bear the words than the abatement expenses incurred by the government.
"WARNING: THIS BUILDING/STRUCTURE IS A FIRE The property shall be forfeited in favor of the government if
HAZARD", which shall remain posted until such time that the the highest bid is not at least equal to the abatement
owner, administrator, occupant or other person responsible expenses.
for the condition of the building, structure and their premises
or facilities abate the same, but such period shall not exceed
Section 11. Penalties. -
fifteen (15) days from the lapse of the initial period given in
the notice/order to comply.
1. Against the private individual:
Finally, with the failure of the owner, administrator, occupant
or other person responsible for the condition of the building, a) Administrative fine - Any
structure and their premises or facilities to comply within the person who violates any
period specified above, the Chief, BFP may issue order for provision of the Fire Code or
such abatement. If the owner, administrator or occupant of any of the rules and
buildings, structure and their premises or facilities does not regulations promulgated
abate the same within the period fixed in said order, the under this Act shall be
building, structure, premises or facilities shall be ordered penalized by an administrative
closed by the Chief, BFP or his/her duly authorized fine of not exceeding Fifty
representative notwithstanding any permit clearance or thousand (P50,000.00) pesos
certificate earlier issued by the local authorities. or in the proper case, by
stoppage of operations or by
closure of such buildings,
Any building or structure assessed and declared by the
structures and their premises
chief, BFP or his/her duly authorized representative as a
or facilities which do not
firetrap on account of the gravity or palpability of the violation
comply with the requirements
or is causing clear and present imminent fire danger to
or by both such administrative
adjoining establishments and habitations shall be declared a
fine and closure/stoppage of
public nuisance, as defined in the Civil Code of the
operation to be imposed by
Philippines in a notice to be issued to the owner,
the Chief, BFP. Provided,
administrator, occupant or other person responsible for the
That the payment of the fine,
condition of the building, structure and their premises or
stoppage of operations and/or
facilities. If the assessed value of the nuisance or the
closure of such buildings,
amount to be spent in abating the same is not more than
structures, and their premises
One hundred thousand pesos (P100,000.00), the owner,
or facilities shall not absolve
administrator or occupant thereof shall abate the hazard
the violator from correcting
within fifteen (15) days, or if the assessed value is more than
the deficiency or abating the
One hundred thousand pesos (P100,000.00), within thirty
fire hazard. The decision of
(30) days from receipt of the order declaring said building or
the Chief, BFP, under this
structure a public nuisance; otherwise, the Chief, BFP or
subsection, may be appealed
his/her duly authorized representative shall forthwith cause
to the Secretary of the Interior
its summary abatement. failure to comply within five (5) days
and Local Government.
from the receipt of the notice shall cause the Chief, BFP or
Unless ordered by the
his/her duly authorized representative to put up a sign in
Secretary of the Interior and
front of the building or structure, at or near the entrance of
Local Government the appeal
such premises, notifying the public that such building or
shall not stay the execution of
structure is a "FIRETRAP", which shall remain until the
the order of the Chief, BFP.
owner, administrator, occupant or other person responsible
The decision of the Secretary
for the condition of the building, structure and their premises
of the Interior and Local
or facilities abate the same within the specified period.
Government shall be final and
executory.
Summary abatement as used herein shall mean all
corrective measures undertaken to abate hazards which
(b) Punitive - In case of willful
shall include, but not limited to remodeling, repairing,
failure to correct the
strengthening, reconstructing, removal and demolition, either
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deficiency or abate the fire the disciplining authority,
hazard as provided in the depending on the gravity of
preceding subsection, the the offense and without
violator shall, upon conviction, prejudice to the provisions of
be punished by imprisonment other applicable laws:
of not less than six (6) months
nor more than six (6) years, or
(1) Unjustified
by a fine of not more than
failure of the public
One hundred thousand
officer/employee to
(P100,000.00) pesos or both
conduct inspection
such fine and
of buildings or
imprisonment; Provided,
structures at least
however, that in case of a
once a year;
corporation, firm, partnership
or association, the fine and/or
imprisonment shall be (2) Deliberate
imposed upon its officials failure to put up a
responsible for such violation, sign in front of the
and in case the guilty party is building or structure
an alien, in addition to the within his/her area
penalties herein prescribed, of responsibility
he shall immediately be found to be violating
deported; Provided, finally, this Code, its
that were the violation is implementing rules
attended by injury, loss of life and regulations and
and/or damage to property, other pertinent
the violator shall be laws, that the same
proceeded against under the is a "FIRE
applicable provisions of the HAZARD" or a
Revised Penal Code. "FIRETRAP";
Any person who, without (3) Endorsing to the

authority, maliciously removes Chief, BFP or
the sign that a building or his/her duly
structure is a fire authorized
hazard/firetrap placed by the representative for
authorized person in this the certification, or
Code shall be liable for submitting a report
imprisonment for thirty (30) that the building or
days or a fine not exceeding structure complies
One hundred thousand pesos with the standards
(P100,000.00) or both in the set by this Code, its
discretion of the court. implementing rules
or regulations or
other pertinent laws
Any person, who disobeys the
when the same is
lawful order of the fire ground
contrary to fact;
commander during a
firefighting operation shall be
penalized with imprisonment (4) Issuance or
of one (1) day to thirty (30) renewal of
days and a fine of five occupancy or
thousand pesos (P5,000.00). business permit
without the fire
safety inspection
2. Against the public officer/employee
certificate issued by
the Chief, BFP or
a) Administrative - The his/her duly
following acts or omissions authorized
shall render the public representative;
officer/employee in charge of
the enforcement of this Code,
(5) Failure to cancel
its implementing rules and
the occupancy or
regulation and other pertinent
business permit
laws, administratively liable,
after the owner,
and shall be punished by
administrator,
reprimand, suspension or
occupant or other
removal in the discretion of
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person responsible under the applicable
for the condition of provisions of the Revised
the building, Penal Code.
structure and other
premises failed to
Section 12. Appropriation and Sources of Income. -
comply with the
notice/order for
compliance with the (a) To support the manpower,
standards set by infrastructure and equipment needs of
this Code, its the fire service of the BFP, such amount
implementing rules as may be necessary to attain the
and regulations and objectives of the Fire Code shall be
other pertinent appropriated and included in the annual
laws, within the appropriation of the BFP.
specified period;
(b) To partially provide for the funding of
(6) Failure to abate the fire service the following taxes and
a public nuisance fees which shall accrue to the General
within fifteen (15) Fund of the National Government, are
days after the hereby imposed:
owner,
administrator,
(1) Fees to be charged for the
occupant or other
responsible person issuance of certificates,
failed to abate the permits and licenses as
provided for in Section 7 (a)
same within the
period contained in hereof;
the notice to abate;
(2) One-tenth of one per
(7) Abusing his/her centum (0.1%) of the verified
authority in the estimated value of buildings
performance of or structures to be erected,
his/her duty through from the owner thereof, but
not to exceed fifty thousand
acts of corruption
and other unethical (P50,000.00) pesos, one half
practices; or to be paid prior to the
issuance of the building
permit, and the balance, after
(8) Other willful final inspection and prior to
impropriety or gross the issuance of the use and
negligence in the occupancy permit;
performance of
his/her duty as
(3) One-hundredth of one per
provided in this act
or its implementing centum (0.10%) of the
rules and assessed value of buildings or
structures annually payable
regulations.
upon payment of the real
estate tax, except on
b) Punitive - In the case of structures used as single
willful violation involving the family dwellings;
abovementioned acts or
omissions enumerated under
(4) Two per centum (2%) of all
Section 11 subparagraph 2(A)
the public officer/employees premiums, excluding re-
shall, upon conviction, be insurance premiums for the
sale of fire, earthquake and
punished by imprisonment of
not less than six (6) months explosion hazard insurance
nor more than six (6) years or collected by companies,
persons or agents licensed to
by a fine of not more than
One hundred thousand sell such insurances in the
(P100,000.00) or both such Philippines;
fine and
imprisonment:Provided, That (5) Two per centum (2%) of
where the violation is gross sales of companies,
attended by injury, loss of life persons or agents selling fire
and/or property, the violator fighting equipment,
shall be proceeded against appliances or devices,
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including hazard detection submit to the Secretary of the Interior and Local Government
and warning systems; and for his/her approval, a management tool or mechanism that
would ensure effective monitoring of the enforcement of the
Fire Code to include the amount of Fire Code fees collected.
(6) Two per centum (2%) of
the service fees received from
fire, earthquake, and Section 14. Within sixty (60) days from the effectivity of this
explosion hazard reinsurance Act, the Secretary of the Interior and Local Government shall
surveys and post loss service issue the rules and regulations for its effective
of insurance adjustment implementation.
companies doing business in
the Philippines directly
Section 15. Presidential Decree No 1185 is hereby
through agents.
repealed. All laws, presidential decrees, letters of
instructions, executive orders, rules and regulations insofar
Section 13. Collection of Taxes, Fees and Fines. - All as they are inconsistent with this Act, are hereby repealed or
taxes, fees and fines provided in this Code, shall be amended as the case may be.
collected by the BFP. Provided, That twenty percent (20%)
of such collection shall be set aside and retained for use by
Section 16. In case any provision of this Act or any portion
the city or municipal government concerned, which shall
thereof is declared unconstitutional by a competent court,
appropriate the same exclusive for the use of the operation
other provisions shall not be affected thereby.
and maintenance of its local fire station, including the
construction and repair of fire station: Provided,further, That
the remaining eighty (80%) shall be remitted to the National Section 17. This Act shall take effect fifteen (15) days after
Treasury under a trust fund assigned for the modernization its publication in the Official Gazette or in two (2) national
of the BFP. newspapers of general circulation.
"Sec. 13-A. Assessment of Fire Code Taxes, Fees and

Fines. - The assessment of fire code taxes, fees and fines is
vested upon the BFP. The BFP shall, subject to the approval Types of fire cause
of the DILG, prescribe the procedural rules for such purpose.
1. Natural fire cause
Sec. 13-B. Collection and Assessment of Local Taxes, Fees
and Fines. - The collection and assessment of taxes, fees Involves fires caused without human contact/ intervention,
and fines as prescribed in the Local Government Code, such as lightning, earthquakes, wind, etc.
except those contained in this Code, shall be function of the
concerned local government units.
2. Incendiary fire cause
Sec. 13-C. Use of Income Generated from the Enforcement One deliberately ignited under circumstances in which the
of the Fire Code. - The Chief, BFP is authorized, subject to
person knows that the fire should not be ignited.
the approval of the Secretary of the Interior and Local
Government, to use the income generated under the Fire
Code for procurement of fire protection and fire fighting 3. Accidental fire cause
investigation, rescue, paramedics, supplies and materials,
and related technical services necessary for the fire service Involve all those for which the proven cause does not
and the improvement of facilites of the Bureau of Fire deliberately human act to ignite or spread fire into an area
Protection and abatement of fire hazards. where the fire should not be.
The BFP shall determine the optimal number of equipment, LEADING CAUSES OF FIRE IN THE PHILIPPINES
including, but not limited to, fire trucks and fire hydrants,
required by every local government unit for the proper
delivery of fire protection services in its jurisdiction.
In the procurement of fire fighting and investigation supplies

and materials, the Bureau of Product Standards of the
Department of Trade and Industry shall evaluate, determine
and certify if the supply to procured conforms to the product
standards fixed by the BFP. For this purpose, the BFP shall
submit to the Bureau of Product Standards a detailed set of
product standards that must be complied with in the
procurement of fire fighting and investigation supplies and
materials within six (6) months from the effectivity of this act.
Sec. 13-D. Monitoring the Implementation of the Fire Code

and the Amount of the Fees Collected. - The Chief, BFP
shall, within six (6) month from the effectivity of this Code,
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Faulty Electrical Wiring do it for other personal reasons. Most of the common
There are different signs when electrical wiring materials used for this are bombs, certain chemicals,
becomes faulty. First is when the house or match and gas.
establishment is too old. The electrical wiring can
become worn out due to time and age. Second, an
overloaded circuit where bulbs or lights start dimming
and flickering.And third, when there is burning smell
with identifiable source. You should start searching
and fixing faulty electrical wiring.
Open Flames
Types of open flames are unattended burning candles
and kerosene lamps as well as unattended stoves and
oven. So the next time you’ll be in the kitchen, don’t Fire prevention
ever leave anything on fire while you’re cooking. Fire prevention is a function of many fire departments. The
goal of fire prevention is to educate the public to take
Better have someone to watch it for you or finish it precautions to prevent potentially harmful fires, and be
educated about surviving them. It is a proactive method of
immediately. reducing emergencies and the damage caused by them.
Many fire departments have a Fire Prevention Officer.
Smoking Fire suppression

Fire can be controlled or extinguished, either manually
Smoking is dangerous to one’s health but it is also
(firefighting) or automatically. Manual control includes the
dangerous to your own safety at home or at work. use of a fire extinguisher or a standpipe system. Automatic
control means can include a fire sprinkler system, a gaseous
Avoid smoking especially in places that can easily clean agent, or firefighting foam system. Automatic
suppression systems would usually be found in large
catch fire such as in bed, curtains or basement. So do commercial kitchens or other high-risk areas.
not smoke when you are already sleepy or better Sprinkler systems
Fire sprinkler systems are installed in all types of buildings,
smoke outside your house and make sure you put off
commercial and residential. They are usually located at
the fire properly. ceiling level and are connected to a reliable water source,
most commonly city water. A typical sprinkler system
operates when heat at the site of a fire causes a glass
Fireworks component in the sprinkler head to fail, thereby releasing the
water from the sprinkler head. This means that only the
The substances used in the fireworks are hazardous. sprinkler head at the fire location operates – not all the
sprinklers on a floor or in a building. Sprinkler systems help
These beautiful pyrotechnic displays can be an ugly to reduce the growth of a fire, thereby increasing life safety
and limiting structural damage.
nightmare when it suddenly burns your house. One
must comply with fire safety precaution to avoid any Fire detection
accident. Fire is detected either by locating the smoke, flame or heat,

and an alarm is sounded to enable emergency
evacuation as well as to dispatch the local fire department.
Incendiarism (Arson) Where a detection system is activated, it can be
programmed to carry out other actions. These include de-
It is an illegal burning of houses, buildings or other energising magnetic hold open devices onFire doors and
opening servo-actuated vents in stairways.
properties. Unfortunately, some people intentionally
Hypoxic air fire prevention
burn their properties to collect insurance while others
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Fire can be prevented by hypoxic air. Hypoxic air fire
prevention systems, also known as oxygen reduction flashover will occur within four minutes of first flame and that
systems are new automatic fire prevention systems that
reduce permanently the oxygen concentration inside the a backdraft will occur only in tightly sealed buildings. Both
protected volumes so that ignition or fire spreading cannot
occur. Unlike traditional fire suppression systems that are dangerous misconceptions. There is NO time frame for
usually extinguish fire after it is detected, hypoxic air is able
to prevent fires. At lower altitudes hypoxic air is safe to flashover, and a backdraft can occur in almost any enclosed
breathe for healthy individuals.
space given the proper conditions.
A fire hydrant, also called fireplug, is a connection point by
FLASHOVER
which firefighters can tap into a water supply. It is a
Flashover by definition is “the sudden involvement of a room
component of active fire protection.
or an area in flames from floor to ceiling caused by thermal
A fire pump is a part of a fire sprinkler system's water
radiation feedback.”1 Thermal radiation feedback is the
supply and powered by electric, diesel or steam. The pump
energy of the fire being radiated back to the contents of the
intake is either connected to the public underground water
room from the walls, floor, and ceiling. This radiation of
supply piping, or a static water source (e.g., tank, reservoir,
energy to the contents of the room will raise ALL the
lake). The pump provides water flow at a higher pressure to
contents to their ignition temperature. When the contents of
the sprinkler system risers and hose standpipes.
Unique Fire Events the room suddenly and simultaneously ignite, this is
flashover. This simply means that flashover is a

Rollover (also known as flameover) is a stage of a structure
temperature-driven event. It requires that the fire’s energy be
fire when fire gases in a room or other enclosed area
radiated back to the contents to produce a rapid rise in
ignite.[1] Since heated fire gases, the product of pyrolysis,
temperature and simultaneous ignition. Flashover indicates
rise to the ceiling, this is where a rollover phenomenon is
that the fire has grown to the fully developed stage (Figure
most often witnessed. Visually, this may be seen as flames
1).
"rolling" across the ceiling, radiating outward from the seat of
the fire to the extent of gas spread.
Rollover is not the same as flashover, although it may
precede it, and the terms may be confused.[2] In the case of
rollover, only gases present in the room, not the room
contents, ignite.
FLASHOVER AND BACKDRAFT HAVE BEEN
CONFUSED for years. Part of the reason for the confusion is
that they produce a very similar result-a large fire that
envelops the whole room or area. They are, however, very
different in how and why they occur.
Misconceptions have also evolved around these Another important concept to understand is the physics of
phenomena. Among these erroneous beliefs are that a the flashover. Several factors will affect whether or not a
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room will flash over. The size of the room, the combustible Rollover is the fire that rolls in the black smoke venting from
contents, the air supply, and the insulation of the room all the fire area. It may also be seen as “snakes” of fire that dart
combine to determine a room’s flashover potential. out from the smoke. Rollover is an early sign that flashover
Smaller rooms will flash over faster. A small room enhances conditions are developing.
the thermal radiation feedback faster because of the room’s Black smoke is a sign of flashover. This may sound
volume. In large rooms with high ceilings, it takes longer to ridiculous, but I’m talking about black smoke so black that no
heat the combustibles below. When radiated heat travels other color can be seen in the smoke-black smoke like the
longer distances, it loses energy. The close proximity of the type you would see if tires were burning. This black-black
contents in a small room increases the absorption of smoke contains so much unburned fuel that it can be called
thermally radiated energy. “black fire.” This “black fire” needs only the right mixture of
The contents of the room affect the flashover potential. A air to ignite. This black smoke will also have a tremendous
room loaded with combustible furnishings will produce more amount of energy and will roll violently out of the fire area
fire, thus more heat, more radiated energy, and more and push heat into voids and concealed spaces. This “black
flashover potential. fire” will increase the possibility of fire extension and smoke
The air supply is also critical to creating the fire growth to explosions in the cockloft.
produce flashover. Most fires are air regulated, not fuel

Preventing Flashovers
regulated.2The average room has enough contents (fuel
Flashovers may be prevented in two ways. Proper ventilation
load) to produce a large fire. What is needed is the air to
can prevent a flashover. Venting allows superheated air and
“fan” the flames. The air-regulated fire is included in the
fuel-loaded fire gases to escape the room or area. This can
backdraft discussion below.
be done by horizontal or vertical ventilation. Reducing the
Lastly, the room’s insulation affects how efficient the thermal
heated ceiling layer reduces the thermal radiation feedback
radiation feedback will be. Insulation of walls and ceilings
and the possibility of flashover. It is important to note that
prevents heat from escaping to other areas, thereby
venting the fire gases should not expose firefighters to injury
increasing the room’s flashover potential.
or spread heat and smoke to uninvolved areas of the
These factors are not going to be known to the firefighters
building. This could increase the fire problem if those gases
advancing on a fire. The warning signs, therefore, must be
were to ignite.
understood to provide for the members’ safety.
The second way to reduce the possibility of flashover is to
The warning signs of flashover include high heat; this is from
cool the fire area with a hose stream. Most of us have been
the compounded effect of the fire and the radiated heat from
taught never to open the hoseline on smoke. This is true. But
the room. This heat will be intense. For flashover to
just as we were told that, weren’t we told there are no
occur, all the contents of the room must be raised to ignition
“nevers” in the fire service? This also is true. The reason you
temperature, including the firefighters in the
can open the line on smoke in this situation is that the black-
area! Any sudden rise in temperature that can be felt through
black smoke, a warning sign of flashover, is called “black
bunker gear should be considered a sign that flashover is
fire.” If you see that black smoke and feel the rapid heat rise
imminent.
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through your bunker gear, even if you can’t see the rollover, Schlissel credits instruction received at the Rockland County
you must open the line on the “black fire.” This will reduce Fire Training Center in Pomona, New York, for preventing
the possibility of flashover. This is an emergency situation, injuries at this fire. Rockland County is one of the few
and the hoseline can be operated in this manner. counties in New York that has a flashover simulator. This
modified shipping container provides students with a live-fire

Escape FROM Flashover
experience and can produce “controlled” flashovers.
Escape from flashover is nearly impossible. Recognizing the
warning signs and knowing how to prevent them will do more BACKDRAFT
to ensure your safety. We know the warning signs, but you A backdraft is a smoke explosion that can occur when
must be able to react to them. A flashover can occur in 10 additional air is introduced into a smoldering fire and heated
seconds. This will allow the average firefighter the time to gases enter their flammable range and ignite with explosive
travel approximately five feet to an exit. If operating a force.3 A backdraft is an “air-driven event,” unlike a
hoseline is not an option, then go out a window or move to flashover, which is temperature driven. The fact that most
another room and close the door if possible. This will give fires are air regulated and not fuel regulated makes the
you some protection. understanding of backdrafts so important.
A fully protected firefighter has the best chance of survival in A fire has begun and grown, it may or may not have the
a flashover. Even a totally encapsulated firefighter is at risk. thermal radiation feedback to flash over, but it has
Human skin burns at 124 F. Without an SCBA, it would take consumed the contents of the room and is now “burning
only several breaths of 300 F air to sear your throat. This itself out” by using all the available oxygen in the room. The
would cause you to die from asphyxiation. During a normal oxygen level in air is approximately 21 percent.
flashover, temperatures are measured in the thousands of Below 14 percent, visible flame is reduced. The room’s
degrees-well beyond the limits of bunker gear. contents are at their ignition temperature and will erupt in
At a taxpayer fire in Monsey, New York, on November 23, flames when oxygen is introduced, and the hot gases will
2004, three firefighters were removed from the fire ignite with explosive force. This is a backdraft. The explosive
occupancy seconds before the store “lit up.” The report of force at which the backdraft occurs is a result of the amount
the fire was delayed when the store employee attempted to of superheated gas in the space and the amount of oxygen
extinguish the fire before dialing 911. Firefighters arrived and introduced. The explosive force can break windows, knock
found heavy smoke venting from the store and advanced a down walls, and injure firefighters.
hoseline into the occupancy. Chief Andy Schlissel saw the Backdrafts can occur anytime during the decay stage of fire
warning signs of flashover and ordered the members out. development, anytime before the gases have cooled below
“Twenty seconds later, you would have had three fried guys their ignition temperature. If the room was left and the gases
in there,” Schlissel said. A coordinated attack was mounted, cooled before any oxygen was introduced, no backdraft
and the fire was brought under control with only minor would occur, but the room would have been consumed by
extension to adjoining stores. fire.
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All members on the fireground must know the warning signs
of backdraft. Often, the first units do not recognize the heavy A fire on a lower floor of a multiple dwelling could extend
dense smoke or the smoke that appears to be “puffing” or heat and smoke throughout the fire building. This smoke
being drawn back into the building; someone at a distance would get trapped in the cockloft, the space between the top-
from the scene generally recognizes these telltale signs. floor ceiling and the roof. Members sent to check for
Chiefs or their aides setting up a command post across the extension would pull the ceilings and allow oxygen to enter
street are most likely to see that kind of smoke. Engine the cockloft, and the hot gas would mix with air and the
chauffeurs hooking up to hydrants at the end of the block cockloft would backdraft. How did this occur? Knowing what
may also be positioned to see it. The truck chauffeur can see we know about carbon monoxide (CO) today, the space was
it when giving the building “a good look” while at his position probably filled with CO. Remember, in addition to its other
on the pedestal. Hopefully, it is not too late. A small dangerous properties CO is flammable. Figure 2 compares
smoldering fire or some stained or cracked glass may not be CO with some common flammable gases. What does this
recognized for what it could be. Often, we are drawn into mean to us as firefighters? CO will burn at a relatively low
“tunnel vision”: We see a small fire and force our way in and temperature (for fires anyway) and at almost any mixture.
create a dangerous situation for ourselves. When sent to check for extension, make a small examination
If backdraft conditions are suspected, proper ventilation will hole first. Make this hole from the doorway, and make it
prevent the explosion. Openings must be made above the small at the start. Poking a small hole will limit the amount of
fire to allow the superheated gases to escape before oxygen oxygen that enters the cockloft or other enclosed space. If
is introduced at lower levels-the lower levels where we would you let enough air into the space to ignite the mixture of gas,
be entering. you will be standing in a position of safety in the doorway. If
Backdrafts and flashovers are equally dynamic and deadly. you pull a large section in the middle of the room and the
Recognizing the signs and being able to remain calm will cockloft lights up, the whole ceiling will drop on your head.
give you the best chance for survival. It goes without saying If your examination hole indicates some fire may be present,
that you should be in full protective equipment. call for a line before any more of the ceiling is pulled.
Backdrafts don’t always happen in the closed taxpayer Remember, you were sent to find fire. If you find it, what will
behind the roll-down gate at 3:00 a.m. Remember that the you accomplish by exposing all that fire with no way to put it
backdraft was also known as the “smoke explosion.” This out?
term came from the small-sized events that occurred when Flashovers and backdrafts need to be understood because
firefighters were opening up to check for extension. several factors are at work to increase their frequency. Fire
load is probably the single biggest factor working against
today’s firefighter. Yes, fires are hotter today. This is a
combination of two elements of fire load-more plastic and
more stuff.
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The British thermal units (Btus) given off by wood, cotton, kill-you stage). The danger is when we are in the structure
and paper in the house fire of the 1950s averaged about when the fire enters the latter stage.
8,000 per pound. Polyurethane, the soft plastics, gives off The only way to protect firefighters is to train in
12,000 Btus per pound. These soft plastics are the foam understanding the fire environment. We must be able to
cushions, carpet, and the like. The hard plastic polystyrene recognize the signals the fire gives. We all must look at the
from which TVs, VCRs, toys, and all other plastic items in whole picture and be conscious of the building we’re in and
the home are made gives off 18,000 Btus per pound. our surroundings so we don’t get lured into a trap. There is
Look at what you have in your home. Do you remember little first-hand information available on the subject. Most of
having that much stuff as a kid? Maybe you need to ask your the people who have the experience with these events are
parents or grandparents to get the true perspective. Each not here to share them with us. We need to learn so we can
generation wants to see its generation do better than the survive.

Classes of Fire
last. How is that success measured? With more stuff.
There are 3 classes of common fires and 2
Since the energy crisis of the ’70s, buildings have become specialty classes.
sealed as tight as construction materials would let them.
National energy codes are now in place to enforce energy-
efficiency standards. In addition to making walls and ceilings Fires are classified into 5
groups:
more efficient, energy-efficient windows are designed to hold
the heat through what was the best indicator of fire
conditions. Insulation in walls and ceilings trap heat inside
the structure. This trapped heat increases the thermal
radiation feedback required to produce a flashover. The
thermal-pane windows hold the heat in the “dead air” space
between the panes of glass and delay breaking, preventing
the fire’s self-venting. The double-pane windows are difficult
to break when venting is required.
Electronic detection equipment has developed into a
common market item. Burglar and fire detection equipment CLASS A: Class A fires involve common combustibles such
as wood, paper, cloth, rubber, trash and plastics. They are
can now be found in every type of occupancy. This early common in typical commercial and home settings, but can
occur anywhere these types of materials are found.
detection equipment gives the fire service the earliest
possible notification of fire. This benefit also has a drawback, CLASS B: Class B fires involve flammable liquids' gases,
solvents, oil, gasoline, paint, lacquers, tars and other
however. Early detection may lure firefighters to enter a synthetic or oil-based products. Class B fires often spread
rapidly and, unless properly secured, can reflash after the
structure with a fire in the incipient stage (the I’m-not-going- flames are extinguished.
to-kill-you stage). There is the possibility of missing some of
CLASS C: Class C fires involve energized electrical
the warning signs of the fire’s true growth (the I’m-going-to- equipment, such as wiring, controls, motors, data processing
panels or appliances. They can be caused by a spark, power
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surge or short circuit and typically occur in locations that are prevent injury of firefighter’s foot from nails or other
difficult to reach and see. fragment.
CLASS D: Class D fires involve combustible metals such as 2.Firefighter SCBA (Self-Contained Breathing
magnesium and sodium. Combustible metal fires are unique Apparatus)
industrial hazards which require special dry powder agents. This tool is one of essential firefighter tools and equipment
that enables the firefighter to breathe when they enter
building filled with smoke. The firefighter can breathe for
CLASS K: Class K fires involve combustible cooking media
about fifteen to sixty minutes depending on the level of
such as oils and grease commonly found in commercial activity he or she involved in. This breathing apparatus is
kitchens. The new cooking media formulations used form also equipped with personal alarm safety system that gets
commercial food preparation require a special wet chemical automatically activated in 30 seconds of non-movement.
extinguishing agent that is specially suited for extinguishing
and suppressing these extremely hot fires that have the 3. Firefighter gear
ability to flush. Even when fire has been put out, Firefighters still need to
carry extra tools when entering the building. These tools are
usually fire extinguishers to put out small contained fires,
axes, hammers, shovels, flashlights, halligan bar, hydrant
Firefighter Tools And Equipment : The List Of Essential wrench and pike poles to check the walls and ceilings of the
Firefighter Gear building for rolling fires. Pike pole used by firefighter made
out of fibreglass with metal hooks at the end. If you are not
familiar with halligan bar, let me explain it to you in simple
Being a firefighter, you need to acquire certain skills and words, it’s a multipurpose tool that you can use for twisting,
have special firefighter tools and equipment to support striking, punching, or prying. This tool is very helpful when
your job. You are expected to act fast and efficient to rescue you need to open locked doors. In car accidents, sometimes
people not only from fire but also from various incidents such the firefighter need to cut down the doors, this is where
as car accidents. Your main objectives the moment you hydrant wrench comes in handy. It acts as a heavy duty
arrive on the crime scene are to make sure personal cutter as well as fire hydrant valve opener. During search
safety, saving civilian’s lives, saving property and and rescue operations, they also carry ropes as part of
environment. firefighter tools and equipment.
In order to do their jobs, Firefighters often have to enter 4. Fire Truck

burning building through windows, roof, or even by breaking Well, I guess I don’t have to explain why firefighters need fire
the wall. You are exposed to direct dangers everywhere you truck. Aside from being used as transportation, a fire truck
turn, the roof or building might collapse, the floor underneath also functions as vital tool to collect and distribute water to
might break. Firefighters are equipped with certain firefighter put out the fire. It pumps the water using the engine through
gear to help them to accomplish their tasks. Having the the fire hydrant. This fire truck also holds all firefighter tools
right firefighter tools and equipment can dramatically and equipment. In United States, fire trucks are known for
increase the level of a firefighter survival. This equipment their bright red color, however in different countries, they
falls into 2 different categories, search-and-rescue might use different colors such as yellow or green.
operations and medical emergency devices.
5. Firefighter Rescue Ladder
There are times when the firefighter need to have access to
the roof or higher place. This can’t be achieved using
Here’s the list of essential firefighter tools and conventional ladders. Therefore, this equipment should
equipment: always be part of firefighter tools and equipment when they
are on duty.
1. Firefighter personal protection equipment

In most situation, firefighters need to wear protection gear to 6. Fire Hose
keep themselves safe on the job. This basic protection This special fire hose works with high pressure to carry
equipment consists of helmet, jackets, pants, gloves and water to put out the fire. It can be attached to a fire engine or
boots. Made from fire resistant plastic, Helmet protects the any nearby fire hydrant.
head from falling objects which usually occur in ruined
building, usually you can also identify the rank of firefighter 7. Fire Sand Bucket
based on the color of the helmet. Don’t be fooled by this bucket look, since it looks like your
own conventional bucket. It’s a steel bucket which usually
The jacket and pants are made of fire-resistant materials to painted in bright red color. Why firefighters need this low-
keep firefighters from getting burnt while the inner material is tech method as part of their firefighter tools and
waterproof to keep them dry. There are stripes on the jacket equipment to put out the fire? Well, this bucket is usually
made of reflective materials to keep firefighters remain used to put out small flames. The great thing about this fire
visible in the dark. Sometimes as firefighters, they need to bucket is cheap, reliable and easy to use. This bucket is
touch hot surfaces to find a civilian trapped inside a building, filled with smothering substances which we can easily
the special gloves protect their hands from getting burnt. The purchase in the market such as sand and hard varieties of
boots are also specially designed with a steel insole to beans.
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Fighting fire is dangerous and risky. Firefighters put their
lives on the line in order to save others, however, sometimes
the danger is not caused by the fire but because of the lack
of skill, training, poor decisions as well as the lack of safety
equipment. Therefore it’s crucial for all firefighters to get
easy access to these firefighter tools and equipment.
An example of a tower from the United States. This one
represents the Fort Johnson, New York fire company.
E-One fire engine in action. Huachuca City, Arizona, 2010.
A fire engine (also known in some territories as a fire

apparatus, fire truck, or fire appliance) is a vehicle
designed primarily for firefighting operations. In addition,
many fire departments/fire services often employ their
Fire engine vehicles for various other uses including emergency medical
. services and rescue purposes. The terms "fire engine" and
"fire truck" are often used interchangeably but in North
America represent different types of vehicles.
The primary purposes of a fire engine include
transporting firefighters to an incident scene, providing water
with which to fight a fire, and carrying other equipment
needed by firefighters. A typical modern vehicle will carry
tools for a wide range of firefighting and rescue tasks, with
common equipment including ladders, a self-contained
breathing apparatus, ventilating equipment, first aid kits,
and hydraulic rescue tools.
Many fire vehicles are based on standard vehicle models
(although some parts may be upgraded to cope with the
demands of the vehicles' usage). They are normally fitted
with audible and visual warnings, as well as communication
Fire engine operated by the London Fire Brigadein the equipment such as two-way radios and mobile computer
technology.
United Kingdom
Types of Fire Engine
Conventional fire apparatus
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out, the engine is connected to more permanent sources
such as fire hydrants or water tenders and can also use
natural sources such as rivers or reservoirs by drafting
water.
Aerial apparatus
Turntable ladder
An example of an engine, which can be identified in part by

the pump panel on the side. Compartments in the rear hold
essential tools for different types of emergency calls, and the
apparatus often holds a reserve of water as well. This truck
contains about 1,000 gallons of water.
The standard fire engine is an apparatus designed primarily
for firefighting operations. The primary purpose of the engine
is transporting firefighters to the scene, providing a limited
supply of water with which to fight the fire, and carrying tools,
Quint 13 belonging to Fort Lauderdale.
equipment, and hoses needed by the firefighters. The tools
carried on the fire engine will vary greatly based on many
factors including the size of the department and what sort of A turntable ladder (TL) is perhaps the best-known form of
terrain the department must handle. For example, special purpose aerial apparatus, and is used to gain access
departments located near large bodies of water or rivers are to fires occurring at height using a large telescopic ladder,
likely to have some sort of water rescue equipment. where conventional ladders carried on conventional
Standard tools found on nearly all fire engines appliances might not reach. The name is derived from the
include ladders, hydraulic rescue tools (often referred to as fact that the large ladder is mounted on a turntable on the
the jaws of life), floodlights, fire hose, fire extinguishers, self- back of a truck chassis, allowing it to pivot around a stable
contained breathing apparatus, and thermal imaging base. To increase its length, the ladder is telescopic. Modern
cameras.[1] telescopic ladders are either hydraulic or pneumatic. These
mechanical features allow the use of ladders which are
The exact layout of what is carried on an engine is decided longer, sturdier, and more stable. They may also have pre-
by the needs of the department. For example, fire attached hoses or other equipment.
departments which cover metropolitan areas are more likely
to assist with non-fire-related cases such ashazardous A ladder can also be mounted behind the cab. This is
material removal/cleanup and technical rescues of people sometimes called "mid-ship" and the arrangement allows a
from traffic collisions or structural collapses, while rural shorter wheelbase for the truck, and also can be more stable
departments may need to do things like access remote in certain conditions.
areas or extinguish forest fires.
Several aerial apparatus in use at a fire in Los Angeles
Conventional pumper of Fire and Rescue The key functions of a turntable ladder are:
NSW in WaggaWagga,Australia
1. Allowing access or egress of firefighters and fire
victims at height
Some fire engines have a fixed deluge gun, also known as a
master stream, which directs a heavy stream of water to 2. Providing a high-level water point for firefighting
wherever the operator points it. An additional feature of (elevated master stream)
engines are their preconnected hose lines, commonly 3. Providing a platform from which tasks such as
referred to as preconnects.[2] The preconnects are attached ventilation or overhaul can be executed
to the engine's onboard water supply and allow firefighters to
While the traditional characteristic of a fire appliance was a
quickly mount an aggressive attack on the fire as soon as
lack of water pumping or storage, many modern TLs have a
they arrive on scene.[2] When the onboard water supply runs
water pumping function built in (and some have their own
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on-board supply reservoir), and may have a pre-piped
waterway running the length of the ladder which directs a
stream of water to the firefighters at the top. In some cases,
there may also be a monitor at the top of the ladder for ease
of use. Other appliances may simply have a track-way which
will hold a manually-run hose reel securely, and prevent it
from falling to the ground.
In the United States, some turntable ladders with additional
functions such as an onboard pump, a water tank, fire hose,
aerial ladder and multiple ground ladders, are known as
quad or quint engines, indicating the number of functions
they perform.
Telescopic hydraulic platform in Roskilde, Denmark

Tiller Truck Some aerials have a platform, also known as a basket or
bucket, mounted at the top of the ladder. These are
commonly known as platform trucks. These platforms can
provide a secure place from which a firefighter can operate.
Many platforms also allow for rescues to be performed and
are outfitted with tie down clips and rappelling arms.[6]
There are also platform trucks that do not have a ladder
attached to the platform. These specialized elevated work
Tiller-quint of the Los Angeles Fire Departmentmanufactured platformsare capable of articulating which allows the arm to
bend in one or more places. This is an advantage over the
by American LaFrance traditional platform ladder, which can only extend in a
straight line and gives the articulating platform the ability to
A tiller truck, also known as a tractor-drawn aerial, tiller go "up and over" an obstacle.
ladder, or hook-and-ladder truck, is a specialized turntable
ladder mounted on a semi-trailer truck. Unlike a commercial Rescue apparatus
semi, the trailer and tractor are permanently combined and Heavy rescue vehicle
special tools are required to separate them. It has two
drivers, with separatesteering wheels for front and rear
wheels.[4]
One of the main features of the tiller-truck is its enhanced
maneuverability.[5] The independent steering of the front and
back wheels allow the tiller to make much sharper turns,
which is particularly helpful on narrow streets and apartment
complexes with mazelike roads.[4] An additional feature of
the tiller-truck is that its overall length, over 50 feet (15 m) for
most models, allows for additional storage of tools and
equipment.[5] The extreme length gives compartment
capacities that range between 500 and 650 cubic feet (14
and 18 m3) on the trailer with an additional 40 and 60 cubic
feet (1.1 and 1.7 m3) on the cab.[5]
Heavy rescue vehicle with the Fire Bureau
Some departments elect to use tiller-quints
(see quint below), which are tiller trucks that have the added in Sapporo, Japan
feature of being fitted with an on-board water tank.[5] These
are particularly useful for smaller departments that do not A heavy rescue vehicle, sometimes referred to as a Rescue
have enough personnel to staff both an engine company and Company, Rescue Squad or Technical Rescue, is a type of
a truck company.[5] specialty firefighting apparatus. They are primarily designed
to carry specialized equipment for technical rescue situations
Aerial Platform
such as vehicle extrications following traffic
collisions, confined space rescues, rope rescues, swiftwater
rescues, or building collapses.
In addition to fire and rescue
departments, tram or railway companies may have their own
dedicated heavy rescue squads.[7][8][better source needed] For
example, railway rescue squads may carry very specialized
equipment, for railway accidents, like hydraulic jacks with
capacity for lifting locomotives or even moving them
horizontally, and equipment for tank car accidents.[9]
Wild land and interface fire apparatus
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Type 3 fire engine belonging to the Santa Barbara County
Fire Department.
A New Zealand Fire Service command unit, 2009
Wildland firefighting requires vehicles that can easily
negotiate difficult terrain and high-gradient roads, be self- The advancement of technology and potential for very large-
reliant, and have high clearances for wheels and scale incidents has led to many fire departments increasing
suspension. These wildland fire engines are traditionally their use of mobile command support units.
smaller than standard fire apparatus and are primarily used
A fundamental advantage of such an appliance is to
for vegetation fires or wildland fires. They may also respond accommodate the many different types of communication
to emergencies in rough terrain where other vehicles cannot equipment needed at major incidents. In addition to the wide
respond. Most wild land engines feature four-wheel
range of radio frequencies used, a fire chief often needs to
drive capability to improve hill climbing and rough terrain communicate via landlines and send and receive information
capability.[10] Some wild land apparatus can pump water via satellite links and CCTV to keep aware of and control the
while driving (compared to some traditional engines which
ongoing situation. The command unit can essentially be
must be stationary to pump water), allowing "running used as an on-site conference center for command
attacks" on vegetation fires to minimize the rate of spread.[11] personnel, mapping and planning firefighting operations and
Fire departments that serve areas along the wildland–urban directing crews as they arrive.
interface are faced with unique challenges that departments Water carrying apparatus
based in larger cities or strictly rural areas do not need to
worry about.[12] Departments in these areas often elect to
use a type of fire engine commonly referred to as a wildland- Tender truck
urban interface engine or simply interface
engines.[13][better source needed] While technically considered
a wildland fire engine by many[who?], these maintain the
traditional look and feel of a standard engine.
Logistical support apparatus

Many fire departments operate a number of vehicles in
specialized logistical functions. These can be stand-alone
vehicles, or may be modular, such as with the use of a hook-
lift system. Hooklifts are sometimes only employed for
seldom-used equipment; they can load a variety of different
A tender capable of holding up to 2,000 gallons of water.
equipment containers very rapidly and act as a special unit
This tanker can also act as an engine, as you can see from
with lower investment costs. For example,
the pump panel on the side, which is not universal among all
the Helsinki Rescue Department has several hook lift trucks
tankers in the fire service.
and more than 40 containers, including a water container, a
hose container, and an oil destruction container. Containers
A tanker truck, which can also be known as a water
may also carry a command post, salvage tools, foam barrels,
tender or water bowser, is a specialist fire appliance with the
hoses, special pumps for wildfires, and field hospitals.
primary purpose of transporting large amounts of water to
Command support unit the fire area to make it available for extinguishing operations.
These are especially useful in rural areas where fire
hydrants are not readily available and natural water
resources are insufficient or difficult to exploit.
Most tankers have an on-board pumping system. This pump
is often not of sufficient power to fight fires (as it is designed
to be attached to a fire engine), but is more often used to
draw water into the tender from hydrants or other water
sources. In some areas, the tenders are used to pump water
during floods, and may be fitted with a heavier duty pump for
this purpose. Many tankers are equipped with fast-drain
valves on the sides and back of the truck. This allows
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firefighters to empty thousands of gallons of water into  Animal Rescue Unit
a portable water tank in just a few seconds.
 Rescue and firefighting robot
Most water tenders are designed to carry loads of 1,000 US
gallons (3,800 L; 830 imp gal) or more.
Airport crash tender
Fire engine used by fire brigades throughout India
LBFD Crash 3 responding to a call at Long Beach Airport.

Technical rescue equipment trucks
An airport crash tender, or "crash rig", is a specialized fire  Crane trucks

engine designed for use  Hazardous materials apparatus
at aerodromes in aircraft accidents.[15] Some of the features
that make the crash rigs unique are their ability to move on  Squad/Utility Unit
rough terrain outside the runway and airport area, large  Tracked vehicle
water capacity as well as a foam tank, a high-capacity pump,  Pump trailer
and water/foam monitors. Newer ARFF vehicles also
incorporate twin agent nozzles/injection systems to inject a  Other watercraft support such as rigid-hulled inflatable
stream of Purple-K dry chemical into the AFFF (Aqueous boats, hovercraft or hydrocopters
Film Forming Fluroprotein) foam stream, which "flattens" the
fire faster.[16] Some also have Halotron tanks with handlines Other functions
for fires which must be extinguished with a dry chemical
similar to the ones which can be found in a fire extinguisher. In some communities a fire apparatus, often a paramedic
These features give the airport crash tenders a capability to engine, will be used to carry first responder
reach an airplane rapidly, and rapidly extinguish large fires firefighters, paramedics or EMTs to medical
with jet fuel involved. emergenciesbecause of their faster response times due to
forward staging in the city.[17][18] Fire departments may also
Other apparatus have lifeguards in places such as Los Angeles County,
California.
Design and construction
Kei car fire truck in Japan
Other fire apparatus include:
 Swap-Body vehicles which use a specialized hitch and

hydraulic system to be able to easily change bodies for National Forests Office (France) fire engine with roll over
various situations- these are common in Europe
protection structures.
 Fire Police Unit
 Fire/Arson Investigation Unit The design and construction of fire engines focuses greatly
on the use of both active and passive warnings. Passive
 Dive/Marine Rescue Unit visual warnings involve the use of high contrast patterns to
 Operational Support Unit increase the noticeability of the vehicle. These types of
warnings are often seen on older vehicles and those
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in developing countries.[19] More modern designs make use
of retroreflectors to reflect light from other vehicles. Vehicles
will also often have these reflectors arranged in
a chevron pattern along with the
words fire or rescue.[19] European countries commonly use a
pattern known as battenburg markings.[citation needed] Along with
the passive warnings, are active visual warnings which are
usually in the form of flashing colored lights (also known as
"beacons" or "lightbars"). These flash to attract the attention
of other drivers as the fire truck approaches, or to provide
warning to drivers approaching a parked fire truck in a
dangerous position on the road. While the fire truck is
headed towards the scene, the lights are always
accompanied by loud audible warnings such
as sirens and air horns.
Firefighter
A firefighter (historically fireman) is a rescuer extensively
trained in firefighting, primarily to extinguish hazardous
firesthat threaten property and civilian or natural populations,
and to rescue people from dangerous situations, like
collapsed or burning buildings or crashed vehicles. In some An extension ladder
areas, they are also trained in Emergency Medical
Services (EMS) and operate ambulances in addition to being
a firefighter.
The complexity of modern industrialized life with a greater
prominence of hazards has created an increase in the skills
needed in firefighting technology and a broadening of the
firefighter-rescuer's remit. The fire service, or fire and rescue
service, also known in some countries as the fire brigade or
fire department, is one of the three main emergency
services. Firefighting and firefighters have become
ubiquitous around the world, from wildlands to urban areas,
and aboard ships. According to Merriam-Webster's
Dictionary, the English word firefighter has been used since
1903.[1] In recent decades it has become the preferred term,
replacing fireman, since women also serve as firefighters,
and also because the term fireman can have other
meanings, including someone who sets, stokes, or tends
fires, especially in designated fireplaces – the opposite of the
firefighting role.[2]
In many countries, while most firefighters are volunteers,
firefighters may also be employed as full-time workers and A ladder used for ceremonial purposes in Indonesia
paid a salary. Volunteer firefighters (who are theoretically
unpaid) and retained firefighters (or auxiliary firefighters, who
A ladder is a vertical or inclined set of rungs or steps. There
are paid for the specific time they are on duty, i.e.,
are two types: rigid ladders that can be leaned against a
permanent part-time career firefighters) on call as
vertical surface such as a wall, and rope ladders that are
required.[3] In such countries as the United Kingdom, the use
hung from the top. The vertical members of a rigid ladder are
of additional retained firefighters is standard. In Portugal, for
called stringers or rails (US) or stiles (UK). Rigid ladders are
example, the use of volunteer firefighters is standard, along
usually portable, but some types are permanently fixed to
with career firefighters. In Australia there are volunteer
buildings. They are commonly made of metal, wood,
brigades which are mostly unpaid rural services, although
or fiberglass, but they have been known to be made of tough
traditionally they are paid by their employers if called out
plastic.
during usual working hours.
Variations
Ladder Rigid ladders
Rigid ladders are available in many forms, such as:
 Assault ladder, used in siege warfare to assist in

climbing walls and crossing moats
 Attic ladder, pulled down from the ceiling to allow
access to an attic or loft
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 Bridge ladder, a ladder laid horizontally to act as a  X-deck ladder, a US patented ladder design[2][3] that is a
passage between two points separated by a drop combination ladder and scaffold
 Cat ladder (US chicken ladder), a lightweight ladder Rigid ladders were originally made of wood, but in the 20th
frame used on steep roofs to prevent workers from century aluminium became more common because of its
sliding lighter weight. Ladders with fiberglass stiles are used for
 Christmas tree ladder, a type of boarding ladder working on or near overhead electrical wires, because
for divers which has a single central rail and is open at fiberglass is an electrical insulator.[4] Henry
the sides to allow the diver to climb the ladder while Quackenbush patented the extension ladder in 1867.[5]
wearing swimfins[1]
Flexible ladders
 Counterbalanced ladder, a fixed ladder with a lower
sliding part. A system of counterweights is used to let
the lower sliding part descend gently when released  Rope ladders or Jacob's ladders are used where
storage space is extremely limited, weight must be kept
 Extension ladder or "telescopic ladder", a fixed ladder
to a minimum, or in instances where the object to be
divided into two or more lengths for more convenient
climbed is too curved to use a rigid ladder. They may
storage; the lengths can be slid together for storage or
have rigid or flexible rungs. Climbing a rope ladder
slid apart to expand the length of the ladder;
requires more skill than climbing a rigid ladder,
a pulley system may be fitted so that the ladder can be
because the ladder tends to swing like a pendulum.
easily extended by an operator on the ground then
Jacob's ladders used on a ship are used mostly for
locked in place using the dogs and pawls. 65 ft (20 m),
emergencies or for temporary access to the side of a
50 ft (15 m) and some 35 ft (10 m) extension ladders
ship.[6] Steel and aluminium wire ladders are
for fire service use "bangor poles", "tormentor poles" or
sometimes used in vertical caving, having developed
"stay poles" to assist "raise, pivot, steady, extend,
from rope ladders with wooden rungs.
place, retract and lower" them due to the heavy weight.
 Fixed ladder, two side members joined by several Safety
rungs; affixed to structure with no moving parts
 Folding ladder, a ladder in the step ladder style with
one or more (usually no more than three) one-way
hinges. Ideal for use on uneven ground (i.e. stairs), as
a trestle or when fully extended a Fixed ladder. Some
variations feature a central one-way hinge with
extensible locking legs
 Hook ladder or pompier ladder, a rigid ladder with a
hook at the top to grip a windowsill; used by firefighters
 Mobile Safety Steps or Platform Steps are self-
supporting structures that have wheels or castors
making them easy to move. They sometimes have a
small upper platform and a hand rail to assist in moving
up and down the steps.
 Orchard ladder, a three legged step ladder with the
third leg made so that it can be inserted between tree
branches for fruit picking
 Retractable ladder, a ladder that looks like a drainpipe
but can be deployed instantly when required (for
example in case of emergency)
 Roof ladder, a rigid ladder with a large hook at the top
to grip the ridge of a pitched roof
 Sectional ladder, also known as a builder's ladder, has
sections that come apart and are interchangeable so
that any number of sections can be connected
 Step ladder, hinged in the middle to form an inverted V, Safe setup of a leaning ladder
with stays to keep the two halves at a fixed angle
 Telescoping ladder, commonly used to refer to a hybrid
between a step ladder and an extension ladder with
360-degree hinges; has three parts and can be taken
apart to form two step ladders; i.e. Little Giant
 Trestle ladder, an "A-Frame"-style ladder with a
telescoping center section
 Turntable ladder, an extension ladder fitted to rotating
platform on top of a fire truck
 Vertically rising ladder, designed to climb high points
and facilitate suspending there
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 Class III ladders - for light, domestic uses, maximum

load of 125 kg. Colour-coded red to identify.[9]
In the UK there are a number of British standards included in
the three main ladder certifications relative to the particular
ladder type. Relevant classifications include BS 1129:1990
(British) which applies to Timber Ladders and Steps; BS
2037:1994 (British) which applies to Metal and Aluminium
Ladders and Steps and BS EN 131:1993 (European) which
applies to both Timber and Aluminium Ladders and Steps.[10]
Uses
Skid mark from a faulty ladder.

 Dissipative ladders are portable ladders built to ESD
The most common injury made by ladder climbers (Electrostatic Discharge) standard. Electrostatic
is bruising from falling off a ladder, but bone fractures are Discharge is a natural occurrence in which electricity is
common and head injuries are also likely, depending on the passed through the body, or other conductor, and
nature of the accident. Ladders can slip backwards owing to discharges onto some object. For example, the shock
faulty base pads which usually fit into the ladder stiles. If sometimes felt when a doorknob is touched is an ESD.
badly worn, they can allow the aluminium to contact the This natural occurrence is a very important topic in the
ground rather than plastic or rubber, and so lower the friction field of electronics assembly due to the costly damage
with the ground. Ladder stabilizers are available that ESDs can cause to sensitive electronic equipment.
increase the ladder's grip on the ground. One of the first Dissipative ladders are ladders with controlled electrical
ladder stabilizers or ladder feet was offered in 1936 and resistance: the resistance slows the transfer of charge
today they are standard equipment on most large ladders.[7] from one point to another, offering increased protection
during ESD events: ≥105 and < 1012 Ω / square.
A ladder standoff, or stay, is a device fitted to the top of a
ladder to hold it away from the wall. This enables the ladder
 Boarding and pool ladders. A ladder is also used on
to clear overhanging obstacles, such as the eaves of a roof, the side of a boat, to climb into it from the water, and in
a swimming pool. Swimming pool ladders are usually
and increases the safe working height for a given length of
ladder. made from plastic steps with special grip and metal
bars on the sides to support the steps and as handrails
It has become increasingly common to provide anchor points for the user.
on buildings to which the top rung of an extension ladder can  Assault ladders. These are designed to be used by
be attached, especially for activities like window cleaning, units which may need to board or assault vessels or
especially if a fellow worker is not available for "footing" the buildings. They can be used when a full sized ladder is
ladder. Footing occurs when another worker stands on the not required or when working in confined spaces. They
lowest rung and so provides much greater stability to the are suited for covert operations such as sniper
ladder when being used. The anchor point is usually a ring placement and vessel boardings. It was developed and
cemented into a slot in the brick wall to which the rungs of a designed for tubular assaults including buses and
ladder can be attached using rope for example, or trains and for first story breaching. Its extra wide design
a carabiner. gives the user greater stability, but it can still fold away
If a leaning ladder is placed at the wrong angle, the risk of a to be stored. It is available in standard aluminium or
fall is greatly increased. The safest angle for a ladder is non-reflective black finish in 6 and 8 feet lengths.
75.5°; if it is too shallow, the bottom of the ladder is at risk of
sliding, and if it is too steep, the ladder may fall backwards. Historical usage
Both scenarios can cause significant injury, and are
especially important in industries like construction, which
require heavy use of ladders.[8]
Ladder classes
The European Union and the United Kingdom established a
ladder certification system – ladder classes, for any ladders
manufactured or sold in Europe. The certification classes
solely apply to ladders that are portable such as stepladders
and extension ladders and are broken down into three types
of certification. Each ladder certification is colour-coded to
indicate the amount of weight the ladder is designed to hold,
the certification class and its use. The color of the safety
label specifies the class and use. On the right hand page are types of ladders from the end of
the 15th century in Germany.

 Class 1 ladder - for heavy-duty industrial uses,
maximum load of 175 kg. Colour-coded blue to identify.
Ladders are ancient tools and technology. A ladder is
 Class EN131 ladders - for commercial uses, maximum featured in a Mesolithic rock painting that is at least 10,000
load of 150 kg. No specific colour code..
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years old, depicted in the Spider Caves in Valencia, Spain.
The painting depicts two humans using a ladder to reach a
wild honeybeenest to harvest honey. The ladder is depicted
as long and flexible, possibly made out of some kind of
grass.[11]
Fire hose
A fire hose (or firehose) is a high-pressure hose that
carries water or other fire retardant (such as foam) to
a fire to extinguish it. Outdoors, it attaches either to afire
engine or a fire hydrant. Indoors, it can permanently attach
to a building's standpipe or plumbing system.
The usual working pressure of a firehose can vary between
8 and 20 bar (800 and 2,000 kPa; 116 and 290 psi) while
its bursting pressure can be up to 83 bar (8,300 kPa;
1,204 psi).[citation needed]
After use, a fire hose is usually hung to dry, because
standing water that remains in a hose for a long time can
deteriorate the material and render it unreliable or unusable.
Therefore, the typical fire station often has a high structure to
accommodate the length of a hose for such preventative
maintenance.
Fire hose with Finnish coupler
On occasion, fire hoses are used for crowd control (see
also water cannon), including most notably by Bull Until the mid-19th century, most fires were fought by water
Connor in Alabama against civil rights protestors in 1964. transported to the scene in buckets. Original hand pumpers
discharged their water through a small pipe or monitor
History
attached to the top of the pump tub.[1] It was not until the late
1860s that hoses became widely available to convey water
more easily from the hand pumps, and later steam pumpers,
to the fire.[2]
In Amsterdam in the Dutch Republic, the Superintendent of
the Fire Brigade, Jan van der Heyden, and his son Nicholaas
took firefighting to its next step with the fashioning of the first
fire hose in 1673.[3] These 50-foot (15 m) lengths of leather
were sewn together like a boot leg.[4] Even with the
limitations of pressure, the attachment of the hose to the
gooseneck nozzle allowed closer approaches and more
accurate water application. Van der Heyden was also
credited with an early version of a suction hose using wire to
Indoor fire hose with a fire extinguisher keep it rigid.[5] In the United States, the fire hose was
introduced in Philadelphia in 1794. This canvas hose proved
insufficiently durable, and sewn leather hose was then used.
The sewn leather hose tended to burst, so a hose fabricated
of leather fastened together with copper rivets and washers
was invented by members ofPhiladelphia's Humane Hose
Company.[6]
Around 1890, unlined fire hoses made of circular woven
linen yarns began to replace leather hoses. They were
certainly much lighter. As the hose fibers, made of flax,
became wet, they swelled up and tightened the weave,
causing the hose to become watertight. Unlined hoses,
because of their lack of durability, were rapidly replaced with
rubber hoses in municipal fire service use. They continued to
be used for use on interior hose lines and hose racks until
the 1960s,[citation needed] and are still used in some areas for
forestry applications.
Following the invention of the vulcanization process as a
means of curing raw soft rubber into a harder, more useful
product, the fire service slowly made the transition from
bulky and unreliable leather hose to the unlined linen hose,
then to a multi-layer, rubber lined and coated hose with
interior fabric reinforcement. This rubber hose was as bulky,
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heavy, and stiff as a leather hose, but was not prone to operate at pressures up to about 300 psi
leaking. It also proved more durable than unlined linen hose. (2,070 kPa) for the smaller diameters and up to
Its wrapped construction resembled some hoses used today 200 psi (1,380 kPa) for the larger diameters. The
by industry, for example, fuel delivery hoses used to service standard length is 100 ft (30.48 m).[9]
airliners.[2]
Modern usage
is a fabric-covered, flexible hose used to fight
fires in grass, brush, and trees where a
lightweight hose is needed in order to maneuver
Forestry it over steep or rough terrain. Forestry hose
hose comes in 1.0 and 1.5 in (25 and 38 mm) nominal
inside diameters and is designed to operate at
pressures up to about 450 psi (3,100 kPa). The
standard length is 100 ft (30.48 m).
Tokyo Fire Department conducting a fire hose drill is a rubber-covered, thick-walled, flexible hose
used to fight small fires. It retains its round
Modern fire hoses use a variety of natural and synthetic cross-section when it is not under pressure and
fabrics and elastomers in their construction. These materials is usually carried on a reel on the fire pumper,
Booster
allow the hoses to be stored wet without rotting and to resist rather than being stored flat. Booster hose
hose
the damaging effects of exposure to sunlight and chemicals. comes in 0.75 and 1.0 in (19 and 25 mm)
Modern hoses are also lighter weight than older designs, nominal inside diameters and is designed to
and this has helped reduce the physical strain on operate at pressures up to 800 psi (5,520 kPa).
firefighters.[7] Various devices are becoming more prevalent The standard length is 100 ft (30.48 m).[10]
that remove the air from the interior of fire hose, commonly
referred to as fire hose vacuums. This process makes hoses
smaller and somewhat rigid, thus allowing more fire hose to
be packed or loaded into the same compartment on a fire sometimes called hard suction, is usually a
fighting apparatus. rubber-covered, semi-rigid hose with internal
Types metal reinforcements. It is used to suck water
Suction out of unpressurized sources, such as ponds or
There are several types of hose designed specifically for the hose rivers, by means of a vacuum. Suction hose
fire service. Those designed to operate under positive ranges in nominal inside diameter from 2.5 to
pressure are called discharge hoses. They include attack 6.0 in (64 to 152 mm). The standard length is
hose, supply hose, relay hose, forestry hose, and booster 10 ft (3.05 m).
hose. Those designed to operate under negative pressure
are called suction hoses.
Another suction hose, called a soft suction, is actually a
short length of fabric-covered, flexible discharge hose used
Types to connect the fire pumper suction inlet with a pressurized
hydrant. It is not a true suction hose as it cannot withstand a
negative pressure.
Connection (hose coupling)
Name Definition
Hose connections are often made from brass, though
hardened aluminum connections are also specified.[11] In
countries which use quick-action couplers for attack hoses,
hose is a fabric-covered, flexible hose used to forged aluminum has been used for decades because the
bring water from the fire pumper to the nozzle. weight penalty of brass for Storz couplers is higher than
This hose ranges in nominal inside diameter for threaded connections.
Attack from 1.5 to 3 in (38 to 76 mm) and is designed to
Threaded hose couplings are used in the United States,
operate at pressures up to about 400 psi
Canada, and Great Britain.[13] Each of these countries uses a
(2,760 kPa). The standard length is 50 ft
different kind of threading. Many other countries have
(15.24 m).
standardized on quick-action couplings, which do not have a
male and female end, but connect either way. Again, there is
no international standard: In Central Europe, the Storz
connector is used by several countries. Belgium and France
are large-diameter, fabric-covered, flexible use the Guillemin connector. Spain, Sweden and Norway
Supply hoses used to bring water from a distant hydrant each have their own quick coupling. Countries of the former
and relay to the fire pumper or to relay water from one Soviet Union area use the Gost coupling. Baarle-
hoses pumper to another over a long distance. These Nassau and Baarle-Hertog, two municipalities on the
hoses range in nominal inside diameter from 3.5 Belgian-Dutch border, share a common international fire
to 5.0 in (89 to 127 mm). They are designed to department. The fire trucks have been equipped with
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adapters to allow them to work with both Storz and Guillemin
connectors.[14] As the firefighter rolled out the hose with a "bowling ball
In the United States, a growing number of departments use throw," it went between the parked cars and got stuck under
Storz couplers for large diameter supply hose, or other
quick-action couplings. Because the usage is not one of them. Now, the firefighter had to go over and retrieve
standardized, mutual aid apparatus might have a
compartment on their trucks dedicated to a multitude of hose the hose while the rest of the crew was waiting and the fire
adapters.
was intensifying. How did something so easy to do suddenly
The different styles of hose couplings have influenced
fireground tactics. Apparatus in the United States features
add more stress and pressure on extending a supply line?
"preconnects": Hose for a certain task is put into an open
compartment, and each attack hose is connected to the
pump. Time-consuming multiple connections or problems
with male and female ends are avoided by such tactics. In
countries where Storz (or similar) connectors have been We all learned the basics of hose rolling or creating the
used for attack hoses for generations, firefighters drop a
manifold at the border of the danger zone, which is "donut." It was always stressed that you protect the male
connected to the apparatus by a single supply line. As a
result, the tiny item "hose coupler" has also influenced the coupling's threads by always rolling them on the inside so
looks and design of fire apparatus.
they wouldn't get nicked or burred. The female coupling with
Grab a Donut (Hose Roll) its recessed threads is protected by its physical makeup, so
they are on the outside.

By Michael N. Ciampo
Sometimes drilling or discussing "back-to-basics" tactics can

There are many types of donut rolls, and fire departments
be very helpful and useful; it may also remind that firefighter
may refer to each of them differently and use them in
who says, "Oh, I forgot about that." Often it's the smallest or
different applications.
simplest things that can make another situation go smoothly
Single Roll. This is also called the straight roll and often is
if we had only followed that basic tactic. Sure, there are
used to store hose on a rack or roll it up after a fire to place it
ways of improving or enhancing the tactic, but to improve it,
in the hose dryer. Single rolls often find their way onto the
we need to understand why it's there in the first place.
apparatus. Why put it on there like that? Most of us have
Pulling into the block to operate as a tower ladder at a
used the "bowling alley toss" and have watched it go flying
vacant structure fire, we were ordered to set up between the
and either hit another firefighter in the leg or go veering out
fire building and the exposure; lining up our turntable with
of control in either direction and only half uncoil. Or maybe
the alleyway allowed us to attack the fire building and protect
you've been lucky enough to have quickly needed that length
the exposure. As we got into position, a supply line was
to replace a burst section of hose and as you grabbed the
being stretched to our location. Unfortunately, the hose
male coupling from inside the donut and went in one
barely made it and looked like a clothesline from the engine
direction and the female was pulled in the other, the hose
to our apparatus. Sizing up the vacant structure and
looked like a spiral piece of spaghetti! Now you're spinning it
understanding that the apparatus could be moved forward to
like crazy to make it straight again.
attack more of the fire and allow another tower ladder to
The single roll is okay for storage and has another
operate in our original position, we laid out one of our donut
application for out-of-service or defective hose. In those
rolls of supply hose off our apparatus. (Aerial and tower
cases, roll the female coupling on the inside of the donut and
ladders should carry some extra supply hose and fittings!)
keep the male on the outside. When you complete the roll,
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tie an overhand knot in the hose to indicate to others that it as two "individual" rolls, ending with the couplings exposed
wasn't mistakenly rolled. You should place an out-of-service and next to each other at the end. A variation with this roll
tag on it as well, but the tag might tear off in transit. Some allows you to make the hose into a carrying strap.
departments cut off a coupling to indicate that the hose is Remember, when making these rolls or putting them into
defective. You can roll this hose quickly, but it will often service, check the female coupling for a gasket to prevent
overlap at the ends, and most firefighters will lay the hose leaking and loss of pressure. And when you put them on the
flat and step on it to compact the donut. Such compression apparatus, grab the right donut!
may damage the inner jacket, so take your time and roll it MICHAEL N. CIAMPO is a 26-year veteran of the fire
slowly. Respect the tool we count on the most! service and a lieutenant in the Fire Department of New York.
Donut Roll. This may also be called a rolled length, Previously, he served with the District of Columbia Fire
protected roll, or "double" in some departments. It is where Department. He has a bachelor's degree in fire science from
the hose is folded out on top of itself, keeping the male end John Jay College of Criminal Justice in New York City. He is
about three feet back from the female end. It is then rolled the lead instructor for the FDIC Truck Essentials H.O.T.
back onto itself. One member should hold the upper hose program. He wrote the Ladder chapter and co-authored the
and keep it taut or in line with the bottom hose to keep it neat Ventilation chapter for Fire Engineering's Handbook for
and compact as the other member rolls the hose. This also Firefighter I and II (Fire Engineering, 2009) and is featured in
eliminates the need to stand on its compressed edges. Once "Training Minutes" truck company videos
the roll is completed, the male end will be protected from on www.FireEngineering.com.
damage by a layer of hose.
To deploy this roll, undo the protective layer and then grab
onto both couplings. Yes, you can use the "bowling ball
Fire Extinguishment Principles
maneuver," but look at your surroundings, see who is
operating around you, and make sure it will not get caught Fire extinguishment agents have several different principles
under an object after your toss it. The other option for
of operation. These include:
deploying this roll is to lay it flat and grab both couplings and
walk away from the roll; it should deploy easily. With this roll,
when you're extending a line or replacing a burst length, two 1. Cooling of Flame.
firefighters can take each end of the hose and walk in
different directions, deploying the hose effortlessly. It will not 2. Reduction of Flame by cooling of the liquid; dilution of the
kink, bind, or twist and will be a much easier and simpler

liquid; or blanketing of the liquid.
tactic to follow.
Twin Donut or Double Roll. This allows one length of hose

3. Reduction of oxygen.
to be rolled smaller in circumference but wider than the rolls
mentioned above. The hose is folded and laid out next to 4. Interference with Combustion Reaction.
each fold with the couplings at the same end. It is then rolled
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Fire Fighting Agents
The main types of fire fighting agents are:
1. Water
2. Foam (chemical, mechanical, special detergent)
3. Vaporizing Liquids (halogenated hydrocarbons, BCF)
4. Dry powders
5. Inert gases (carbon dioxide, nitrogen, steam)
6. Sand
Portable And Mobile Fire Extinguishers
The portable fire extinguishers can be classified according to
their content as follows: water, foam, carbon dioxide, and
vaporizing liquids and according to the kind of fire, they are
used on.
 CLASS A. Extinguishers are suitable for use on fire in
ordinary combustibles, such as wood, paper, rubber, and
many plastics.
 CLASS B. Extinguishers used on fires in petroleum
products, such as paints, thinners and solvents.
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 CLASS C. Extinguishers used for fire in energized  Fire water systems (pumping system, hydrant
electrical equipment and wiring. system)
 CLASS D. Extinguishers used for fires in combustible

 Deluge
metals, such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium, sodium
system
and potassium.
The portable and mobile extinguishers are of different sizes.  Sprinkler system.
All portable extinguishers, except mobile type, shall be

 Halon fixed system
installed on hangars or in the brackets supplied, mounted in
cabinets or set on shelves. They must be easy to reach and  Carbon dioxide system
remove, and placed where they will not be damaged.

 Dry powder system
Extinguishers shall be colored red according to the

 Foam system
standards and shall have the operating instructions and use
classifications on the outside face of the extinguisher. The THE 9 CLASSES OF DANGEROUS GOODS (hazardous
materials)
instructions shall be easy to read.
‘Dangerous goods’ are materials or items with hazardous
properties which, if not properly controlled, present a
Fixed Fire Fighting Systems potential hazard to human health and safety, infrastructure
and/ or their means of transport.
Fixed fire protection systems are installations that use the
The transportation of dangerous goods is controlled and
same principles of fire fighting and the same extinguishing
governed by a variety of different regulatory regimes,
agents used in portable fire extinguishers. They are operating at both the national and international levels.
Prominent regulatory frameworks for the transportation of
designed for an appropriate and a better response. Their use
dangerous goods include the United Nations
is automatic or under the intervention of firemen (combined Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods,
ICAO’s Technical Instructions, IATA’s Dangerous Goods
to other mobile systems). They are actuated mainly by fire Regulations and the IMO’s International Maritime Dangerous
Goods Code. Collectively, these regulatory regimes mandate
detection systems (gas , temperature, heat and smoke
the means by which dangerous goods are to be handled,
detectors). They can be grouped under the following. packaged, labelled and transported.
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Regulatory frameworks incorporate comprehensive Explosives are capable by chemical reaction of producing
classification systems of hazards to provide a taxonomy of gases at temperatures, pressures and speeds as to cause
dangerous goods. Classification of dangerous goods is catastrophic damage through force and/or of producing
broken down into nine classes according to the type of otherwise hazardous amounts of heat, light, sound, gas or
danger materials or items present, smoke.
1. Explosives Commonly Transported Explosives

2. Gases 1. Ammunition/cartridges
3. Flammable Liquids 2. Fireworks/pyrotechnics
4. Flammable Solids 3. Flares
5. Oxidizing Substances 4. Blasting caps / detonators
6. Toxic & Infectious Substances 5. Fuse
7. Radioactive Material 6. Primers
8. Corrosives 7. Explosive charges (blasting, demolition etc)
9. Miscellaneous Dangerous Goods 8. Detonating cord
9. Air bag inflators
10. Igniters
CLASS 1 – EXPLOSIVES 11. Rockets
12. TNT / TNT compositions
Explosives are materials or items which have the ability to
13. RDX / RDX compositions
rapidly conflagrate or detonate as a consequence of 14. PETN / PETN compositions
chemical reaction.
Sub-Divisions CLASS 2 – GASES

Division 1.1: Substances and articles which have a mass
explosion hazard Gases are defined by dangerous goods regulations as
substances which have a vapour pressure of 300 kPa or
Division 1.2: Substances and articles which have a greater at 50°c or which are completely gaseous at 20°c at
projection hazard but not a mass explosion hazard standard atmospheric pressure, and items containing these
substances. The class encompasses compressed gases,
Division 1.3: Substances and articles which have a fire
liquefied gases, dissolved gases, refrigerated liquefied
hazard and either a minor blast hazard or a minor projection
gases, mixtures of one or more gases with one or more
hazard or both
vapours of substances of other classes, articles charged with
Division 1.4: Substances and articles which present no a gas and aerosols.
significant hazard; only a small hazard in the event of ignition
Sub-Divisions
or initiation during transport with any effects largely confined
Division 2.1: Flammable gases
to the package
Division 2.2: Non-flammable, non-toxic gases

Division 1.5: Very insensitive substances which have a mass
explosion hazard Division 2.3: Toxic gases
Division 1.6: Extremely insensitive articles which do not have Reason for Regulation
a mass explosion hazard Gases are capable of posing serious hazards due to their
flammability, potential as asphyxiants, ability to oxidize
Reason for Regulation
and/or their toxicity or corrosiveness to humans.
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Commonly Transported Gases Commonly Transported Flammable Liquids

1. Aerosols 1. Acetone / acetone oils
2. Compressed air 2. Adhesives
3. Hydrocarbon gas-powered devices 3. Paints / lacquers / varnishes
4. Fire extinguishers 4. Alcohols
5. Gas cartridges 5. Perfumery products
6. Fertilizer ammoniating solution 6. Gasoline / Petrol
7. Insecticide gases 7. Diesel fuel
8. Refrigerant gases 8. Aviation fuel
9. Lighters 9. Liquid bio-fuels
10. Acetylene / Oxyacetylene 10. Coal tar / coal tar distillates
11. Carbon dioxide 11. Petroleum crude oil
12. Helium / helium compounds 12. Petroleum distillates
13. Hydrogen / hydrogen compounds 13. Gas oil
14. Oxygen / oxygen compounds 14. Shale oil
15. Nitrogen / nitrogen compounds 15. Heating oil
16. Natural gas 16. Kerosene
17. Oil gas 17. Resins
18. Petroleum gases 18. Tars
19. Butane 19. Turpentine
20. Propane 20. Carbamate insecticides
21. Ethane 21. Organochlorine pesticides
22. Methane 22. Organophosphorus pesticides
23. Dimethyl ether 23. Copper based pesticides
24. Propene / propylene 24. Esters
25. Ethylene 25. Ethers
26. Ethanol
27. Benzene
28. Butanols
CLASS 3 – FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS
29. Dichloropropenes
30. Diethyl ether
Flammable liquids are defined by dangerous goods
31. Isobutanols
regulations as liquids, mixtures of liquids or liquids 32. Isopropyls
containing solids in solution or suspension which give off a 33. Methanol
34. Octanes
flammable vapour (have a flash point) at temperatures of not
more than 60-65°C, liquids offered for transport at
temperatures at or above their flash point or substances CLASS 4 – FLAMMABLE SOLIDS; SUBSTANCES
transported at elevated temperatures in a liquid state and LIABLE TO SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION;
which give off a flammable vapour at a temperature at or SUBSTANCES WHICH EMIT FLAMMABLE GASES WHEN
below the maximum transport temperature. IN CONTACT WITH WATER
Sub-Divisions Flammable solids are materials which, under conditions

There are no subdivisions within Class 3, Flammable encountered in transport, are readily combustible or may
Liquids. cause or contribute to fire through friction, self-reactive
substances which are liable to undergo a strongly
exothermic reaction or solid desensitized explosives. Also
Flammable liquids are capable of posing serious hazards
included are substances which are liable to spontaneous
due to their volatility, combustibility and potential in causing
heating under normal transport conditions, or to heating up
or propagating severe conflagrations.
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in contact with air, and are consequently liable to catch fire CLASS 5 – OXIDIZING SUBSTANCES; ORGANIC
and substances which emit flammable gases or become PEROXIDES
spontaneously flammable when in contact with water.
Oxidizers are defined by dangerous goods regulations as
Sub-Divisions substances which may cause or contribute to combustion,
Division 4.1: Flammable solids generally by yielding oxygen as a result of a redox chemical
reaction. Organic peroxides are substances which may be
Division 4.2: Substances liable to spontaneous combustion
considered derivatives of hydrogen peroxide where one or
Division 4.3: Substances which, in contact with water, emit both hydrogen atoms of the chemical structure have been
flammable gases replaced by organic radicals.
Reason for Regulation Sub-Divisions
Flammable solids are capable of posing serious hazards due Division 5.1: Oxidizing substances
to their volatility, combustibility and potential in causing or

Division 5.1: Organic peroxides
propagating severe conflagrations.
Commonly Transported Flammable Solids;
Oxidizers, although not necessarily combustible in
Spontaneous Combustibles; ‘Dangerous When Wet’
themselves, can yield oxygen and in so doing cause or
Materials
contribute to the combustion of other materials. Organic
1. Alkali metals
2. Metal powders peroxides are thermally unstable and may exude heat whilst
3. Aluminium phosphide undergoing exothermic autocatalytic decomposition.
4. Sodium batteries
Additionally, organic peroxides may be liable to explosive
5. Sodium cells
6. Firelighters decomposition, burn rapidly, be sensitive to impact or
7. Matches friction, react dangerously with other substances or cause
8. Calcium carbide
damage to eyes.
9. Camphor
10. Carbon
11. Activated carbon Commonly Transported Oxidizers; Organic Peroxides
12. Celluloid 1. Chemical oxygen generators
13. Cerium 2. Ammonium nitrate fertilizers
14. Copra 3. Chlorates
15. Seed cake 4. Nitrates
16. Oily cotton waste 5. Nitrites
17. Desensitized explosives 6. Perchlorates
18. Oily fabrics 7. Permanganates
19. Oily fibres 8. Persulphates
20. Ferrocerium 9. Aluminium nitrate
21. Iron oxide (spent 10. Ammonium dichromate
22. Iron sponge/direct-reduced iron (spent) 11. Ammonium nitrate
23. Metaldehyde 12. Ammonium persulphate
24. Naphthalene 13. Calcium hypochlorite
25. Nitrocellulose 14. Calcium nitrate
26. Phosphorus 15. Calcium peroxide
27. Sulphur 16. Hydrogen peroxide
17. Magnesium peroxide
18. Lead nitrate
19. Lithium hypochlorite
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20. Potassium chlorate 17. Barium compounds

21. Potassium nitrate 18. Arsenics / arsenic compounds
22. Potassium chlorate 19. Beryllium/ beryllium compounds
23. Potassium perchlorate 20. Lead compounds
24. Potassium permanganate 21. Mercury compounds
25. Sodium nitrate 22. Nicotine / nicotine compounds
26. Sodium persulphate 23. Selenium compounds
24. Antimony
25. Ammonium metavanadate
26. Adiponitrile
CLASS 6 – TOXIC SUBSTANCES; INFECTIOUS
27. Chloroform
SUBSTANCES 28. Dichloromethane
29. Hexachlorophene
Toxic substances are those which are liable either to cause 30. Phenol
death or serious injury or to harm human health if swallowed, 31. Resorcinol
inhaled or by skin contact. Infectious substances are those

which are known or can be reasonably expected to contain
CLASS 7 – RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
pathogens. Dangerous goods regulations define pathogens
Dangerous goods regulations define radioactive material as
as microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, rickettsiae,
any material containing radionuclides where both the activity
parasites and fungi, or other agents which can cause
concentration and the total activity exceeds certain pre-
disease in humans or animals.
defined values. A radionuclide is an atom with an unstable
Sub-Divisions nucleus and which consequently is subject to radioactive
Division 6.1: Toxic substances decay.
Division 6.2: Infectious substances Sub-Divisions

There are no subdivisions within Class 7, Radioactive
Material.
Toxic and infectious substances can pose significant risks to
human and animal health upon contact. Reason for Regulation
Whilst undergoing radioactive decay radionuclides emit
Commonly Transported Toxic Substances; Infectious
ionizing radiation, which presents potentially severe risks to
Substances
human health.
1. Medical/Biomedical waste
2. Clinical waste
Commonly Transported Radioactive Material
3. Biological cultures / samples / specimens
1. Radioactive ores
4. Medical cultures / samples / specimens
2. Medical isotopes
5. Tear gas substances
3. Yellowcake
6. Motor fuel anti-knock mixture
4. Density gauges
7. Dyes
5. Mixed fission products
8. Carbamate pesticides
6. Surface contaminated objects
9. Alkaloids
7. Caesium radionuclides / isotopes
10. Allyls
8. Iridium radionuclides / isotopes
11. Acids
9. Americium radionuclides / isotopes
12. Arsenates
10. Plutonium radionuclides / isotopes
13. Arsenites
11. Radium radionuclides / isotopes
14. Cyanides
12. Thorium radionuclides / isotopes
15. Thiols/mercaptans
13. Uranium radionuclides / isotopes
16. Cresols
14. Depleted uranium / depleted uranium products
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15. Uranium hexafluoride covered by other classes. This class encompasses, but is
16. Enriched Uranium
not limited to, environmentally hazardous substances,
substances that are transported at elevated temperatures,
CLASS 8 – CORROSIVES miscellaneous articles and substances, genetically modified
Corrosives are substances which by chemical action organisms and micro-organisms and (depending on the
degrade or disintegrate other materials upon contact. method of transport) magnetized materials and aviation
regulated substances.
Sub-Divisions
There are no subdivisions within Class 8, Corrosives. Sub-Divisions
There are no subdivisions within Class 9, Miscellaneous
Dangerous Goods.
Corrosives cause severe damage when in contact with living
tissue or, in the case of leakage, damage or destroy Reason for Regulation
surrounding materials. Miscellaneous dangerous goods present a wide array of

potential hazards to human health and safety, infrastructure
Commonly Transported Corrosives
and/ or their means of transport.
1. Acids/acid solutions
2. Batteries
Commonly Transported Miscellaneous Dangerous
3. Battery fluid
4. Fuel cell cartridges Goods
5. Dyes 1. Dry ice / cardice / solid carbon dioxide
6. Fire extinguisher charges 2. Expandable polymeric beads / polystyrene beads
7. Formaldehyde 3. Ammonium nitrate fertilizers
8. Flux 4. Blue asbestos / crocidolite
9. Paints 5. Lithium ion batteries
10. Alkylphenols 6. Lithium metal batteries
11. Amines 7. Battery powered equipment
12. Polyamines 8. Battery powered vehicles
13. Sulphides 9. Fuel cell engines
14. Polysulphides 10. Internal combustion engines
15. Chlorides 11. Vehicles
16. Chlorosilanes 12. Magnetized material
17. Bromine 13. Dangerous goods in apparatus
18. Cyclohexylamine 14. Dangerous goods in machinery
19. Phenol / carbolic acid 15. Genetically modified organisms
20. Hydrofluoric acid 16. Genetically modified micro-organisms
21. Hydrochloric acid 17. Chemical kits
22. Sulfuric acid 18. First aid kits
23. Nitric acid 19. Life saving appliances
24. Sludge acid 20. Air bag modules
25. Hydrogen fluoride 21. Seatbelt pretensioners
26. Iodine 22. Plastics moulding compound
27. Morpholine 23. Castor bean plant products
24. Polychlorinated biphenyls
25. Polychlorinated terphenyls
26. Dibromodifluoromethane
CLASS 9 – MISCELLANEOUS DANGEROUS GOODS
27. Benzaldehyde
Miscellaneous dangerous goods are substances and articles

Chapter 3
which during transport present a danger or hazard not Arson investigation and all cases related to fire
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6. Any building, whether used as a dwelling or not,
situated in a populated or congested area.
PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No. 1613

Section 3. Other Cases of Arson. The penalty of Reclusion
Temporal to Reclusion Perpetua shall be imposed if the
AMENDING THE LAW ON ARSON property burned is any of the following:
WHEREAS, findings of the police and intelligence agencies 1. Any building used as offices of the government
of the government reveal that fires and other crimes or any of its agencies;
involving destruction in Metro Manila and other urban
centers in the country are being perpetrated by criminal
syndicates, some of which have foreign connections; 2. Any inhabited house or dwelling;
WHEREAS, the current law on arson suffers from certain 3. Any industrial establishment, shipyard, oil well
inadequacies that impede the successful enforcement and or mine shaft, platform or tunnel;
prosecution of arsonists;
4. Any plantation, farm, pastureland, growing crop,
WHEREAS, it is imperative that the high incidence of fires grain field, orchard, bamboo grove or forest;
and other crimes involving destruction be prevented to
protect the national economy and preserve the social, 4. Any rice mill, sugar mill, cane mill or mill central;
economic and political stability of the country; and
NOW, THEREFORE, I, FERDINAND E. MARCOS, 5. Any railway or bus station, airport, wharf or
President of the Philippines, by virtue of the powers vested warehouse.
in me by the Constitution, do hereby order and decree as
part of the law of the land, the following:
Section 4. Special Aggravating Circumstances in
Arson. The penalty in any case of arson shall be imposed in
Section 1. Arson. Any person who burns or sets fire to the its maximum period;
property of another shall be punished by Prision Mayor.
1. If committed with intent to gain;

The same penalty shall be imposed when a person sets fire
to his own property under circumstances which expose to
danger the life or property of another. 2. If committed for the benefit of another;
Section 2. Destructive Arson. The penalty of Reclusion 3. If the offender is motivated by spite or hatred
Temporal in its maximum period to Reclusion Perpetua shall towards the owner or occupant of the property
be imposed if the property burned is any of the following: burned;
1. Any ammunition factory and other 4. If committed by a syndicate.

establishment where explosives, inflammable or
combustible materials are stored. The offense is committed by a syndicate if its is planned or
carried out by a group of three (3) or more persons.
2. Any archive, museum, whether public or private,
or any edifice devoted to culture, education or Section 5. Where Death Results from Arson. If by reason of
social services. or on the occasion of the arson death results, the penalty of
Reclusion Perpetua to death shall be imposed.
3. Any church or place of worship or other building
where people usually assemble. Section 6. Prima Facie evidence of Arson. Any of the
following circumstances shall constitute prima facie evidence
4. Any train, airplane or any aircraft, vessel or of arson:
watercraft, or conveyance for transportation of
persons or property 1. If the fire started simultaneously in more than
one part of the building or establishment.
4. Any building where evidence is kept for use in
any legislative, judicial, administrative or other 2. If substantial amount of flammable substances
official proceedings. or materials are stored within the building note
necessary in the business of the offender nor for
5. Any hospital, hotel, dormitory, lodging house, household us.
housing tenement, shopping center, public or
private market, theater or movie house or any 3. If gasoline, kerosene, petroleum or other
similar place or building. flammable or combustible substances or materials
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soaked therewith or containers thereof, or any Economic Gain is the type of motive where the
mechanical, electrical, chemical, or electronic
arsonist will be benefitting directly through insurance
contrivance designed to start a fire, or ashes or
traces of any of the foregoing are found in the fraud.
ruins or premises of the burned building or
property. Insurance Fraud normally involves burning one's
property to wrongfully collect insurance money for the
4. If the building or property is insured for loss by fire of the insured property. Example of this are
substantially more than its actual value at the time
of the issuance of the policy. DESIRE TO MOVE (the premises may no longer be
desirable because of the condition of the building, the
4. If during the lifetime of the corresponding fire fact that the quarters are outgrown or because of the
insurance policy more than two fires have locality.), DISPOSING OF MERCHANDISE (the stocks
occurred in the same or other premises owned or on hand may have lost value by reason of the seasonal
under the control of the offender and/or insured.
nature of the business, obsolence, scarcity of materials
necessary to complete contracts, overstock in the
5. If shortly before the fire, a substantial portion of
absence of the expected order or a change in market.),
the effects insured and stored in a building or
property had been withdrawn from the premises PROPERTY TRANSACTION (business itself may no
except in the ordinary course of business. longer be desirable because of impending liquidation,
settlement of an estate of which it is a part, prospective
6. If a demand for money or other valuable failure, the comparatively greater value of the land or
consideration was made before the fire in the comparatively greater value of the insurance
exchange for the desistance of the offender or for
the safety of the person or property of the victim. benefits.).
Section 7. Conspiracy to commit Arson. Conspiracy to Economic gain where the perpetrator are not the owner
commit arson shall be punished by Prision Mayor in its are; Insurance agents wishing business, insurance
minimum period. adjuster desiring to adjust a loss by securing a contract,
business competitors, person seeking jobs as
Section 8. Confiscation of Object of Arson. The building protection personnel, salvager, contractor wishing to
which is the object of arson including the land on which it is
rebuild or wreck.
situated shall be confiscated and escheated to the State,
unless the owner thereof can prove that he has no
participation in nor knowledge of such arson despite the
exercise of due diligence on his part. Concealment of Crime the arsonist may set fire to a
building in order to conceal a projected or past crime.
Section 9. Repealing Clause. The provisions of Articles 320 He may wish to divert attention in order to loot the
to 326-B of the Revised Penal Code and all laws, executive
orders, rules and regulations, or parts thereof, inconsistent burning premises or steal in other places. The burning
with the provisions of this Decree are hereby repealed or may be for the purpose of destroying evidence.
amended accordingly.
Punitive Measure an arsonist may use fire as a means
Section 10. Effectivity. This Decree shall take effect of punishing another person for reason of jealousy,
immediately upon publication thereof at least once in a hatred or revenge.
newspaper of general circulation.
Intimidation or Economic Disabling the fire may be

Done in the City of Manila, this 7th day of March, in the year
of Our Lord, nineteen hundred and seventy-nine. used as weapon of the saboteurs, the strikers or
racketeers to intimidate or to disable economically as a
step toward forcing submission to certain demands.
Motives of Arson
Pyromania the uncontrollable impulse of a person to

1. Economic Gain
burn anything without motivation. Pyromaniacs usually
2. Concealment of Crime
do not run away from the scene of the crime, usually
3. Punitive measure
alone and feel satisfied watching the flame.
4. Intimidation or Economic Disabling
Types of Pyromaniacs:
5. Pyromania
1. Abnormal Youth- Epileptics, imbeciles and morons
may set fire without knowing the seriousness of their
acts.
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2. The Hero Type- A person may set fire on a building, these attributes can help the fire officer determine the size and
location of the fire as well as the potential for a hostile fire event
subsequently pretends to discover it and turn in the
like flashover. Before we can look at the meaning of each attribute,
alarm so that he will appear a hero to the public. a we must understand the underlying science behind what is seen in
person may burn a building and endeavor to achieve smoke.
spectacular rescue in order to attract the attention of “SMOKE” DEFINED
In a simpler time, smoke was viewed as the particulates (solids)
spectators. that are suspended in a thermal column. Fire gases and aerosols
3. Alcoholics and Drug addicts- persons who subject were listed as separate products of the combustion process. In
themselves to intense artificial stimulants such as today’s world, that oversimplification is dangerous. When a fire
officer sees smoke leaving a building, the smoke needs to be
alcohol or narcotics, sometimes develop a strong urge
interpreted as an aggregate of solids, aerosols, and fire gases that
toward incendiarism. are toxic, flammable, and volatile.[1] The solids that are suspended
4. Sexual Deviates- some sex perverts derive sexual in the thermal plume include carbon (soot), ash, dust, and airborne
stimulation from setting a fire and watching the flame. fibers. Concerning aerosols typically include a whole host of
hydrocarbons (oils/tar). Fire gases are numerous with carbon
Frequently, he is chronic masturbator who stimulates
monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, acrolein, hydrogen sulfide, and
and enhances his sexual gratification by means of benzene leading the list. The bottom line is, Hot smoke is
arson. extremely flammable and will ultimately dictate fire behavior.
Fire officers who focus on the fire (flaming) to determine tactics
are being set up for a “sucker punch.” Open flaming is actually a
Types Of Fire Setters According To Personality good thing--the products of combustion are minimized to
Disorder basically carbon, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. Within a
building, the heat from flaming is absorbed through materials
(contents and the walls/ceiling). These materials break down and
1. Profit Fire Setters(gaining profit)
begin off-gassing without flaming (pyrolysis). It is here that smoke
2. Solitary Fire Setters (fire set secretly) flammability begins. Within a box (room), the off-gassed smoke
3. Group Fire Setters( fire set by groups) displaces air, leading to what is termed an “under ventilated” fire.
Under ventilated fires don’t allow the open flaming to complete a
reaction with pure air--leading to increasing volumes of CO as well
Smokes
as the aforementioned smoke products.[2] The smoke is looking to
complete what was started. Two triggers, the right temperature and
The art of reading smokes the right mixture, may cause the smoke to ignite. Smoke gases
One of the “basics” that is gaining headway is the ability to above their flashpoint (with air mix) just need a sudden spark or
flame to complete the ignition. Distal to the actual fire, a simple
“read smoke” to help predict fire behavior within a structure. glowing ember or s failing light bulb can spark the ignition.
The ability to read smoke has been around for many decades- Smoke gases above their ignition temperature just need a proper
-the fire officers handling America’s fire epidemic in the air mix. Ignition of smoke that has pressurized a room or “box”
1970s became quite proficient at the skill. Unfortunately, will likely result in an explosive surge. Ignition of accumulated
smoke also changes basic fire spread dynamics--instead of flame
these sound tacticians felt that the ability to read smoke was spread across surfaces of contents, the fire spreads with the smoke
based on experience and intuitiveness and couldn’t flow. The fire officer who watches what the smoke is doing will
necessarily be taught except for repeated practice at actual make better decisions than the one focused on flaming, simply
because the smoke will tell you how nasty the fire is about to
fires. Further, the skills these fire officers developed in
become as opposed to how bad it currently is. A
reading smoke don’t readily apply to today’s fires. Low-mass compartmentalized fire that is ventilation-limited is looking for air.
synthetics and the consumer trend toward “big box” Arriving firefighters who open the front door for an aggressive
purchasing have led to a more volatile fire environment. To attack provide that air. As smoke leaves the door, a volume switch
begins to take place. Air is now becoming available to the fire, and
make matters worse, we are responding to fewer fires; the a sudden growth in fire spread becomes imminent. With this
experience teacher is arguably diminished. To get back to the understanding, we can look at the four attributes of the smoke.
basics, we need to teach fire officers how to rapidly interpret ATTRIBUTES OF SMOKE
smoke issuing from a building so that appropriate tactical The four attributes of smoke are volume, velocity, density, and
color.
choices can be made. For example, the first-due officer who Volume
can rapidly read smoke can make better decisions about Smoke volume by itself tells very little about a fire, but it sets the
aggressive fire attack or search and rescue priorities. While stage for understanding the amount of fuels that are “off-gassing”
within a given space. A hot, clean-burning fire will emit very little
far from complete, this article will capture the essence of
visible smoke, yet a hot, fast-moving fire in an
“reading smoke” and offer some tried and tested “underventilated” building will show a tremendous volume of
interpretations to help fire officers make better rapid smoke. The changes in today’s contents (low mass) can develop
decisions on the fireground. large volumes of smoke even though little flame is present. The
volume of smoke can help set an impression about the fire. For
Reading smoke is not difficult--although for most fire officers, it example, a small fast-food restaurant can be totally filled with
will take an effort to break the “heavy smoke or light smoke” smoke from a small fire. Conversely, to fill the local “big box”
mentality that has come out of rapid “size-up” radio reports. store full of smoke would take a significant fire event. Once a
“Smoke” leaving a structure has four key attributes: volume, container is full of smoke, pressure begins building if adequate
velocity (pressure), density, and color. A comparative analysis of
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ventilation is not available. This can help us understand smoke first-arriving fire officer, smoke color tells the stage of heating
velocity. and helps us find the location of the fire within a building.
Velocity Virtually all solid materials will emit a white “smoke” when first
The speed and flow characteristic of smoke that leaves a building heated. This white smoke is moisture (natural products) and
is referred to as velocity. In actuality, smoke velocity is an various vapors like ammonia and phenols (synthetics). As a
indicator of pressure that has built up within the building. From a material dries out and breaks down, the color of the smoke will
tactical standpoint, the fire officer needs to know WHAT has change. Wood materials will change to tan or brown; plastics and
caused the smoke pressure. From a fire behavior point of view, painted/stained surfaces will emit a grey smoke. As materials are
only two things can cause smoke to pressurize within a building: further heated, the smoke leaving the material will eventually be
heat and volume. When you watch smoke leave the building, know all black (carbonization). When flames touch a surface, the surface
that pressure caused by heat will typically rise and slow gradually will off-gas black smoke almost immediately. Therefore, the more
after it leaves the building. Pressure caused by volume saturation black the smoke, the hotter the smoke. Black smoke that is high
will immediately slow and balance with outside air flow. velocity and very thin (low density) is indicative of flame-pushed
In addition to speed, smoke will have a flow smoke; the fire is nearby.
characteristic: turbulent or laminar. If the velocity of the smoke Smoke color can also help you find the location of a fire. As smoke
leaving an opening is turbulent (other descriptions may include leaves a fuel that is ignited, it heats up other materials, and the
agitated smoke, boiling smoke, or “angry” smoke), a flashover is moisture from those objects can cause black smoke to turn grey, or
likely to occur. Turbulent flow is caused by rapid molecular even white, over distance. As smoke travels, carbon and
expansion of the gases within the smoke and restriction of this hydrocarbon content from the smoke will deposit along surfaces
expansion by the “box” (container). This expansion is being caused and objects, which also lightens the smoke color. That leads to the
by radiant heat feedback from the box itself--simply, the box can’t question, Is the dirty-white smoke you see a result of early-stage
absorb any more heat. This is the precursor to flashover. If the heating or late-stage heating smoke that has traveled some
“box” is still absorbing heat, the heat of the smoke is subsequently distance? To answer, just look at the velocity. White smoke that
absorbed, leaving a more stable or “laminar” smoke flow. Other has its own pressure (push) is indicating distance. White smoke
words for laminar can include smooth or straight-line flow. The that is slow or lazy is most likely indicative of early-stage heating.
most important smoke observation is turbulent vs. laminar smoke One more important note about smoke color--namely, brown
flow. Smoke that is turbulent is ready to ignite and indicates a smoke. Unfinished wood gives off a distinctive brown smoke as it
flashover environment delayed by improper air mix. approaches late-stage heating (just prior to flaming). In many
Comparing the velocity of smoke at different openings of the cases, the only unfinished wood in a structure is the wall studs,
building can help the fire officer determine the location of the fire: floor joists, and roof rafters/trusses. This can tell you that the fire is
Faster smoke will be closer to the fire seat. Remember, however, transitioning from a contents fire to a structural fire. Using our
that the smoke velocity you see outside the building is ultimately knowledge of building construction--especially lightweight
determined by the size of the exhaust opening. Smoke will follow structural components and gusset plates--the issuance of brown
the path of least resistance and lose velocity as the distance from smoke from gable-end vents, eaves, and floor seams become a
the fire increases. To find the location of fire by comparing warning sign of impending collapse. Remember also that
velocities, you must only compare like-size openings (doors to engineered wood products like oriented strand board (OSB) and
doors, cracks to cracks, and so on). A veteran commander of laminated veneer lumber (LVL or “Micro-lam”) lose strength
hundreds of fires once told me to find the fastest smoke from the when heated. The glues of these products break down with heat
smallest opening--that’s where the fire is. In my own experience, and don’t necessarily need flames to come apart.[4] Brown smoke
I’ve found this to be a pretty accurate shortcut. from structural spaces containing OSB or LVL can indicate that
Density critical strength has been already lost.
Whereas velocity can help you understand much about a fire (how Knowing the meaning of each attribute helps us paint a picture of
hot and where), density tells you how bad things are going to be. the fire. By combining these smoke attributes, some basic
Density of smoke refers to its thickness. Since smoke is fuel-- observations about the fire can be made before firefighters enter a
airborne solids, aerosols, and gases that are capable of further structure. Compare smoke velocity and color from various
burning--thickness tells you how much fuel is laden in the smoke. openings to help find the location of the fire. Faster/darker smoke
In essence, the thicker the smoke, the more spectacular the is closer to the fire seat, whereas slower/lighter smoke is further
flashover or fire spread. Smoke thickness also indicates “fuel away. Typically, you’ll see distinct differences in velocity and
continuity.” Practically applied, thick smoke will spread a fire colors from various openings. In cases where the smoke appears
event (like flashover) farther than less dense smoke. We already uniform--that is, same color/velocity from multiple openings--you
know that turbulent smoke is a flashover warning sign, yet thick, should start thinking that the fire is in a concealed space (or deep-
laminar-flowing smoke can ignite because of the continuity of the seated). In these cases, the smoke has traveled some distance or
fuel bed to a flaming source. One other point regarding smoke has been pressure-forced through closed doors or seams
density: Thick, black smoke within a compartment reduces the (walls/concealed spaces), which “neutralizes” color and velocity
chance of life sustainability because of smoke toxicology. A few prior to exiting the building.
breaths of thick, black smoke will render a victim unconscious and BLACK FIRE
cause death within minutes. Further, the firefighter crawling “Black fire” is a good phrase to describe smoke that is high-
through zero-visibility smoke is actually crawling through volume, turbulent velocity, ultra-dense, and black. Black fire is a
ignitable fuel. Modern fire tests are showing that smoke-cloud sure sign of impending autoignition and flashover. In actuality, the
ignition can happen at lower temperatures than fires of even 10 phrase “black fire” is accurate--the smoke itself is doing all the
years ago.[3] We can thank plastics and low-mass materials for destruction that flames would cause, charring, heat damage to
making our job more dangerous. steel, content destruction, and victim death. Black fire can reach
Color temperatures of more than 1,000 degrees! Firefighters should treat
Most fire service curricula teach us that smoke color indicates the black fire just as actual flames--vent and cool!
“type” of material that is burning. In reality, this is only true for Wind, thermal balance, fire streams, ventilation openings, and
single-fuel or single-commodity fires. In typical residential and sprinkler systems change the appearance of smoke. All smoke
commercial fires, it is rare that a single fuel source is emitting observations must be analyzed in proportion to the building. For
smoke--the smoke seen leaving a building is a mix of colors. For a example, smoke that is low volume, slow velocity, very thin, and
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light colored may indicate a small fire--only if the building or The various marks and patterns permanently imprinted on
“box” is small. This same observation from several openings of a the structure and contents by the smoke, heat, and fire point
“big box” store or large warehouse can indicate a large, dangerous the observant fire investigator in the direction of area of fire
fire. origin. When interpreted properly, these burn patterns allow
PRACTICING THE “READING SMOKE” SKILL the investigator to trace the path of fire spread in reverse;
Some firefighters may view the reading-smoke process as this will lead him back to the area where the fire originated to
complicated or time-consuming. Trust me, once you capture the determine what caused the fire. When the area where the
basics and start practicing, your ability to read smoke will improve fire originated is found, it is secured and processed to
exponentially--and you will be able to read smoke in mere determine the cause. Burn patterns are the geometry of fire
seconds! As stated, you must practice! How do we practice investigation and, when understood properly, make the area
reading smoke in an environment with fewer fires? The answer is of fire origin “pop out” at the investigator.
grounded in desire and a bit of inventiveness. I use raw fireground
video footage. These videos are available from several sources,
and many can be found on the Web. The next time your crew
meets for a meal, slip in a video and vocalize volume, velocity,
density, and color observations. Be sure to compare the attribute
differences around the building. One other technique I use to
practice reading smoke may seem silly, but it works. I simply
watch smoke coming from a restaurant grease hood, fireplace
chimney, or smoke stack. Although it’s not difficult to understand
the source of the smoke, the process of vocalizing what you see
can improve your recognition speed. If you simply vocalize “how
much, how fast, how thick, and what color,” you’ll build your
speed and improve your smoke awareness. The faster you can
recognize the attributes, the faster you can get a “read.”
Remember, reading smoke is not a tactic but a tool to help you
make better tactical choices. In essence, the “reading smoke”
approach allows us to be more “intellectually aggressive” as
opposed to arbitrary aggressiveness. In the end, we still need to
make the “box” behave (vent), control the fire (cool the flames and
hot smoke), and aggressively search for victims. With all the
challenges and changes in our emergency service world, it’s
easy to see why we’ve lost the ability to read smoke. Take this
information, and move it up the on the training priority list. You’ll
be amazed at how powerful it can be in predicting fire behavior,
deciding tactics, and preventing firefighter injuries or deaths. Oh,
and don’t forget to pass it on!
(1) “V” pattern forming on the outside of a building. It

produces an arrow that points to the room where the fire
started.
Although in some jurisdictions, fire investigation is done by
the police, more commonly, fire investigators come from the
ranks of the fire service. Still again, some communities form
joint police/fire task forces that are charged with conducting
fire investigations using a team approach. Regardless of
their backgrounds, individuals making the career choice to
become fire investigators must meet the performance
requirements outlined in NFPA 1033, Standard for
Professional Qualifications for Fire Investigator, and follow
The Geometry of Fire Investigation: Interpreting Fire the methodology delineated in NFPA 921.
Some firefighters transition into fire investigation early, and
some later in their careers. Changing one’s focus from fire
suppression to fire investigation can be challenging.
However, fire ground experience can be invaluable in
understanding how fire develops and moves through a
Patterns
structure. For example, observing flames propagate inside
By DOUG LEIHBACHER
fire buildings during a search provides experience-based
Fire investigation methodology is described in National Fire
knowledge that can’t be learned in books. Experiencing how
Protection Association (NFPA) 921, Guide for Fire and
fires travel in buildings gives firefighters a unique
Explosion Investigations. It requires a systematic approach
understanding of the fire dynamics so important to correctly
to determining fire origin and cause. The fire investigator
determine fire cause. However, even though they may have
must keep an open mind and follow the scientific method
extensive fireground experience to call on, mentally
before drawing any conclusions about the fire cause. One of
reversing the fire development process, studying burn
the primary tenets of this systematic method, not to mention
patterns, and determining the area of fire origin are new
common sense, states that, first, it is necessary to determine
skills to learn and may take some time to develop. However,
where the fire originated before it is possible to accurately
with repetition and supervision, the investigator’s fire pattern
determine what caused it. If the investigator is looking in the
acuity will improve and it becomes simpler to correctly
wrong area, he will make a faulty cause determination.
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interpret fire/burn patterns. Then, confidence develops when his systematic examination as he enters the building,
one realizes that, in many cases, the burn patterns point to working from the area of least damage to the area of
the area of fire origin like an arrow. The purpose of this greatest damage as reflected by the fire patterns inside. The
article is to assist fire investigators in recognizing and areas farthest away from the fire will be cleaner. As the
correctly identifying common fire patterns they will investigator approaches the fire area, smoke stains will
encounter. appear on the upper walls and get lower or descend as he
gets closer to the room of fire origin. Flame patterns may
appear on the ceiling outside of the door.
What Are Fire Patterns?
Fire patterns are formed when the products of combustion
come into contact with a vertical or horizontal surface such
as a wall, floor, ceiling, or home furnishing. Smoke patterns
are deposits of carbon on walls and ceilings, carried there in
the heat plume.
(3) A descending heat pattern on a gypsum board wall

leading to the room of fire origin.
A look at the door jamb will indicate the direction of fire travel
with the most intense and lowest charring on the fire side of
the jamb. Patterns on door jambs are sometimes referred to
as indicators because they indicate the direction of fire
(2) Exterior smoke patterns often point the investigator to travel; they slant downward toward the side of the jamb
where the fire originated. where the fire occurred. When comparing both sides of the
Flames are conical; therefore, a burn pattern made by a jamb, if the fire is lower on one side of the jamb than the
flame against a vertical plane (wall) will have a conical other side, it indicates that the fire is coming from that side.
shape-think of it as the flame shape of a campfire. Inside the room of origin, take a look at the contents, walls,
Conversely, the heat/smoke column forms an inverted cone and ceiling to determine where the damage is the greatest.
that gets wider as it rises because of air entrainment. When For example, sometimes fire enters the ceiling, and in one
this plume intersects a wall, it deposits carbon particles that area, the joists are deeply charred, even burned away. The
leave an inverted cone pattern that resembles a “V” in two area of greatest destruction (greatest mass loss) may
dimensions, hence the term “V pattern.” The farther away indicate the area of the fire’s origin. You can observe similar
from the wall that the fire originates, the higher and rounder patterns with wall studs; the studs that are burned the most
the bottom of the V will be on the wall. Like the top of a cone, are closest to the area of fire origin. This is also referred to
when it reaches the ceiling (a horizontal plane), it leaves a as “depth of char.”
circular pattern. However, this ceiling pattern is often
obscured quickly as heat and flame roll across the ceiling
toward a vertical channel or vent point. When a flame and a High Fire
smoke column intersect a wall at the same time, an Fire investigators describe “high fire” as heat and fire
hourglass pattern may form. The width of the fire pattern patterns observed primarily in the upper regions of the room
often coincides with the width of the burning fuel package. with limited heat damage at floor level. These burn patterns
can result from fire that originates either close to ceiling level
or in the ceiling itself, such as from a light ballast or a candle
Systematic Observation fire that originated on top of a mantle or tall dresser. More
Observation of fire patterns begins on the outside of the commonly, however, high fire patterns indicate a flame front
building, where the investigator conducts a 360° survey of migrating across the ceiling and upper wall areas from
the building, taking note of areas where external fire and another room. Descending high fire or smoke patterns direct
smoke patterns are observed. This will help the investigator
determine where to look inside. The investigator continues
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the fire investigator to continue moving in the direction of the case, the investigator must look to the area of greatest
greater, lower fire damage. destruction, deepest charring, and greatest mass loss-i.e.,
the area that burned the longest. In all probability, the area
that burned the longest and sustained the greatest
Fire Development and Burn Patterns destruction is the area where the fire originated.
As mentioned above, burn patterns are the result of flame, Note that there are infrequent cases where this is the
smoke, or heat plumes intersecting a horizontal or vertical exception. For example, if there were victims trapped,
surface such as a wall, ceiling, or piece of furniture. Fire resources may have been deployed to rescue operations,
plumes are three-dimensional and conically shaped. Thus, allowing areas to burn longer. This delayed extinguishment
they usually leave a two-dimensional V-shaped pattern when can result in greater damage and mislead the investigator
they intersect a wall and a circular pattern on a ceiling. For a unless he interviews the responding firefighters and learns
given height, the closer the fuel package is to a wall, the about the fire attack scenario deployed. Similarly, areas in
lower on the wall the pattern will occur. If the fuel package is proximity to ventilation openings can exhibit greater charring
farther from the wall, it will intersect it at a higher level. A or mass loss because of the increased supply of oxygen,
wider fuel package will leave a wider V pattern than a allowing combustibles to burn more vigorously.
narrower fuel package.
When interpreting burn patterns, it is also important to
consider the relative combustibility of the fuel package (e.g.,
was it a competent fuel source?), its heat of combustion, any
ventilation or air currents (drafts) in the area, and the
direction of the hose stream advance.
(5) A high burn or smoke pattern commonly indicates that

you are getting closer to, but not in, the area of origin.
Eventually, if the fire reaches the flashover stage, all burn
patterns can merge into one indistinct uniform burn. Post-
flashover fires can create new patterns driven by ventilation
and areas of air intrusion, not fuel packages. At this stage of
(4) Charring on the right side of the door jamb framing
fire development, fire patterns, the lowest burn, the deepest
indicates that the fire was to the right.
charring, and so on may only indicate areas of intense
The stage of fire development has a profound influence on burning based on available oxygen and look very different
the fire patterns imprinted within the building. The earlier the than fires extinguished pre-flashover. Knowing if the fire
fire is extinguished, the clearer the fire patterns are. A fire flashed over is important information to have in your burn
that is extinguished in its incipient stage provides the most pattern analysis. Although flashover often creates a uniform
unambiguous patterns. As the fire develops, spreading from burn, the area of origin still burned longer. Although more
one combustible to another, each successive fuel package difficult, the area of origin can still be found after careful
adds its own pattern and, often, they grow together, leaving depth of char and mass-loss analysis.
the investigator to determine which pattern came first. In this
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curtains, paintings, and wall posters can burn and fall to the
floor. Additionally, foam cushions melt and drip on the floor
Protected Areas and Scene Reconstruction below. Combustible fuels and stock on store shelves or in
As mentioned above, fire burns in three dimensions. A flame upper areas close to the ceiling level ignite, melt, and can
has a height, width, and depth. Therefore, the burn pattern it drop down, creating secondary V patterns.
leaves is also three-dimensional. When studying and
documenting the area of fire origin, fire investigators often
must reconstruct the area of origin by replacing burned
pieces of furniture and other objects that were moved,
toppled, or dislodged during fire suppression. Investigators
replace these contents by observing protected areas on
which these furnishings sat during the fire, similar to putting
a puzzle together. When the items are back in place, a
three-dimensional view of the fire becomes visible. Protected
areas are often found on floors where objects sat during fire
development.
(7) A circular pattern on ceiling tiles directly above where a

fire originated.
Depending on the fuels involved, these drop-down fires can
create deep burns that may appear to be from a separate
area of origin. When multiple areas of low burning are
observed in the same room or within the same general heat
plume, investigators must rule out drop-down before
theorizing that there are multiple points of origin.
(6) A wide “V” pattern points to the area of fire origin. [Photo
courtesy of Yonkers (NY) Fire Investigation Unit.] Atmospheric Effects
Carefully evaluate patterns found on floors. An irregularly When interpreting them, investigators should be mindful that
shaped pattern on a floor is not necessarily the result of an the fire patterns they see in the structure reflect not only the
ignitable liquid pour. Commonly, irregular burn patterns on a fire development but also the conditions present during the
floor are simply the result of drop-down, radiant heat, melting life cycle of the fire. Fire feeds on two things when it
foam furnishings, or protected areas whereas irregularly develops: fuel and oxygen. The fire investigator must
shaped objects such as clothing were lying. If an ignitable consider the relative abundance of each at the time of the
liquid is suspected, take a sample of flooring to verify the fire. A fire will leave thick smoke deposits and will travel
hypothesis. great distances to find oxygen in a ventilation-controlled fire
environment. At such fires, investigators can expect to see
fire travel toward ventilation openings. However, you must
Multiple V Patterns also consider fire location, wind, and weather. A fire on the
According to NFPA 921, two or more separate and distinct windward side of a building on a windy day can be driven
areas of fire with no connecting fire indicate an incendiary away from a vent opening and lower to the floor. Conversely,
fire. If separate fires occur in two different rooms or in in a fuel-controlled environment, where there is a light fuel
remote areas of the building with no means of fire load, flame spread will be primarily vertical from the fuel
communication (conduction, radiation, convection, and so packages with limited horizontal travel unless it is influenced
on) between the two, it is a strong indicator of an by air currents.
intentionally set fire. However, when two separate areas are
seen in the same room, the investigator must carefully
consider drop-down and fire travel. When evaluating V
patterns in large, open areas or fully developed commercial
fires where numerous fuel packages are involved and
combustible merchandise can fall from shelves, investigators
must use caution when evaluating the fire patterns they
observe. Lampshades ignite and drop, and pictures,
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(8) A protected area assists the investigator in placing an

object back into its position at the time of the fire.
Generally, fire spreads vertically from the area of origin until
it meets a horizontal barrier, from where it travels
horizontally in search of a vertical opening or ventilation
point. If confined in a room with no place to go, the fire will
bank down, lowering the hot gas level and increasing the
pressure in the room. Knowing how the fire travels and
develops is an important part of determining where the fire
started. (9) This pattern on the floor was the result of a pile of clothes
that ignited accidentally while in contact with a floor-mounted
heater, not an ignitable liquid pour.
The Influence of Firefighting Operations
What makes the fire scene one of the most difficult of all
Fire development and travel may also be influenced by
crime scenes to investigate is the fact that both the fire and
firefighting tactics. Responding fire crews can provide corresponding firefighting effort often destroy material
valuable information to the fire investigator in describing the
evidence and alter the fire scene in significant ways.
conditions they encountered while operating at the fire. The
Searches result in realigned furniture and mattresses tossed
type of fire attack (offensive/defensive), the timing of
about. Hose streams redistribute objects; dilute ignitable
suppression efforts, the direction of hose stream
liquids; and push fire, moving it around the structure until a
applications, wind strength/direction, and the position of
ventilation opening provides an outlet. Overhaul, out of
ventilation openings will all influence burn patterns left on the
necessity, pokes holes in walls and drops ceilings on top of
structure.
potential evidence. Moreover, items subject to rekindle such
For example, a given area may appear to have the deepest
as mattresses, chair cushions, foam pillows, and the like are
charring and lowest burning-a candidate for the area of
removed to the outside of the structure where they can be
origin. However, a conference with the operations chief may
saturated thoroughly. Veteran firefighters limit the amount of
reveal that suppression in that area was delayed (allowed to
overhaul to what is necessary. Fully extinguishing pockets of
burn longer) because of an extensive search and rescue
fire in hidden and confined spaces certainly takes
operation and that fire was seen in a different area on arrival.
precedence but, when possible, coordinate overhauling
For this reason, it is advantageous for the municipal fire
procedures with fire investigation efforts to preclude
investigator to respond on the initial confirmation of a
unintentional destruction of crucial evidence.
structure fire to observe operations. When he is unable to do
Often, civilians say, “The firefighters do more damage than
so, it becomes important for him to confer with responding
the fire!” These critics do not understand the necessity of
firefighters.
finding and extinguishing hidden pockets of fire that could
rekindle and cause greater damage than the first fire.
Thorough overhaul is a cornerstone of fire suppression and
a necessary part of the job. People intent on fire cause
determination only can sometimes misunderstand overhaul.
Those who have never fought a fast-moving fire racing
through confined spaces do not understand the role overhaul
plays in any aggressive attempt cut off fire spread, thereby
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saving a structure. That said, fire crews have to guard
against “over-overhaul.” Often, with adrenaline running high,
they pull entire ceilings when a simple inspection hole is all
that is necessary. Similarly, furniture that is not subject to
rekindle may be unnecessarily tossed out the window along
with the fire patterns it contains.
(11) This fire occurred in a high school office. Burn pattern

analysis placed the fire in the corner where a water cooler
was located. It was eventually determined that a faulty relay
on the hot water tank caused the unit to overheat and cause
the fire.
(10) In this fire, each of the four walls and the ceiling were When the area of fire origin is found, it is photographed and
pulled entirely. Yet, as can be seen here, the wall furring carefully excavated to uncover the source of ignition. The
strips are undamaged; hence, it was unnecessary to ignition source might have been a candle, an electrical
demolish the wall. If this were a case of arson, a key spark, a chemical reaction, resistance heating, or an
indicator of the fire’s location would be lost. incendiary device. As the area of origin is uncovered layer by
Some officers think pulling down every inch of plaster and layer, it is photographed each step of the way. In many
every stick of lath provides experience and training to rookie cases, the ignition source is partially or completely destroyed
firefighters. This is antiquated thinking; the instruction should by the fire. Whatever evidence is found must be documented
be in when it is and is not necessary to pull everything and and protected. If the evidence indicated a criminal act, it
how to protect evidence during overhaul. This is a time in the must be collected following evidence collection protocols
operation when fire officers directing overhaul operations with a documented chain of custody. If the evidence is of an
have to supervise closely and coordinate overhaul activities accidental nature, preserve it in place for insurance
with the on-scene fire investigators. The relative need for purposes.
aggressive overhaul will vary from fire to fire and with the Careful fire pattern observation in the context of the fire
type of building construction. However, in many cases, when development scenario helps determine the area of fire origin.
all visible fire has been knocked down, there is an This, along with accurate data from witness interviews, is the
opportunity to take a breather and let the investigator look at basis of sound fire cause determination and the stock-and-
the scene before contents are tossed and walls are opened. trade of every fire investigator.
The thermal imaging camera has shown to be a useful tool
in limiting unnecessary overhaul.
Evaluating the Area of Fire Origin

The purpose of burn pattern analysis is to lead the fire
investigator to the area of fire origin. When the investigator
believes he has found the area of origin, the work of
uncovering the cause begins. Three things must happen for
a fire to occur: an ignitable fuel source, a competent ignition
source, and an event to initiate the combustion process. If
one of those is absent, a fire cannot occur. Any fire cause
hypothesis must meet these criteria for there to be a clear
determination.
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and opportunity to have set the fire, but neither had any
motive of which we were aware.
While reviewing the photographs, I realized they were taken
about an hour after the fire had taken place. The sprinkler
system had extinguished the fire in its incipient stage; this
Determining the Fire’s Point of Origin: Beyond the left the perfect stage for viewing photos (photo 1). While
viewing this photo, I felt that the shadow in the sink may
have been farther to the left during the time of the fire, and I
noticed that the mirror on the counter sat directly below
where the initial flame was ignited.
Obvious
THE AVERAGE FIRE INVESTIGATOR WILL INVESTIGATE

at a minimum hundreds of fires during his career. Some will
be extremely extensive operations involving numerous
outside agencies and restraints. Others will be single-engine
responses with little or no damage involved. The fact is that
the extent of the fire often depends on when the fire is
discovered and the actions taken when it is discovered.
Unless someone uses an accelerant or sets up a scenario
for a rapid spread of flames, all fires start at one small point.
Sprinkler systems not only greatly reduce the damage of a
fire but also help to preserve the initial area of origin.
Generally, we are sometimes unable to locate the exact
point of origin, which further limits our ability to give a definite
cause of the fire. If we enter into an investigation where the
scene is untouched, we often can determine the fire’s origin
and cause. The greatest ally we have to make this possible
is an engine crew or command that allows the investigation
to begin before extensive overhaul is underway. Leaving the
scene as it is found is paramount in many investigations.
Occasionally, we encounter the extreme condition.
(1) The fire scene. (Photo by Certified Fire

THE ORIGINAL SCENE
Investigator Jason Garner.)
Recently, our department responded to such a call. After
arriving on the scene, the first-in engine company found the
sprinkler system had put out the fire. The crew decided to
take no further action until the investigator was able to That’s when I first started to develop the theory that the
evaluate the scene. The fire was out because the sprinkler mirror may have been responsible for the fire. If the mirror
system extinguished the fire in its incipient stage, as was a magnification cosmetic mirror and if the sun traveled
designed. This left the room in the same condition as when across its path, the mirror would have to be eliminated as a
the fire first started. possible cause. I requested another certified fire investigator
to assist me in testing my theory at the residence. After
gathering the equipment needed to conduct the test, we
The fire investigator arrived and conducted his investigation contacted the resident and requested a second evaluation of
according to NFPA 921, Guide for Fire and Explosion the fire scene. The resident agreed and was happy to assist
Investigations. Using the systematic approach, he finally in any way possible. We arrived at the house approximately
arrived at the room of origin and began to rule out items. 20 minutes before the time of the initial dispatch, and
When he had eliminated everything in the room, only one weather conditions were very similar. At the time of the fire,
possible cause of the fire was left: an intentional human act. the weather was as follows: 39 degrees, dew point 12.2,
By that time, he had limited the possible suspects to two of humidity 34 percent, visibility 7.0 miles, and clear skies.
the occupants of the house. Both were interviewed; both
denied having any knowledge of how the fire started. Again,
doing his job, he turned the investigation into an accusatory TESTING THE THEORY
mode but still was unable to produce information to complete Entering the house, we were taken directly to the room of
the cycle needed for determining the cause of the fire. origin. I did not repeat the typical systematic approach, since
Throughout the investigation, photographs were taken and the fire had already been investigated and the room of origin
the scene was well documented. was obvious. First, I requested that the room be returned to
the exact condition it was prior to the fire. Initially, the
resident said she was told to leave the room as it was by the
PEER REVIEW previous investigator and did not want to move anything. I
Our department uses peer review whenever possible and explained my role and position in the investigation, and the
always when a question arises on an investigation. While room was set up as it had been before the fire. I did not let
reviewing the report, I found that the scene was well the resident know what we were doing other than to say we
documented and the investigation was properly conducted. I were taking a second look at the fire.
was able to confirm that the two occupants had the means The first thing I found was that the sprinkler that had
extinguished the fire sat directly above the door in the
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position she had left it in. This immediately extinguished the passed and the sun was moving toward the sink, I held the
fire in its incipient stage. Prior to moving the mirror to reflect mirror and tried to reproduce the concentrated beam of
the sun’s rays, it was obvious that the sunshine was coming heated light. It did not start a fire, but we then knew the
directly in the window and hitting the mirror, as I had possibility of a fire did exist.
predicted. The bag seen in photo 2 was found on the floor. I After repeated attempts, I finally found the problem: The
hung it on the door. The resident stated that the bag had mirror had to be perfectly still to generate enough heat to
been hung much lower. This, once again, perfectly lined up burn holes in paper. By holding the mirror with my hands, the
the origin of the fire on the bag and the door. The bag was slight movement of the point where the beam contacted the
used to hold hair-care items such as hair ties and brushes. paper did not allow the temperature to build high enough to
Photo 2 represents the placement of the mirror in ignite the paper used in the test. Moving a quarter inch
comparison with the photo from the fire scene investigation closer or farther away from the paper would not generate the
(photo 1). The reflection on the door was, again, as heat needed to ignite the paper either. I set the mirror at a
expected. stable point and established the exact distance from the
mirror to the paper and was able to burn holes through the
paper at will. When the relationship of the correct distance,
angle, and stability was understood, there was no doubt that
the mirror was responsible for the fire and that the fire was
accidental-caused by the reflection of the sun’s rays.
...
This fire would have been considered a probable arson if the
sprinkler system had not preserved the scene in its incipient
condition, and it would have taken numerous hours of fire
department investigation and interrogations to try to
determine the responsible party. There were three
occupants in the residence at the time of the fire. One was
an elderly female who was nearly confined to bed; the
second was the 57-year-old homeowner; the third was a 15-
year-old female. Taking into consideration the elderly
female’s condition and the location of her room relative to
the area of fire origin, it was highly possible that a fire would
have resulted in a fatality had it not been for the installed
sprinkler system.
I have attempted to research to find other fires that started in
a similar manner and found the scientific proof to be very
weak. As mentioned, normally the scene is not found in a
condition that allows the investigator to determine exactly
how the scene was prior to the fire. A thorough investigation
is a must in every fire, and there is only one chance to get
(2) Testing the theory. (Photo by author.) extensive photo documentation. By using peer review and
revisiting the scene through notes and photos, we often find
Using our hands, we could feel the heat generated but were items we may have overlooked or originally neglected to
unable to produce enough heat to start a fire. While connect to the fire scene.
conducting the test, we made a full photo and video Just because a fire is small does not mean it was an
documentation of the re-creation. At this point, I felt the accident, and not all large fires are arsons, of course.
scene was exactly as it was the day before the fire started. Approach every fire with the same systematic approach, and
The normal temperature in the room was elevated from the follow your guidelines to ensure every effort is made to come
direct sunlight entering the window. This was another to a solid conclusion. Remain open-minded to the
indication that nothing obstructed the rays of the sun from unexpected. The odd or unexpected is what generally brings
penetrating the room. Using a digital laser thermometer, we you to the situation that caused the fire.
were able to capture elevated temperatures but were unable JESS ZERBE, certified fire investigator, is a lieutenant in the
to get enough heat generated to start a fire. The test Marietta (GA) Fire Department, where he heads the fire
continued for about 45 minutes. investigations branch of fire prevention.
As luck would have it, I found that the actual distance for the
concentrated beam of light was about six inches farther from
the mirror than the area I had originally thought was the hot
spot. While trying to reposition the door and mirror, my right NFPA 921 Sections 12-2.1 through 12-6
arm was hit by an immediate pain that made me move Cause Determination
rapidly. Returning to the same point and slowly moving my
hand toward the mirror once again, I found that the intense
heat was being reflected. The entire test was being
[inter FIRE VR Note: Tables and Figures have not been
conducted six inches too close to the mirror.
reproduced.]
As photo 1 indicates, the bag was hung where it was to
attempt to set it on fire. What I failed to realize or consider
was that the contents of the bag were destroyed in the 12-2.1 Accidental Fire Cause. Accidental fires involve all
original fire, and this was not re-created. Also, the bag would those for which the proven cause does not involve a
have been hanging lower on the door. After moving the bag deliberate human act to ignite or spread fire into an area
down to the correct position and opening the door a few where the fire should not be. In most cases this classification
more inches, everything came together. Since time had will be clear, but some deliberately ignited fires can still be
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accidental. For example, in a legal setting, a trash fire might transmitted through the material. Some is dispersed through
be spread by a sudden gust of wind. The spread of fire was the material, and some heats the material, causing its
accidental even though the initial fire was deliberate. temperature to rise. The term thermal inertia is used to
describe the response of a material to the energy impacting
on it. Thermal inertia is defined as the product of thermal
12-2.2. Natural Fire Cause. Natural fire causes involve fires
conductivity, density, and specific heat. These three
caused without direct human intervention, such as lightning,
properties determine the manner in which a material will
earthquake, wind, and the like.
transmit heat from the exposed surface to its core or an
unexposed surface and distribute and absorb heat within the
12-2.3. Incendiary Fire Cause. The incendiary fire is one element itself. The surface temperature of a material with a
deliberately ignited under circumstances in which the person low thermal inertia (such as foam plastic) will rise much more
knows that the fire should not be ignited. quickly when exposed to energy from a high-temperature
source than a material with higher thermal inertia (such as
wood paneling). Thin materials will also heat more quickly
12-2.4. Undetermined Fire Cause. Whenever the cause
from a given source of energy.
cannot be proven, the proper classification is undetermined.
The fire might still be under investigation, and the cause may
be determined later. In the instance in which the investigator Once the area and possibly the point of origin is identified,
fails to identify all of the components of the cause of the fire, the investigator should identify the heat-producing device,
it need not always be classified as undetermined. If the substance, or circumstance that could have caused the
physical evidence establishes one factor, such as the ignition. Heat-producing devices can include fixed and
presence of an accelerant, that may be sufficient to establish portable heaters, gas-fired or electric appliances, furnaces,
the cause even where other factors such as ignition source water heaters, wood stoves, lamps, internal combustion
cannot be determined. Those situations are also engines, clothes dryers, and incendiary devices.
encountered to a lesser degree in accidentally caused fires.
Determinations under such situations are more subjective.
The investigator should also look for devices that may have
Therefore, investigators should strive to keep an open
malfunctioned. Such devices include many of the foregoing
unbiased thought process during an investigation.
plus electrical service equipment, receptacles, kitchen and
laundry appliances, motors, transformers, and heavy
12-3. Source and Form of Heat of Ignition. The source of machinery.
ignition energy will be at or near the point of origin, although
in some circumstances the two may appear not to coincide.
Sources of ignition for gases or vapors include arcs from
Some sources of ignition will remain at the point of origin in
motors with brushes, arcs from switches that are not
recognizable form, whereas others may be greatly altered or
explosionproof, gas or electric pilots, or flames in gas
even completely destroyed. Nevertheless, the source should
appliances.
be identified in order for the cause to be proven. Sometimes
the source can only be inferred, and the cause as found will
be the most probable one. Flammable gases or liquid vapors, such as those from
gasoline, may travel a considerable distance before reaching
an ignition source. Only under specific conditions will ignition
A competent ignition source will have sufficient temperature
take place, the most important condition being concentration
and energy and be in contact with the fuel long enough to
within the flammable limits and an ignition source of
raise it to its ignition temperature.
sufficient energy located in the flammable mixture. This
separation of the fuel source and the origin of the fire can
The ignition process involves generation, transmission, and cause confusion.
heating.
Information should be obtained from owners or occupants
(a) The competent ignition source will generate a level of when possible about what potential ignition sources were in
energy sufficient to raise the fuel to its ignition temperature the area of origin, how and when they were used, and recent
and will be capable of transmitting that level of energy to the activities in the area. That type of gathering of information is
fuel. especially important when the source of ignition does not
survive the fire. The information would also be helpful in
alerting an investigator to small or easily overlooked items
(b) Transmission of sufficient energy raises the fuel to its
when examining the area of origin. When electrical energy
ignition temperature. Where the energy source is in direct sources are considered as potential producers of the heat of
contact with the fuel, such as the contact of an overheated ignition, the investigator should refer to Chapter 14 of this
wire with its insulation, the transfer is a direct conduction
guide.
from the source to the fuel. Where there is a separation,
however, there should be a form of energy transport. This
can be by contact with the flaming gases from a burning 12-4. First Material Ignited. The first material ignited (initial
item, by radiation from the flame or surfaces or gases heated fuel) is that which first sustains combustion beyond the
by that flame, or a combination of heating by the flow of hot igniting source. For example, the wood of the match would
gases and radiation. not be the initial fuel, but paper, flammable liquid, or
draperies would be if the match was used to ignite them.
(c) Heating of the potential fuel will occur by the energy that
reaches it. Each fuel reacts differently to the energy that The physical configuration of the fuel plays a significant role
impacts on it. Some may be reflected, and some may be in its ability to be ignited. A nongaseous fuel with a high
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surface-to-mass ratio is much more readily ignitible than a created in the past. Furthermore, the order in which those
fuel with a low surface-to-mass ratio. Examples of high past events occurred might have to be determined. Consider
surface-to-mass fuels include dusts, fibers, and paper. If the a fire in a restaurant kitchen that started when a deep-fat
initial fuel has a high surface-to-mass ratio, then the intensity fryer ignited and spread through the kitchen. The cause is
and duration characteristics for a heat source become less more than simply the deep-fat fryer overheated. Was the
stringent. The higher the surface-to-mass ratio of the fuel, control turned up too high? Did the control contacts stick?
the less energy the heat source should produce to ignite the Why did the high temperature cut-off not prevent
fuel, although the ignition temperature is the same. Gases overheating? Those factors could make a difference
and vapors are fully dispersed (in effect an extremely high between a minor incident and a large hostile fire. In each fire
surface-to-mass ratio) and can be ignited by a low heat investigation the various contributing factors should be
energy source instantly. investigated and included in the ultimate explanation of the
ignition sequence.
The initial fuel could be part of a device that malfunctions.
Examples include insulation on a wire that is heated red hot The investigator is cautioned not to rule out a cause merely
by excessive current or the plastic case on an overheating because there is no obvious evidence for it. Do not rule out
coffee maker. the electric heater because there is no arcing in the wires or
the contacts are not stuck. Obviously, arson is not eliminated
because the lab did not find accelerant in the evidence. The
The initial fuel might be something too close to a heat-
same standard applies to accidental fire causes. Potential
producing device. Examples are clothing against an
causes should be ruled out only if there is definite evidence
incandescent lamp or a radiant heater, wood framing too
that they could not have caused the fire. The electric heater
close to a wood stove or fireplace, or combustibles too close
could be ruled out if it was not plugged in. A smoldering
to an engine exhaust manifold or catalytic converter.
cigarette can be ruled out if the room was well involved 10
minutes after a reliable witness passed through and saw no
The initial fuel is important for understanding the events that smoke.
caused the fire. For example, if the remains of a match were
found on the burned surface of a wood end table in the area
12-6. Opinions. When forming opinions from hypotheses
of origin, one should not jump to the conclusion that the
about fires or explosions, the investigator should set
match ignited the wood tabletop. The match almost certainly
standards for the degree of confidence in those opinions.
would go out without igniting the solid wood surface. Maybe
Use of the scientific method dictates that any hypothesis
the match had been blown out and dropped there by an
formed from an analysis of the data collected in an
occupant. Was there any paper or other light fuel that could
investigation must stand the challenge of reasonable
have carried flame to a chair or other fuels? Remember that
examination. (See Chapter 2.)[See Daubert v. Merrel Dow
the initial fuel must be capable of being ignited within the
Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509 U.S. 579, 113 S.Ct. 2786 (1993).]
limitations of the ignition source. The components in most
buildings are not susceptible to ready ignition. For example,
flooring, drywall, structural lumber, wood cabinets, and Ultimately, the decision as to the level of confidence in data
carpeting do not ignite unless they are exposed to a collected in the investigation or any hypothesis drawn from
substantial heat source. an analysis of the data rests with the investigator. The final
opinion is only as good as the quality of the data used in
reaching that opinion. If the confidence level of the opinion is
Unusual residues might remain from the initial fuel. Those
only possible or suspected, the cause should be listed as
residues could arise from thermite, magnesium, or other
undetermined.
pyrotechnic materials.
Gases and vapors can be the initial fuel and can cause
confusion because the point of ignition can be some
distance away from where sustained fire starts in the BUREAU OF FIRE PROTECTION STANDARD
structure or furnishings. When ignition causes a low order OPERATING PROCEDURE
explosion, it is obvious that a gas, vapor, or dust is involved.
Layered vapors of gasoline might not ignite violently so that, (BFP-SOP) NUMBER: IID 2008-01
unless evidence of the accelerant is found, the source of
ignition many feet from where the puddle burned might be OPERATIONAL STANDARDS ON COMPREHENSIVE FIRE
difficult to associate with the fire. AND ARSON INVESTIGATION AND FILING OF CRIMINAL
COMPLAINT PROCEDURES
12-5. Ignition Factor (Cause). A fuel by itself or an ignition
I. GENERAL
source by itself does not create a fire. Fire results from the
combination of fuel and an ignition source. Therefore, the
investigator should be cautious about deciding on a cause of As mandated by the provisions of Section 50, Rule VIII,
a fire just because a readily ignitible fuel and a potential Implementing Rules and Regulations of Republic Act 6975,
ignition source are present. The sequence of events that otherwise known as the Department of the Interior and Local
allow the source of ignition and the fuel to get together Government Act of 1990, stipulates among others that the
establishes the cause. Bureau of Fire Protection shall have the power to investigate
all causes of fire and if necessary, file the proper complaint
with the City or Provincial Prosecutor’s Office which has
To define the ignition sequence requires determining events jurisdiction over the case. The tasks and responsibility of the
and conditions that might have occurred or have been fire arson investigators are not only limited in conducting
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exhaustive investigations and filing of complaints to the the focal point of the fire that might be destroyed due to
prosecutor’s office but also includes the appearance and excessive flooding in the area.
giving of testimonies before the court of law during legal
proceedings. Section 3. – The fire scene should be well protected and
secured. Coordination with the local police units or barangay
The criminal offense of Arson is punishable under the personnel should be done in order to secure the fire scene
Revised Penal Code particularly Articles 320 to 326-B as from looters and other persons who has intention of entering
amended by Presidential Decree 1613, 1744 and Section 10 the burned premises, so as to avoid contamination of the fire
of Republic Act 7659 (Heinous Crime Law). As provided by area.
law it is the prosecution who has burden of proof and the
quantum of evidence is proof beyond reasonable doubt. Section 4. – In the event that the FAI discovered
Once proven, the maximum highest penalty for its SUSPECTED HAZARDOUS MATERIALS / suspected illegal
commission is life imprisonment under the present rule since or regulated chemicals, during the conduct of investigation of
the abolition of the death penalty law. Arson is a classic the burned premises, the circumstances shall be
heinous crime that requires skillful, scientific and systematic immediately reported to proper office ( e.g: BFP Hazardous
investigation procedure thus, the respective chiefs of the Materials Office, or other law enforcement agency).
investigation and intelligence offices of the BFP are joined
closely supervise the conduct of the investigation in order to Section 5. – Once the Fire Ground Commander (FGC)
attain effective and plausible results. declared “FIRE OUT” the FAI shall take cognizance the
responsibilities of PROTECTING and SECURING the whole
fire scene by sealing / closing the perimeter with barricade
tape (Fire Lines). Posting of uniformed BFP personnel for
security purposes may also be carry out as deemed
necessary.
This BFP Standard Operating Procedure Nr. IID 2008 – 01
shall be known as: OPERATIONAL STANDARDS ON IV. DUTIES OF THE FIRE ARSON INVESTIGATOR
COMPREHENSIVE FIRE AND ARSON INVESTIGATION
AND FILING OF CRIMINAL COMPLAINT PROCEDURES. The following are the mandatory duties of the Fire Arson
Investigators conducting thorough investigation on the fire
II. PURPOSE scene:
A. To have a uniform and systematic procedures in the Section 1. – Shall perform systematic scientific examinations
conduct of fire and arson investigation from the BFP National and visual reconstruction of the fire scene. This is also to
Headquarters down to the lowest investigation and include the COMPLETE DOCUMENTATION AND PROPER
intelligence units, to include the prompt submission of fire RECORDING of the fire area by the use of photography,
investigation reports. diagrammatic sketch and notes. The diagrammatic sketch
should clearly depict the FIRE SCENE, its AREA / POINT
B. To have a clear and explicable guidelines in conducting OF ORIGIN, AREA MEASUREMENTS, LOCATION OF
fire and arson investigation and the filing of the necessary EVIDENCE and other important details.
complaint documents before the office of the City/Provincial
Prosecutor. Section 2. – Conduct interview to all witnesses. The
interview should be done in QUESTION AND ANSWER
C. To ensure the quality and value of the investigation being FORM and shall be done under oath preferably by a person
conducted by all BFP fire and arson investigators and to of authority whenever available, or be administered by the
expedite the investigation process and disposition of fire and concerned BFP officer with the rank of INSPECTOR and
arson cases. above. The authority of a BFP officer to administer oath is
pursuant to the provisions of Chapter III, Section 50 of R.A.
III. INITIAL ACTIONS DURING FIRE ALARM 6975. All witnesses to be conducted with a formal interview
shall be FORMALLY INVITED to the fire station /
During the occurrence of a fire incident, the following initial investigation office concerned in a form of INVITATION
actions should be assumed by the fire arson investigator. LETTER. (Please see attached Invitation Letter for reference
– Annex A)
Section 1. – Upon the notification of a fire call or fire incident,
the duty Fire Arson Investigator (FAI) who has jurisdiction Section 3. – Conduct THOROUGH ANALYSIS of the fire
over the location of the fire incident shall mandatory to scene in order to identify the IGNITION SOURCE, initial
immediately respond at the soonest possible time. The materials ignited and other factors which bring them together
conduct of initial inquiry through interview and elicitation from to produce a fire. Examination of FIRE SPREAD and FIRE
all available witnesses at the fire scene must be done PATTERN which includes thermal effects on materials such
instantaneously. as charring, oxidation, consumption of combustibles, smoke
and soot deposits, distortion, melting effect, color change,
Section 2. – As soon as the area of origin or the focal point changes of material structure and structural collapse, must
of the fire is ascertained, the FAI shall make necessary be conducted.
coordination with BFP firefighting personnel to include the
volunteer fire brigades to exert diligent and careful efforts in Section 4. – Identify, recognize and collect physical evidence
the conduct of fire suppression operation in the identified found at the fire scene that have PROBATIVE VALUE on fire
AREA OF ORIGIN to preserve the EVIDENTIAL VALUE and cause determination. Pieces of evidence to be collected
shall be photographed first and shall be collected in the
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presence of witnesses independent to the investigating occupancy may not be required. In addition, the FAI are also
body. PROPER DOCUMENTATION, SEALING and AUTHORIZE TO REQUIRE any other pertinent documents,
PACKAGING of evidence recovered prior to submission to materials and items to the fire victims as determined by the
Arson Laboratory Section (ALS) – BFP National FAI concerned, that will give support to the conduct of
Headquarters for laboratory examination shall be observed. investigation.
The FAI shall strictly follow the instructions pertaining to Section 6 – The FAI must inform all concerned persons,
evidence collection and handling as stipulated in occupants and managements of the burned premises that
MEMORANDUM CIRCULAR NR: 2006-01: GUIDELINES IN the fire scene is RESTRICTED TO ENTRY to any person
THE HANDLING, PRESERVATION, TRANSPORT AND until the investigation being conducted by the BFP at the
SUBMISSION OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE AT THE ALS – burned premises is COMPLETED and / or TERMINATED.
BFP NATIONAL HEADQUARTERS. Any REMOVAL, RETRIEVAL of items stored at the scene of
the fire, DEMOLITION, RECONSTRUCTION and
(Memorandum Circular Nr. 2006-01 is hereto attached for REHABILITATION of the fire scene is only allowed upon
reference – Annex B) securing approval to the investigating body through
submission of a formal written request by the fire victim. The
Section 5. – On the first phase of the investigation, the FAI said formal written request should contain specific purpose.
shall prepare the LISTING OF DOCUMENTS needed to be It should be addressed to the respective CHIEFS OF THE
accomplished / submitted by the fire victim/s, building BFP INVESTIGATION AND INTELLIGENCE OFFICES
occupant/s and other parties affected by fire. The required through the FIRE ARSON INVESTIGATOR handling the
documents are as follows: (Please see attached standard case. The concerned Chief of the Investigation and
letter for these requirements for the fire victims AnnexC) Intelligence Office, together with his proper recommendation,
shall endorse the subject letter request of the fire victim to
A. Affidavit of Loss pertaining to Fire Damage (itemized and the concerned BFP HEAD OF OFFICE, who shall then issue
duly notarized) the PROPERTY RECOVERY AND CLEARING PERMIT
(PRCP), to the requesting party. (Please see attached
B. Sworn statement of loss submitted to insurance adjusters standard PRCP format for reference – Annex D)
/ companies
In such case that the fire incident is suspected to be
C. Latest complete inventory of stocks prior to the fire INTENTIONAL in nature, issuance of PRCP is temporarily
incident RESTRICTED, until proven otherwise. If the fire incident is
found to be intentional in nature and case was already filed
in the court of law, it will be the discretion of the court
D. Complete inventory of salvaged items after the fire
incident handling the case whether to issue appropriate document in
the clearing or demolition of the burned premises.
E. Complete copies of insurance policies to include co-
insurances Section 7. – In such event that death results from a fire
incident (FATAL FIRES), the concerned FAI shall
immediately sought the assistance of the Philippine National
F. Income Tax Return (ITR) for the last three (3) years
Police – Scene Of the Crime Operation (PNP – SOCO), or
any other legal / recognized group for lifting and autopsy of
G. Financial statements for the last three (3) years the cadaver / body found at the fire / crime scene.
H. Balance sheets for the last three (3) years Section 8. – All conduct of follow-up investigation to the fire
incident should be covered with appropriate Letter / Mission
I. Mayor’s permit and Business License Order signed by the respective BFP Head of Office. (Please
see attached standard form of Mission Order for reference –
J. Occupancy permit Annex E)
K. Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) registration Section 9. – All FAI are also directed and mandated to
perform any other task as deemed essential to the
L. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) registration development of case build-up and the exhaustive
investigation being conducted.
M. Latest Fire Safety Inspection Certificate (FSIC)
V. FIRE REPORT CLASSIFICATIONS AND REPORTING
N. Complete list of employees SYSTEM
O. Approved Floor, Building and Electrical Plans A. Spot Investigation Report (SIR) – Shall be made and
accomplished by the FAI concerned during the actual
P. Copy of lease contract agreement response to a fire incident. The SIR should contain basic
information about the fire incident. (Please see attached
Q. Land title / tax declaration standard SIR format for reference – Annex F)
Section 5.1 – The above listed documents to be secured to All SIR must be submitted IMMEDIATELY (within 24 hours)
the fire victim will vary based on the TYPE OF UCCUPANCY to respective Fire Marshals with copy furnished the OFFICE
or the INVOLVED STRUCTURE gutted by fire. Any other OF THE CHIEF, BUREAU OF FIRE PROTECTION, thru fax
documents that may be irrelevant based on type of message at the office of the INVESTIGATION AND
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INTELLIGENCE DIVISION – BFP National Headquarters reasons independent to the will of the FAI. (Please see
with Telephone / Fax Number: (02) 911-7223, for immediate attached standard FIIR format for reference – Annex I)
information and recording purposes.
FIIR can only be accomplished in fire cases with
The copy (original copy / photo copy) of the SIR of all fire UNDETERMINED cause and this kind of case should be
incident transpired within the respective Area Of considered as ON_PENDING INVESTIGATION, subject to
Responsibility (AOR) shall be consolidate and be submitted REOPENING in circumstances that relevant evidence and /
thru proper CHANNEL. or a witness shall surface in the future. The copy (original
copy / photo copy) of the FIIR of all fire incident transpired
The respective OFFICE OF THE REGIONAL DIRECTOR within the respective AOR should also be consolidated and
FOR FIRE PROTECTION shall then submit the consolidate be submitted thru proper CHANNEL to the higher
SIR to the office of the IID – BFP National Headquarters in headquarters in BI-MONTHLY basis (every 15th and 30th
BI-MONTHLY basis (every 15th and 30th day of the month) day of the Month) thru mail courier, for recording and proper
thru mail courier, for recording and proper disposition. disposition.
B. Progress Investigation Report (PIR) – Shall be made and VI. LEVEL OF AUTHORITY TO CONDUCT
accomplished by the FAI concerned after the conduct of INVESTIGATION
follow-up investigation was made. The PIR or any
succeeding PIRs (2nd PIR) shall be accomplished within 7 to Since fire incidents entails damages to property, the level of
15 days. (Please see attached standard PIR format for authority in conducting fire and arson investigation and
reference –Annex G) completion of FIR will be based on the degree or the amount
and value of the total (aggregated) damages incurred in a
The copy (original copy / photo copy) of the PIR of all fire certain fire incident. These levels of authority are as follows:
incident transpired within the respective (AOR) shall be
consolidate and be submitted thru proper CHANNEL. The A. Municipal Fire Marshal – Municipal Limit, LEVEL 1 – The
respective OFFICE OF THE REGIONAL DIRECTOR FOR municipal level, through its MUNICIPAL INVESTIGATION
FIRE PROTECTION shall then submit the consolidate PIR to AND INTELLIGENCE UNIT (MIIU) shall have the full
the office of the IID – BFP National Headquarters in BI- responsibility and power to investigate fire incidents with a
MONTHLY basis (every 15th and 30th day of the month) total amount of damage not exceeding to Twenty Million
thru mail courier, for recording and proper disposition. Pesos (Php 20,000,000.00).
C. Final Investigation Report (FIR) – Shall be made and B. City Fire Marshal – City Limit, LEVEL 2 – The city level,
accomplished by the FAI concerned upon the completion of through its CITY INVESTIGATION AND INTELLIGENCE
the exhaustive investigation. All completed FIR should be SECTION (CIIS) shall have the full responsibility and power
signed by the concerned FAI and its respective Chief of the to investigate fire incidents with a total amount of damage
Investigation and Intelligence Office. (Please see attached not exceeding to Thirty Million Pesos (Php 30,000,000.00).
standard FIR for reference – Annex H)
C. District Fire Marshal – District Limit, LEVEL 3 – The
The FIR should be submitted the soonest time the case was district level, through its DISTRICT INVESTIGATION AND
resolved by the investigating office handling the case. The INTELLIGENCE BRANCH (DIIB) shall have the full
maximum allowable time for the investigating body to submit responsibility and power to investigate fire incidents with a
the FIR shall be 30 to 45 DAYS commencing from the first total damages amounting to above Thirty Million Pesos (Php
day of investigation. On the given period, the FAI shall 30,000,000.00), but not exceeding to Forty Million Pesos
already come up with a proper RESOLUTION or (Php 40,000,000.00). DIIB operatives can assume the
RECOMMENDATION about the case being investigated. conduct of investigation on fire incidents with damages
amounting to more than 20 Million Pesos in Municipal Levels
For the lower investigating units, the FIR shall be only within their respective jurisdictions.
accomplished in five (5) complete copies for distribution to:
D. Provincial Fire Marshal – Provincial Limit, LEVEL 3 – The
1. Office of the Chief, BFP thru the office of the Investigation provincial level, through its PROVINCIAL INVESTIGATION
and Intelligence Division, BFP National Headquarters; AND INTELLIGENCE BRANCH (PIIB) shall have the full
responsibility and power to investigate fire incidents with a
2. Office of the Regional Director for Fire Protection; total damages amounting to above Thirty Million Pesos (Php
30,000,000.00), but not exceeding to Forty Million Pesos
3. Office of the District / Provincial Fire Marshal; (Php 40,000,000.00). PIIB operatives can assume the
conduct of investigation on fire incidents with damages
4. Office of the City / Municipal Fire Marshals. amounting to more than 20 Million Pesos in Municipal Levels
only within their respective jurisdictions.
The last copy (ORIGINAL or DOCUMENT ORIGINAL) shall
remain in the possession of the FAI concerned for his own
personal copy and for future verification.
No UNDETERMINED cause should be reflected in any FIR.

E. Regional Director for Fire Protection – Regional Limit,
D. Fire Incident Investigation Report (FIIR) – This kind of LEVEL 4 – The regional director for fire protection level,
investigation report can only be made in such circumstances through its REGIONAL INVESTIGATION AND
that the investigation report cannot be completed for some INTELLIGENCE BRANCH (RIIB) shall have the full
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responsibility and power to investigate fire incidents with a to respective Chiefs of BFP Offices / Fire Marshals who
total damages amounting to above Forty Million Pesos (Php handled the conduct of investigation on the fire incident for
40,000,000.00), but not exceeding to Sixty Million Pesos their appropriate action.
(Php 60,000,000.00).
Section 6. – All written request for a copy of the FIR should
F. Chief, Bureau of Fire Protection – National, LEVEL 5 – COPY FURNISHED the Chief, Bureau of Fire Protection with
The Chief, Bureau of Fire Protection, through the office of attention to the office of the IID – BFP National
the INVESTIGATION AND INTELLIGENCE DIVISION – Headquarters, for documentary reference.
BFP National Headquarters (IID) shall have the full
responsibility and power to investigate fire incidents with a VII. TURN OVER OF INVESTIGATION TO HIGHER
total damages amounting to above Sixty Million Pesos (Php HEADQUARTERS
60,000,000.00).
Once a fire incident could be determined by the investigating
- SPECIAL PROVISIONS ON CHAPTER VI OF THIS SOP: body to be beyond their Level of Authority to Conduct
Investigation, the Conduct of Investigation, the conduct of
Section 1. – In determination of the total damages incurred investigation should be immediately turned-over to the
in a certain fire incident, the copy of the AFFIDAVIT OF proper office concerned in a form of ENDORSEMENT,
LOSS (duly notarized and itemized) from the fire victim shall together with the SIR and or PIR, to include all pertinent
prevail. The amount of damages to be determined with documents / attachments. (Please see attached standard
regards to the Level of Authority to Conduct Investigation Endorsement form for reference – Annex L)
shall be the TOTAL AGGREGATED DAMAGES or the
TOTAL SUM OF DAMAGES of all fire victims of the subject Any other recognized investigating body of the government
fire incident. cannot INTERCEDE in the conduct of fire and arson
investigation without formal communication to the concerned
Section 2. – The fire damage estimate made by the office handling the investigation. The intercession of any
investigating team / FAI shall not be the full basis for investigating body of the government should have LEGAL
determination of jurisdictional level of investigation. Be it AUTHORITY in order to be allowed to conduct LATERAL
noted that Aggregate Damages refers to the total damage of INVESTIGATION in the investigation being conducted by the
the whole area burned, which will be used to determine the BFP. In case that a CONTROVERSY INVOLVED and / or
Level of Authority to Conduct Investigation. In such CONCERNING TO CONFLICTING ISSUES arises in the
circumstances that the damage to property is apparently conduct of investigation, subject fire incident case shall be
high or evidently beyond the level of authority of the present turned over to the NEXT LEVEL OF INVESTIGATING BODY
investigating units, the case shall be turned-over to higher for appropriate action and disposition. However, lower
investigating unit. investigating units are fully encouraged to resolve fire cases
that fall within their respective Level of Authority.
Section 3. – In circumstances that the property gutted by fire
is currently insured in any insurance company, all copy of In case that a fire incident resulted to a GREAT NUMBERS
the duly accomplished SWORN STATEMENT OF LOSS OF FATALITY / MULTIPLE DEATHS (death of 10 persons
submitted to the INSURANCE ADJUSTERS by the fire and above), or any other issues concerning to the death of
victim must also FORM PART and be ATTACHED together the fire victims, the investigation of the subject fire incident
with the AFFIDAVIT OF LOSS submitted by the fire victim to upon the approval of the Chief BFP, should be turned over to
the BFP investigating body. the office of the IID – BFP National Headquarters for
appropriate action.
Section 4. – In connection with the Level of Authority to
Conduct Investigation, the concerned office handling the Any other fire incidents shall be immediately turned over to
investigation of the fire incident shall issue FIRE the higher headquarters for investigation and completion of
CLEARANCE CERTIFICATE (FCC) to the fire victim in lieu the Final Investigation Report upon the written order and
of the Final Investigation Report (FIR), for purposes of direction of the Chief, Bureau of Fire Protection.
insurance claims and for other lawful applications. FCC can
only be issued to fire incidents which is ACCIDENTAL in VIII. FILING OF COMPLAINT PROCEDURE
nature. (Please see attached two forms of FCC, for
insurance and non-insurance purpose – Annex J) If a prima facie evidence of arson is established or the case
is suspected to be INTENTIONAL in nature, the FAI
In such case that any BUILDING PREMISES WITH concerned with the guidance of their respective City /
MULTIPLE OCCUPANCIES were gutted by fire, the FCC Municipal Fire Marshal, should IMMEDIATELY file the
should only be issued to the concerned party where the appropriate charge to the prosecutors office who has
FIRE ORIGINATED. Other occupants AFFECTED by the fire jurisdiction over the case
incident shall be issued with FIRE INCIDENT
CERTIFICATION (FIC) for their record purposes and other and the same must also be reported to the IID, BFP National
legal use upon request. (Please see attached two forms of Headquarters for further appropriate disposition and
FCC, for insurance and non-insurance purpose – Annex K) guidance. (Please see attached Complaint Sheet for
reference – Annex M)
Section 5. – Issuance of the copy of the FIR to any
concerned party can only be allowed in circumstances that Whenever death results in any fire incident identified to be
RELEVANT LEGAL ISSUES and or QUESTIONABLE INTENTIONAL in nature, the MOTIVE for the commission of
MATTERS may arise. The request for FIR should be made arson must immediately established in order to ascertain
in writing by the requesting party and should be addressed whether a crime of MURDER qualifies. Murder cases
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committed thru the burning of one’s property may be referred - When the burning of one’s property results from reckless
to the Philippine National Police for proper disposition. imprudence and it leads to serious physical injuries and / or
However, the FAI should still pursue the filing of the arson damage to property of another, the penalty to be imposed
case. shall not be for the crime of arson under P.D. 1613 but
rather, the penalty shall be based on Article 365 of the
The FAI can immediately effect arrest on any suspect/s once Revised Penal Code as a felony committed by means of
such person is / are POSITIVELY IDENTIFIED by a culpa – imprudence and negligence. (e.g. Reckless
complaint or witnesses to be the one who perpetrated the Imprudence Resulted to Damage to Property / Reckless
commission of the crime during the course of actual Imprudence Resulted to Serious Physical Injuries)
investigation, most specifically during the event of the actual
fire incident, and in accordance with the law. IX. GENERAL RESPONSIBILITIES
The following rights of the arrested suspect shall be Section 1. – The respective Regional Directors for Fire
observed by the FAI during CUSTODIAL INVESTIGATION Protection / District and Provincial Fire Marshals / City and
as embodied under the provisions of R.A. 7438. The suspect Municipal Fire Marshals shall supervise the proper
shall be apprised of his constitutional rights in accordance to implementation of this Standard Operating Procedure to
Section 12, Article III, 1987 Constitution, to wit: ensure that their subordinates will comply and respond
effectively to the requirements as stipulated in this Standard
a. Any person under investigation for the commission of an Operating Procedure.
offense shall have the right to be informed of his right to
remain silent; Section 2. – City / Municipal Fire Marshals shall seek
assistance from their respective District / Provincial /
b. To have competent and independent counsel preferably of Regional Investigation and Intelligence Offices or at the
his own choice; office of the Investigation and Intelligence Division – BFP
National Headquarters, if deemed needed.
c. If the person cannot afford to the services of counsel, he
must be provided with one; Section 3. – As the highest fire and arson investigating
agency of the Bureau of Fire Protection, the Office of the
d. These rights cannot be waived except in writing and in the Investigation and Intelligence Division – BFP National
presence of a counsel. Headquarters shall have the authority to monitor, evaluate,
conduct of arbitrary verification to the fire cases and
All suspects, once arrested / invited by the FAI and investigation procedures conducted by the lower
determined to have the probability to commit the crime must investigating units of the BFP. The aforementioned office
immediately be INQUEST to the city / municipal prosecutor may also be sought to provide technical knowledge,
before the lapse of thirty six (36) hours or the legal regulated assistance, suggestions and recommendations to lower
period. investigating units of the BFP.
The following are the special / supplemental guidelines for X. RESCISION CLAUSE
FAI in conducting arson investigation and filing of complaint
procedures: All publications, memoranda and SOPs in which by any form
or part found to be inconsistent with this new Standard
- Arson is established by proving the corpus delicti, usually in Operating Procedures are hereby rescinded.
the form of CIRCUMSTANCIAL EVIDENCE such as the
criminal agency, meaning the substance used, like gasoline, XI. ADMINISTRATIVE SANCTION / PENALTY
kerosene, or other combustible materials which caused the
fire. It can also be in the form of electrical wires, mechanical, All BFP personnel found violating any provision of this
chemical or electronic contrivance designed to start a fire; or Standard Operating Procedure shall be subjected to
ashes or traces of such objects which are found in the ruins administrative action for neglect of duty / any other related
of the burned premises. charges (criminal), and if found guilty, shall be immediately
relieved from post.
- If the crime of ARSON was employed by the offender as a
means to kill the offended party, the crime committed is Administrative sanctions shall be governed by the R.A. 6713,
MURDER. The burning of the property as the MEANS to kill otherwise known as The Code of Ethics and Professional
the victim is what is contemplated by the word “fire” under Standards for Government Employees, other pertinent Civil
Article 248 of the Revised Penal Code which qualifies the Service Laws, Office Rules, Regulations and Policies,
crime to MURDER. without prejudice of filing criminal charges if evidence so
warrants.
- When the burning of the property was done by the offender
only to cause damage but the ARSON resulted to the XII. SEPARABILITY CLAUSE
DEATH of the person, the crime committed is still ARSON
because the death of the victim is a mere CONSEQUENCE If for any reason, any part of this Standard Operating
and not the INTENTION of the offender. Procedure is declared as contrary to law, the remainder
hereof not affected shall continue to remain in force and
- There is no special complex crime of ARSON WITH effect. SIGNED, this 18th day of September 2008 at the
HOMICIDE. What matters in resolving cases involving arson Bureau of Fire Protection National Headquarters, Union
is the CRIMINAL INTENT of the offender. Square Condominium, Nr. 145, 15th Avenue, Cubao,
Quezon City, Philippines.
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THIS STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURE SHALL
TAKE EFFECT IMMEDIATELY.
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PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MUNTINLUPA

HANDOUTS FOR FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

A type of oxidation reaction that occurs when a combustible

The Oxford English dictionary defines fire as “the state of

3.“carbon burn” in which the fire reaches a high enough

Understanding The Elements Of Fire

(Creating fire from woods)

(bluffers guide) (bluffers guide)

Fire tetrahedron (pyramid)- fuel, heat, oxygen, and the

The 4 stages of a fire

By most standards including the international fire service Sources of heat

Among others are chemical energy, mechanical energy, Liquid fuels

Types of gaseous fuel

Administrator - Any person who acts as

 fire dynamics and fire modeling

Combustible Liquid - Any liquid having a

Electrical Arc - An extremely hot

Flash Point - The minimum temperature Organic Peroxide - A strong oxidizing

Owner - The person who holds the legal

j. Require the building owner/occupant (2) Storage, handling and/or

k. Issue a written notice to the owner b. Safety Measures for Hazardous

(10) fireworks materials of any (6) motion picture projection

(11) matches in commercial (7) refining, distillation and

(g) Prevention or obstruction of the

(i) Giving false or malicious fire alarms;

(11) Properly marked and

Section 9. Violation, Penalties and Abatement of Fire

Any person who, without (3) Endorsing to the

"Sec. 13-A. Assessment of Fire Code Taxes, Fees and

In the procurement of fire fighting and investigation supplies

Sec. 13-D. Monitoring the Implementation of the Fire Code

becomes faulty. First is when the house or match and gas.

establishment is too old. The electrical wiring can

become worn out due to time and age. Second, an

overloaded circuit where bulbs or lights start dimming

and flickering.And third, when there is burning smell

with identifiable source. You should start searching

and fixing faulty electrical wiring.

Types of open flames are unattended burning candles

and kerosene lamps as well as unattended stoves and

Smoking Fire suppression

accident. Fire is detected either by locating the smoke, flame or heat,

flashover. This simply means that flashover is a

the fire to the extent of gas spread.

Rollover is not the same as flashover, although it may

precede it, and the terms may be confused.[2] In the case of

rollover, only gases present in the room, not the room

FLASHOVER AND BACKDRAFT HAVE BEEN

CONFUSED for years. Part of the reason for the confusion is

that they produce a very similar result-a large fire that

envelops the whole room or area. They are, however, very

different in how and why they occur.

produce flashover. Most fires are air regulated, not fuel

modified shipping container provides students with a live-fire

you some protection. understanding of backdrafts so important.

extension to adjoining stores. fire.

All members on the fireground must know the warning signs

load is probably the single biggest factor working against

today’s firefighter. Yes, fires are hotter today. This is a

combination of two elements of fire load-more plastic and

generation wants to see its generation do better than the survive.

sealed as tight as construction materials would let them.

National energy codes are now in place to enforce energy-