Fundamental Optics Optical Coatings PDF

Chpt. 1 Final a 7/30/99 2:39 PM Page 1.
Fundamental Optics
Fundamental Optics
Gaussian Beam Optics

Introduction 1.2
Optical Specifications
Paraxial Formulas 1.3
Imaging Properties of Lens Systems 1.6
Lens Combination Formulas 1.8
Performance Factors 1.11
Lens Shape 1.17
Lens Combinations 1.18
Diffraction Effects 1.20
Lens Selection 1.23
Spot Size 1.26

Material Properties
Aberration Balancing 1.27
Definition of Terms 1.29
Paraxial Lens Formulas 1.32
Principal-Point Locations 1.36

Optical Coatings
1.1 1
Chpt. 1 Final a 7/30/99 2:39 PM Page 1.2
Introduction
Fundamental Optics
Even though several thousand different optical components

are listed in this catalog, performing a few simple calculations will
usually determine the appropriate optics for an application or, at THE OPTICAL
the very least, narrow the list of choices. ENGINEERING PROCESS
The process of solving virtually any optical engineering problem
can be broken down into two main steps. First, paraxial calcula-
tions (first order) are made to determine critical parameters such Determine basic system
parameters, such as
as magnification, focal length(s), clear aperture (diameter), and

magnification and
object and image position. These paraxial calculations are covered object/image distances
in the next section of this chapter.
Second, actual components are chosen based on these paraxial

values, and their actual performance is evaluated with special
attention paid to the effects of aberrations. A truly rigorous Using paraxial formulas
performance analysis for all but the simplest optical systems and known parameters,
solve for remaining values
generally requires computer ray tracing, but simple generaliza-
tions can be used, especially when the lens selection process is
confined to a limited range of component shapes.
In practice, the second step may reveal conflicts with design Pick lens components
constraints, such as component size, cost, or product availability. based on paraxially
derived values
System parameters may therefore require modification.
Because some of the terms used in this chapter may not be

familiar to all readers, a glossary of terms is provided beginning
on page 1.29.
Finally, it should be noted that the discussion in this chapter

relates only to systems with uniform illumination; optical systems Determine if chosen
for Gaussian beams are covered in Chapter 2, Gaussian Beam component values conflict
Optics. with any basic
system constraints
ENGINEERING SUPPORT
Melles Griot maintains a staff of knowledgeable,
Material Properties
experienced applications engineers at each of our

facilities worldwide. The information given in this Estimate performance
chapter is sufficient to enable the user to select the characteristics of system
most appropriate catalog lenses for the most
commonly encountered applications. However, when
additional optical engineering support is required,
our applications engineers are available to provide
assistance. Do not hesitate to contact us for help in
product selection or to obtain more detailed
specifications on Melles Griot products. Determine if performance
characteristics meet
original design goals
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1.2 1 Visit Us OnLine! www.mellesgriot.com

Paraxial Formulas
Fundamental Optics
SIGN CONVENTIONS
The validity of the paraxial lens formulas is dependent on adherence to the following sign conventions:
For lenses: (refer to figure 1.1) For mirrors:

s is 1 for object to left of H f is 1 for convex (diverging) mirrors
(the first principal point)

f is 5 for concave (converging) mirrors
s is 5 for object to right of H
s is 1 for object to left of H
s″ is 1 for image to right of H″
(the second principal point) s is 5 for object to right of H
s″ is 5 for image to left of H″ s″ is 5 for image to right of H″
m is 1 for an inverted image s″ is 1 for image to left of H″
m is 5 for an upright image m is 1 for an inverted image

m is 5 for an upright image
When using the thin-lens approximation, simply refer to the left and right of the lens.
front focal point rear focal point
object
f v H H″
F F″
image h″
f f
s s″
Material Properties
principal points
Note location of object and image relative to front and rear focal points.
f = lens diameter s = object distance, positive for object (whether real

or virtual) to the left of principal point H
m = s″/s = h″/h = magnification or
conjugate ratio, said to be infinite if s″ = image distance (s and s″ are collectively called
conjugate distances, with object and image in
either s″ or s is infinite
conjugate planes), positive for image (whether real
or virtual) to the right of the principal point H″
v = arcsin (f/2s)
f = effective focal length (EFL) which may be positive
(as shown) or negative. f represents both FH and
h = object height H″F″, assuming lens to be surrounded by medium
of index 1.0
h″ = image height
Optical Coatings
Figure 1.1 Sign conventions
Visit Us Online! www.mellesgriot.com 1 1.3

Chpt. 1 Final 10/8/99 11:00 AM Page 1.4
Fundamental Optics
Typically, the first step in optical problem solving is to select a

system focal length based on constraints such as magnification or
object
conjugate distances (object and image distance). The relation-
ship among focal length, object position, and image position is F2 image
given by F1
1 1 1
= + . (1.1)
f s s ′′
200 66.7
This formula is referenced to figure 1.1 and the sign conven-
tions given on page 1.3.
Figure 1.2 Example 1 (f = 50 mm, s = 200 mm, s″ = 66.7 mm)
By definition, magnification is the ratio of image size to object
size or
Example 2: Object inside Focal Point
s ′′ h ′′ (1.2)
m = = . The same object is placed 30 mm left of the left principal point of
s h
the same lens. Where is the image formed, and what is the magni-
This relationship can be used to recast the first formula into the
fication? (See figure 1.3.)
following forms:
1 1 1
(s + s ′′) = 4
f = m (1.3) s ′′ 50 30
(m + 1) 2
s ′′ = 475 mm
sm
f = (1.4) s ′′ 475
m+ 1 m = = = 42.5
s 30
s + s ′′ (1.5)
f = (or virtual image is 2.5 mm high and upright).
1
m+ 2+
m In this case, the lens is being used as a magnifier, and the image can
s (m + 1) = s + s ′′ (1.6) be viewed only back through the lens.
where (s + s″) is the approximate object-to-image distance.
With a real lens of finite thickness, the image distance, object

distance, and focal length are all referenced to the principal points,
not to the physical center of the lens. By neglecting the distance
between the lens’ principal points, known as the hiatus, s + s″
becomes the object-to-image distance. This simplification, called the F1 F2
Material Properties
thin-lens approximation, can speed up calculation when dealing object

with simple optical systems. image
Example 1: Object outside Focal Point

Figure 1.3 Example 2 (f = 50 mm, s = 30 mm, s″ = 475 mm)
A 1-mm-high object is placed on the optical axis, 200 mm left of the
left principal point of a 01 LDX 103 (f = 50 mm). Where is the Example 3: Object at Focal Point
image formed, and what is the magnification? (See figure 1.2.)
A 1-mm-high object is placed on the optical axis, 50 mm left of the
1 1 1 first principal point of an 01 LDK 019 (f = 50 mm). Where is the
= 4
s ′′ f s image formed, and what is the magnification? (See figure 1.4.)
1 1 4 1
= 1 1 1
s ′′ 50 200 = 4
s ′′ 450 50
s ′′ = 66.7 mm s ′′ = 425 mm
Optical Coatings
s ′′ 66.7 s ′′ 425
m = = = 0.33 m = = = 40.5
s 200 s 50
(or real image is 0.33 mm high and inverted). (or virtual image is 0.5 mm high and upright).

Fundamental Optics
object
f f
2
image v
F2 F1

principal surface
Figure 1.4 Example 3 (f = 450 mm, s = 50 mm, s″ = 425 mm)
Figure 1.5 F-number and numerical aperture

A simple graphical method can also be used to determine paraxial
image location and magnification. This graphical approach relies on
Ray f-numbers can also be defined for any arbitrary ray if its
two simple properties of an optical system. First, a ray that enters
conjugate distance and the diameter at which it intersects the
the system parallel to the optical axis crosses the optical axis at the
principal surface of the optical system are known.
focal point. Second, a ray that enters the first principal point of the
system exits the system from the second principal point parallel to
its original direction (i.e., its exit angle with the optical axis is the same NOTE
as its entrance angle). This method has been applied to the three Because the sign convention given previously is not
previous examples illustrated in figures 1.2 through 1.4. Note that by used universally in all optics texts, the reader may
using the thin-lens approximation, this second property reduces to the notice differences in the paraxial formulas. However,
statement that a ray passing through the center of the lens is undeviated. results will be correct as long as a consistent set of
formulas and sign conventions is used.
F-NUMBER AND NUMERICAL APERTURE

The paraxial calculations used to determine necessary element
diameter are based on the concepts of focal ratio (f-number or f/#)
and numerical aperture (NA). The f-number is the ratio of the focal
length of the lens to its clear aperture (effective diameter).
f
f-number = . (1.7)
f
Material Properties
To visualize the f-number, consider a lens with a positive focal

length illuminated uniformly with collimated light. The f-number
defines the angle of the cone of light leaving the lens which ultimately
forms the image. This is an important concept when the throughput
or light-gathering power of an optical system is critical, such as
when focusing light into a monochromator or projecting a high-
power image.
The other term used commonly in defining this cone angle is
numerical aperture. Numerical aperture is the sine of the angle made
by the marginal ray with the optical axis. By referring to
figure 1.5 and using simple trigonometry, it can be seen that
f (1.8)
NA = sinv =
2f
Optical Coatings
or
1 (1.9)
NA = .
2(f-number)

Imaging Properties of Lens Systems

Fundamental Optics
THE OPTICAL INVARIANT Example: System with Fixed Input NA

To understand the importance of the numerical aperture, consider Two very common applications of simple optics involve coupling
its relation to magnification. Referring to figure 1.6, light into an optical fiber or into the entrance slit of a monochro-
mator. Although these problems appear to be quite different, they
f (1.10) both have the same limitation — they have a fixed numerical
NA (object side) = sinv =
2s aperture. For monochromators, this limit is usually expressed in
f terms of the f-number. In addition to the fixed numerical aperture,
NA" (image side) = sinv ′′ = (1.11)
2s ′′ they both have a fixed entrance pupil (image) size.

Suppose it is necessary, using a singlet lens from this catalog, to
which can be rearranged to show
couple the output of an incandescent bulb with a filament 1 mm in
f = 2s sinv (1.12)
diameter into an optical fiber as shown in figure 1.7. Assume that the
and fiber has a core diameter of 100 mm and a numerical aperture of 0.25,
and that the design requires that the total distance from the source
f = 2s ′′ sinv ′′ (1.13)
to the fiber be 110 mm. Which lenses are appropriate?
leading to By definition, the magnification must be 0.1. Letting s + s″ total
s ′′ sinv NA 110 mm (using the thin-lens approximation), we can use equation
= = . (1.14)
s sinv ′′ NA" 1.3,
s ′′ (s + s ′′)
Since is simply the magnification of the system, f = m
s (m + 1) 2
we arrive at
NA to determine that the focal length is 9.1 mm. To determine the

m = . (1.15)
conjugate distances, s and s″, we utilize equation 1.6,
NA"
The magnification of the system is therefore equal to the ratio s (m + 1) = s + s ′′,

of the numerical apertures on the object and image sides of the
system. This powerful and useful result is completely independent and find that s = 100 mm and s″ = 10 mm.
of the specifics of the optical system, and it can often be used to deter-
mine the optimum lens diameter in situations involving aperture We can now use the relationship NA = Ω/2s or NA″ = Ω/2s″ to
constraints. derive Ω, the optimum clear aperture (effective diameter) of the lens.
When a lens or optical system is used to create an image of a With an image numerical aperture of 0.25 and an image distance
source, it is natural to assume that, by increasing the diameter (f) (s″) of 10 mm,
of the lens, we will be able to collect more light and thereby produce
a brighter image. However, because of the relationship between f
Material Properties
magnification and numerical aperture, there can be a theoretical limit 0.25 =

20
beyond which increasing the diameter has no effect on light-
collection efficiency or image brightness. f = 5 mm.
Since the numerical aperture of a ray is given by f/2s, once a
focal length and magnification have been selected, the value of NA Accomplishing this imaging task with a single lens therefore
sets the value of f. Thus, if one is dealing with a system in which the requires an optic with a 9.1-mm focal length and a 5-mm diameter.
numerical aperture is constrained on either the object or image Using a larger diameter lens will not result in any greater system
side, increasing the lens diameter beyond this value will increase throughput because of the limited input numerical aperture of the
system size and cost but will not improve performance (i.e., through- optical fiber. The singlet lenses in this catalog that meet these criteria
put or image brightness). This concept is sometimes referred to as are 01 LPX 003, which is plano-convex, and 01 LDX 003 and
the optical invariant. 01 LDX 005, which are biconvex.
Making some simple calculations has reduced our choice of

SAMPLE CALCULATION lenses to just three. Chapter 2, Gaussian Beam Optics, discusses
Optical Coatings
To understand how to use this relationship between magnifi- how to make a final choice of lenses based on various performance
cation and numerical aperture, consider the following example. criteria.

Fundamental Optics
s s″
f
2
v v″
f
image side

object side
Figure 1.6 Numerical aperture and magnification
magnification = h" = 0.1 = 0.1X
h 1.0
optical system
f = 9.1 mm
f f
filament NA = = 0.025 NA" = = 0.25
2s 2s"
h = 1 mm
f = 5 mm
fiber core
h" = 0.1 mm
s = 100 mm s" = 10 mm
s + s" = 110 mm
Material Properties
Figure 1.7 Optical system geometry for focusing the output of an incandescent bulb into an optical fiber
Optical Coatings

Lens Combination Formulas

Fundamental Optics
PARAXIAL LENS COMBINATION FORMULAS COMBINATION EXAMPLES

Many optical tasks require several lenses in order to achieve an It is possible for a lens combination or system to exhibit principal
acceptable level of performance. One possible approach to lens planes that are far removed from the system. When such systems
combinations is to consider each image formed by each lens as the are themselves combined, negative values of d may occur. Proba-
object for the next lens and so on. This is a valid approach, but it is bly the simplest example of a negative d-value situation is shown in
time consuming and unnecessary. figure 1.9. Meniscus lenses with steep surfaces have external prin-
It is much simpler to calculate the effective (combined) focal cipal planes. When two of these lenses are brought into contact, a
length and principal-point locations and then use these results in negative value of d can occur. Other combined-lens examples are
any subsequent paraxial calculations (see figure 1.8). They can even shown in figures 1.10 through 1.13.
be used in the optical invariant calculations described in the
preceding section.
EFFECTIVE FOCAL LENGTH

SYMBOLS
The following formulas show how to calculate the effective focal
length and principal-point locations for a combination of any two f = combination focal length (EFL), positive if
arbitrary components. The approach for more than two lenses is very combination final focal point falls to right of
simple: calculate the values for the first two elements, then perform combination secondary principal point,
the same calculation for this combination with the next lens. This is negative otherwise.
continued until all lenses in the system are accounted for.
The expression for the combination focal length is the same f1 = focal length (EFL) of first element.
whether lens separation distances are large or small and whether f1

and f2 are positive or negative: f2 = focal length (EFL) of second element.
f1 f 2 (1.16) d = distance from secondary principal point of

f = .
f1 + f 2 4 d first element to primary principal point of
second element (positive if primary principal
This may be more familiar in the form point is to right of the secondary principal
point, negative otherwise).
1 1 1 d (1.17)
= + 4 .
f f1 f2 f1 f 2 s2″ = distance from secondary principal point of
second element to final combination focal
Notice that the formula is symmetric with respect to interchange point (location of final image for object at
of the lenses (end-for-end rotation of the combination) at constant infinity to left), positive if the focal point is
d. The next two formulas are not. to right of second element secondary principal
Material Properties
point.
COMBINATION FOCAL-POINT LOCATION
For all cases, z = distance to combination secondary principal
point measured from secondary principal
f 2 (f1 4 d) point of second element, positive if
s ′′2 = . (1.18)
f1 + f 2 4 d combination secondary principal point is to
right of secondary principal point of second
COMBINATION SECONDARY element.
PRINCIPAL-POINT LOCATION
Because the thin-lens approximation is obviously highly invalid
for most combinations, the ability to determine the location of the Note: These paraxial formulas apply to coaxial
secondary principal point is vital for accurate determination of d when combinations of both thick and thin lenses immersed
another element is added. The simplest formula for this calculates in any fluid with refractive index independent of
Optical Coatings
how far the secondary principal point of the final (second) element position. They assume that light propagates from left
is moved by being part of the combination: to right through an optical system.
z = s ′′2 4 f . (1.19)

Fundamental Optics
INDIVIDUAL ELEMENT
1st element 2nd element

d
z, from formula
combination secondary principal plane
COMBINATION (to find combination primary principal plane,
apply procedure to reversed combination

2 elements 3rd element resulting from end-to-end rotation)
d
subsystem secondary principal plane
SUBSYSTEM
n-1 elements nth element to be added to complete the system

d
z, from formula
system secondary
COMPLETE SYSTEM principal plane
principal planes
not “crossed”
system primary principal plane (secondary principal
plane located by z formula for reversed system)
lens combinations or systems may exhibit “crossed” principal planes; single lenses cannot
SUBSYSTEM subsystem secondary principal plane

principal planes internal but “crossed”
n-1 elements nth element to be added to complete the system

d
subsystem primary principal plane
Figure 1.8 Generalization from combinations to systems
1 2 3 4 3 4 1 2
Material Properties
d>0 d<0
Figure 1.9 “Extreme” meniscus-form lenses with external principal planes (drawing not to scale)
Optical Coatings

Fundamental Optics
f
z
z<0
d s2″ s2″
d
f1 f2 f<0
combination
focal plane combination combination
secondary
secondary focus
principal plane
principal plane
Figure 1.12 Telephoto combination: The most important

Figure 1.10 Positive lenses separated by distance greater characteristic of the telephoto is that the EFL, and hence the
than f1 + f2: f is negative, while both s2″ and z are positive. image size, can be made much larger than the distance from the
Lens symmetry is not required. first lens surface to the image would suggest by using a positive
lens followed by a negative lens (but not necessarily the lens
shapes shown in the figure). For example, f1 is positive and
f2 = 4f1/2. Then f is negative for d less than f1/2, infinite for
d = f1/2 (Galilean telescope or beam expander), and positive for
d larger than f1/2. To make the example even more specific,

f1 catalog lenses 01 LDX 189 and 01 LDK 021, with d = 78.2 mm,
will yield s2″= 2.0 m, f = 5.2 m, and z = 43.2 m.
H1″ H2 H2″
tc tc
n n
d f2
Material Properties
H H″
Figure 1.11 Achromatic combinations: Air-spaced lens
combinations can be made nearly achromatic, even though
both elements are made of the same material. Achieving
achromatism requires that, in the thin-lens approximation,
s s″
( f1 + f 2 )
d = .
2 Figure 1.13 Condenser configuration: A pair of identical
plano-convex lenses have their convex vertices in contact.
This is the basis for Huygens and Ramsden eyepieces. (The lenses could also be plano aspheres.) Because d = 0,
f = f1/2 = f2/2, f1/2 = s2″, and z = 0. The secondary principal
This approximation is adequate for most thick-lens situations. point of the second element and the secondary principal point
The signs of f1, f2, and d are unrestricted, but d must have a of the combination coincide at H″, at depth tc/n beneath the
value that guarantees the existence of an air space. Element vertex of the plano surface of the second element, where tc is
Optical Coatings
shapes are unrestricted and can be chosen to compensate for the element center thickness and n is the refractive index of the
other aberrations. element. By symmetry, the primary principal point of the combi-
nation is similarly located in the first element. Combination
conjugate distances must be measured from these points.

Performance Factors
Fundamental Optics
After paraxial formulas have been used to select values for com-
ponent focal length(s) and diameter(s), the final step is to select
actual lenses. As in any engineering problem, this selection process w
av
involves a number of tradeoffs, including performance, cost, weight, el
en
and environmental factors. gt
h
ld
The performance of real optical systems is limited by several material 1
factors, including lens aberrations and light diffraction. The magni- index n1
tude of these effects can be calculated with relative ease.

Numerous other factors, such as lens manufacturing tolerances v1
and component alignment, impact the performance of an optical
system. Although these are not considered explicitly in the following
discussion, it should be kept in mind that if calculations indicate that
a lens system only just meets the desired performance criteria, in material 2
v2
practice it may fall short of this performance as a result of other index n2
factors. In critical applications, it is generally better to select a lens
whose calculated performance is significantly better than needed.
DIFFRACTION Figure 1.14 Refraction of light at a dielectric boundary

Diffraction, a natural property of light arising from its wave
nature, poses a fundamental limitation on any optical system. Dif-
fraction is always present, although its effects may be masked if
the system has significant aberrations. When an optical system is APPLICATION NOTE
essentially free from aberrations, its performance is limited solely
by diffraction, and it is referred to as diffraction limited.
Technical Assistance
In calculating diffraction, we simply need to know the focal
Detailed performance analysis of an optical system
length(s) and aperture diameter(s); we do not consider other lens-
is accomplished using computerized ray-tracing
related factors such as shape or index of refraction.
software. Melles Griot applications engineers have
Since diffraction increases with increasing f-number, and aberra- the capability to provide a ray-tracing analysis of
tions decrease with increasing f-number, determining optimum simple catalog components systems. If you need
system performance often involves finding a point where the combi- assistance in determining the performance of your
nation of these factors has a minimum effect. optical system, or in selecting optimum components
for your particular application, please contact your
ABERRATIONS nearest Melles Griot office.
Material Properties
To determine the precise performance of a lens system, we can Alternately, a database containing prescription
trace the path of light rays through it, using Snell’s law at each information for most of the components listed in this
optical interface to determine the subsequent ray direction. This catalog is available on the catalog CD-ROM. If you
process, called ray tracing, is usually accomplished on a computer. would like to obtain a copy of this database, please
When this process is completed, it is typically found that not all contact your Melles Griot representative.
the rays pass through the points or positions predicted by parax-
ial theory. These deviations from ideal imaging are called lens For analysis of more complex optical systems,
aberrations. or the design of totally custom lenses, Melles Griot
Optical Systems, located in Rochester, New York, can
The direction of a light ray after refraction at the interface between
supply the necessary support. This group specializes
two homogeneous, isotropic media of differing index of refraction is
in the design and fabrication of high-precision,
given by Snell’s law:
multielement lens systems. For more information
n1sinß1 = n2sinß2 ( 1.20) about their capabilities, please call your Melles Griot
representative.
where ß1 is the angle of incidence, ß2 is the angle of refraction, and
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both angles are measured from the surface normal as shown in figure
1.14.

Fundamental Optics
Even though tools for precise analysis of an optical system are SPHERICAL ABERRATION
becoming easier to use and are readily available, it is still quite useful
to have a method for quickly estimating lens performance. This Figure 1.15 illustrates how an aberration-free lens focuses
not only saves time in the initial stages of system specification, but incoming collimated light. All rays pass through the focal point F ″.
can also help achieve a better starting point for any further The lower figure shows the situation more typically encountered in
computer optimization. single lenses. The farther from the optical axis the ray enters the
lens, the nearer to the lens it focuses (crosses the optical axis). The
The first step in developing these rough guidelines is to realize distance along the optical axis between the intercept of the rays
that the sine functions in Snell’s law can be expanded in an infinite that are nearly on the optical axis (paraxial rays) and the rays that
Taylor series: go through the edge of the lens (marginal rays) is called longitudi-
nal spherical aberration (LSA). The height at which these rays
sin v1 = v1 4 v13 /3! + v15 /5! 4 v17 /7! + v19 /9! 4. . . intercept the paraxial focal plane is called transverse spherical
aberration (TSA). These quantities are related by
The first approximation we can make is to replace all sine func-
tions with their arguments (i.e., replace sin ß1 with ß1 itself and so TSA = LSA ! tan u″. (1.21)
on). This is called first-order or paraxial theory because only the first
terms of the sine expansions are used. Design of any optical system Spherical aberration is dependent on lens shape, orientation, and
generally starts with this approximation using the paraxial formulas. conjugate ratio, as well as on the index of refraction of the materials
present. Parameters for choosing the best lens shape and orientation
The assumption that sinß = ß is reasonably valid for ß close to zero
for a given task are presented later in this chapter. However, the
(i.e., high f-number lenses). With more highly curved surfaces (and
particularly marginal rays), paraxial theory yields increasingly large
deviations from real performance because sinß ≠ ß. These deviations

are known as aberrations. Because a perfect optical system (one
without any aberrations) would form its image at the point and to
the size indicated by paraxial theory, aberrations are really a measure
of how the image differs from the paraxial prediction.
F″
As already stated, exact ray tracing is the only rigorous way to
analyze real lens surfaces. Before the advent of computers, this was
excessively tedious and time consuming. Seidel addressed this issue
by developing a method of calculating aberrations resulting from aberration-free lens
the ß13/3! term. The resultant third-order lens aberrations are there-
fore called Seidel aberrations. paraxial focal plane
To simplify these calculations, Seidel put the aberrations of an
Material Properties
optical system into several different classifications. In mono- u″

chromatic light they are spherical aberration, astigmatism, field
curvature, coma, and distortion. In polychromatic light there are
F″
also chromatic aberration and lateral color. Seidel developed
methods to approximate each of these aberrations without actually TSA
tracing large numbers of rays using all the terms in the sine
expansions.
In actual practice, aberrations occur in combinations rather LSA

than alone. This system of classifying them, which makes analysis longitudinal spherical aberration
much simpler, gives a good description of optical system image transverse spherical aberration
quality. In fact, even in the era of powerful ray-tracing software,
Seidel’s formula for spherical aberration is still widely used.
Figure 1.15 Spherical aberration of a plano-convex lens
Optical Coatings

Fundamental Optics
third-order, monochromatic, spherical aberration of a plano-convex ASTIGMATISM
lens used at infinite conjugate ratio can be estimated by When an off-axis object is focused by a spherical lens, the natural
asymmetry leads to astigmatism. The system appears to have two
0.067 f different focal lengths.
spot size due to spherical aberration = . (1.22)
f/# 3
As shown in figure 1.16, the plane containing both optical axis
Theoretically, the simplest way to eliminate or reduce spherical and object point is called the tangential plane. Rays that lie in this
aberration is to make the lens surface(s) with a varying radius of cur- plane are called tangential rays. Rays not in this plane are referred

vature (i.e., an aspheric surface) designed to exactly compensate for to as skew rays. The chief, or principal, ray goes from the object
the fact that sin v ≠ v at larger angles. In practice, however, most lenses point through the center of the aperture of the lens system. The
with high surface quality are manufactured by grinding and polishing plane perpendicular to the tangential plane that contains the prin-
techniques that naturally produce spherical or cylindrical surfaces. cipal ray is called the sagittal or radial plane.
The manufacture of aspheric surfaces is more complex, and it is
The figure illustrates that tangential rays from the object come
difficult to produce a lens of sufficient surface accuracy to elimi-
to a focus closer to the lens than do rays in the sagittal plane. When
nate spherical aberration completely. Fortunately, these aberrations
the image is evaluated at the tangential conjugate, we see a line in
can be virtually eliminated, for a chosen set of conditions, by combin-
the sagittal direction. A line in the tangential direction is formed at
ing the effects of two or more spherical (or cylindrical) surfaces.
the sagittal conjugate. Between these conjugates, the image is either
In general, simple positive lenses have undercorrected spherical
an elliptical or a circular blur. Astigmatism is defined as the
aberration, and negative lenses usually have overcorrected spherical
separation of these conjugates.
aberration. By combining a positive lens made from low-index glass
with a negative lens made from high-index glass, it is possible to pro- The amount of astigmatism in a lens depends on lens shape only
duce a combination in which the spherical aberrations cancel but when there is an aperture in the system that is not in contact with the
the focusing powers do not. The simplest examples of this are lens itself. (In all optical systems there is an aperture or stop, although
cemented doublets, such as the 01 LAO series which produce in many cases it is simply the clear aperture of the lens element itself.)
minimal spherical aberration when properly used. Astigmatism strongly depends on the conjugate ratio.
tangential image sagittal image (focal line)

(focal line)
Material Properties
tangential plane principal ray
sagittal plane
is
cal ax
opti
optical system
object point paraxial
focal plane
Optical Coatings
Figure 1.16 Astigmatism represented by sectional views

Fundamental Optics
COMA
In spherical lenses, different parts of the lens surface exhibit dif- positive transverse coma
ferent degrees of magnification. This gives rise to an aberration
known as coma. As shown in figure 1.17, each concentric zone of
a lens forms a ring-shaped image called a comatic circle. This causes
blurring in the image plane (surface) of off-axis object points. An
off-axis object point is not a sharp image point, but it appears as a
characteristic comet-like flare. Even if spherical aberration is

corrected and the lens brings all rays to a sharp focus on axis, a
lens may still exhibit coma off axis. See figure 1.18. focal plane
As with spherical aberration, correction can be achieved by

using multiple surfaces. Alternatively, a sharper image may be Figure 1.18 Positive transverse coma
produced by judiciously placing an aperture, or stop, in an optical
system to eliminate the more marginal rays.
FIELD CURVATURE
spherical focal surface
Even in the absence of astigmatism, there is a tendency of optical
systems to image better on curved surfaces than on flat planes. This
effect is called field curvature (see figure 1.19). In the presence of astig-
matism, this problem is compounded because there are two separate
astigmatic focal surfaces that correspond to the tangential and

sagittal conjugates.
Field curvature varies with the square of field angle or the square
of image height. Therefore, by reducing the field angle by one-half,
it is possible to reduce the blur from field curvature to a value of 0.25
of its original size. Figure 1.19 Field curvature
corresponding
Material Properties
points on lens
S points on S
1 1 1
1′ 4 2
1′
4′ 2′
4 1′
1′ 3 3′ 0 3′ 3 2
1 2′ 4′ 4′ 2′
1 1′
2 4 3
1′ 1 3′
P,O
S 60°
Optical Coatings
Figure 1.17 Imaging an off-axis point source by a lens with positive transverse coma

Fundamental Optics
Positive lens elements usually have inward curving fields, and neg- The index of refraction of a material is a function of wavelength.
ative lenses have outward curving fields. Field curvature can thus Known as dispersion, this is discussed in Chapter 4, Material
be corrected to some extent by combining positive and negative Properties. From Snell’s law (see equation 1.20), it can be seen that
lens elements. light rays of different wavelengths or colors will be refracted at
different angles since the index is not a constant. Figure 1.21 shows
DISTORTION the result when polychromatic collimated light is incident on a pos-
The image field not only may have curvature but may also be itive lens element. Because the index of refraction is higher for
shorter wavelengths, these are focused closer to the lens than the

distorted. The image of an off-axis point may be formed at a
location on this surface other than that predicted by the simple longer wavelengths. Longitudinal chromatic aberration is defined
paraxial equations. This distortion is different from coma (where as the axial distance from the nearest to the farthest focal point.
rays from an off-axis point fail to meet perfectly in the image As in the case of spherical aberration, positive and negative
plane). Distortion means that even if a perfect off-axis point image elements have opposite signs of chromatic aberration. Once again,
is formed, its location on the image plane is not correct. Further- by combining elements of nearly opposite aberration to form a
more, the amount of distortion usually increases with increasing doublet, chromatic aberration can be partially corrected. It is nec-
image height. The effect of this can be seen as two different kinds essary to use two glasses with different dispersion characteristics,
of distortion: pincushion and barrel (see figure 1.20). Distortion so that the weaker negative element can balance the aberration of
does not lower system resolution; it simply means that the image the stronger, positive element.
shape does not correspond exactly to the shape of the object.
Distortion is a separation of the actual image point from the
paraxially predicted location on the image plane and can be
expressed either as an absolute value or as a percentage of the
paraxial image height. Variations of Aberrations with Aperture,
It should be apparent that a lens or lens system has opposite Field Angle, and Image Height
types of distortion depending on whether it is used forward or back- Aperture Field Angle Image Height
ward. This means that if a lens were used to make a photograph, Aberration (Ω) (ß) (y)
and then used in reverse to project it, there would be no distortion Lateral Spherical Ω3 — —
in the final screen image. Also, perfectly symmetrical optical systems Longitudinal Spherical Ω2 — —
at 1:1 magnification have no distortion or coma. Coma Ω2 ß y
Astigmatism Ω ß2 y2
CHROMATIC ABERRATION Field Curvature Ω ß2 y2
The aberrations previously described are purely a function of the Distortion — ß3 y3
shape of the lens surfaces, and can be observed with monochro- Chromatic — — —
matic light. There are, however, other aberrations that arise when
these optics are used to transform light containing multiple
Material Properties
wavelengths.
white light ray red focal point

OBJECT PINCUSHION BARREL
DISTORTION DISTORTION blue focal point
blue light ray longitudinal

chromatic
Optical Coatings
aberration
red light ray
Figure 1.20 Pincushion and barrel distortion Figure 1.21 Longitudinal chromatic aberration

Fundamental Optics
LATERAL COLOR
Lateral color is the difference in image height between blue and
APPLICATION NOTE
red rays. Figure 1.22 shows the chief ray of an optical system
consisting of a simple positive lens and a separate aperture. Because
of the change in index with wavelength, blue light is refracted more
Achromatic Doublets Are Superior
strongly than red light, which is why rays intercept the image plane
to Simple Lenses
at different heights. Stated simply, magnification depends on color. Because achromatic doublets correct for spherical
as well as chromatic aberration, they are often
Lateral color is very dependent on system stop location.

For many optical systems, the third-order term is all that may superior to simple lenses for focusing collimated
be needed to quantify aberrations. However, in highly corrected light or collimating point sources, even in purely
systems or in those having large apertures or a large angular field monochromatic light.
of view, third-order theory is inadequate. In these cases, exact ray Although there is no simple formula that can be
tracing is absolutely essential. used to estimate the spot size of a doublet, the
tables on page 1.26 give sample values that can be
used to estimate the performance of other catalog
achromats.
red light ray lateral color
blue light ray
aperture focal plane
Figure 1.22 Lateral color

Material Properties
Optical Coatings

Lens Shape
Fundamental Optics
Aberrations described in the preceding section are highly At infinite conjugate with a typical glass singlet, the plano-convex
dependent on application, lens shape, and material of the lens (or, shape (q = 1), with convex side toward the infinite conjugate, performs
more exactly, its index of refraction). The singlet shape that minimizes nearly as well as the best-form lens. Because a plano-convex lens costs
spherical aberration at a given conjugate ratio is called best-form. much less to manufacture than an asymmetric biconvex singlet, these
The criterion for best-form at any conjugate ratio is that the marginal lenses are quite popular. Furthermore, this lens shape exhibits near-
rays are equally refracted at each of the lens/air interfaces. This minimum total transverse aberration and near-zero coma when used
minimizes the effect of sin v ≠ v. It is also the criterion for minimum off axis, thus enhancing its utility.
surface-reflectance loss. Another benefit is that absolute coma is For imaging at unit magnification (s = s″ = 2f), a similar analysis

nearly minimized for best-form shape, at both infinite and unit would show that a symmetric biconvex lens is the best shape. Not
conjugate ratios. only is spherical aberration minimized, but coma, distortion, and
To further explore the dependence of aberrations on lens shape, it lateral chromatic aberration exactly cancel each other out. These
is helpful to make use of the Coddington shape factor, q, defined as results are true regardless of material index or wavelength, which
explains the utility of symmetric convex lenses, as well as symmetrical
(r2 + r1 ) optical systems in general. However, if a remote stop is present,
q = . (1.23)
(r2 4 r1 ) these aberrations may not cancel each other quite as well.
For wide-field applications, the best-form shape is definitely not
Figure 1.23 shows the transverse and longitudinal spherical the optimum singlet shape, especially at the infinite conjugate ratio,
aberration of a singlet lens as a function of the shape factor, q. In this since it yields maximum field curvature. The ideal shape is determined
particular instance, the lens has a focal length of 100 mm, operates by the situation and may require rigorous ray-tracing analysis.
at f/5, has an index of refraction of 1.518722 (BK7 at the mercury It is possible to achieve much better correction in an optical sys-
green line, 546.1 nm), and is being operated at the infinite conjugate
tem by using more than one element. The cases of an infinite
ratio. It is also assumed that the lens itself is the aperture stop. An conjugate ratio system and a unit conjugate ratio system are
asymmetric shape that corresponds to a q-value of about 0.7426 for discussed in the following section.
this material and wavelength is the best singlet shape for on-axis
imaging. Best-form shapes are used in Melles Griot laser-line-focusing
singlet lenses. It is important to note that the best-form shape is
dependent on refractive index. For example, with a high-index
material, such as silicon, the best-form lens for the infinite conju-
gate ratio is a meniscus shape. Material Properties
5
ABERRATIONS IN MILLIMETERS
exact longitudinal spherical aberration (LSA)

3
exact transverse spherical

2
aberration (TSA)
42 41.5 41 40.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

SHAPE FACTOR (q)
Optical Coatings
Figure 1.23 Aberrations of positive singlets at infinite conjugate ratio as a function of shape

Lens Combinations
Fundamental Optics
INFINITE CONJUGATE RATIO

As shown in the previous discussion, the best-form singlet lens
for use at infinite conjugate ratios is generally nearly plano-con- PLANO-CONVEX LENS
vex. Figure 1.24 shows a plano-convex lens (01 LPX 023) with paraxial image plane
ray f-numbers
incoming collimated light at a wavelength of 546.1 nm. This draw- 1.5
ing, including the rays traced through it, is shown to exact scale. The 1.9
marginal ray (ray f-number 1.5) strikes the paraxial focal plane sig- 2.5
nificantly off the optical axis. 3.8

7.5
This situation can be improved by using a two-element system.
The second part of the figure shows a precision achromat (01 LAO 014),
which consists of a positive low-index (crown glass) element cemented
to a negative meniscus high-index (flint glass) element. This is drawn
to the same scale as the plano-convex lens. No spherical aberration
can be discerned in the lens. Of course, not all of the rays pass exactly 01 LPX 023
through the paraxial focal point; however, in this case, the departure
is measured in micrometers, rather than in millimeters, as in the case
of the plano-convex lens. Additionally, chromatic aberration (not
ACHROMAT
shown) is much better corrected in the doublet. Even though these
lenses are known as achromatic doublets, it is important to remember 1.5
that even with monochromatic light the doublet’s performance is 1.9
2.5
superior.
3.8
Figure 1.24 also shows the f-number at which singlet performance 7.5
becomes unacceptable. The ray with f-number 7.5 practically inter-
cepts the paraxial focal point, and the f/3.8 ray is fairly close. This use-
ful drawing, which can be scaled to fit a plano-convex lens of any focal
length, can be used to estimate the magnitude of its spherical aberration,
although lens thickness affects results slightly.
01 LAO 014
UNIT CONJUGATE RATIO
Figure 1.25 shows three possible systems for use at the unit
conjugate ratio. All are shown to the same scale and using the Figure 1.24 Single-element plano-convex lens compared
same ray f-numbers with a light wavelength of 546.1 nm. The first with a two-element achromat
system is a symmetric biconvex lens (01 LDX 027), the best-form
Material Properties
singlet in this application. Clearly, significant spherical aberration

is present in this lens at f/2.7. Not until f/13.3 does the ray closely The previous examples indicate that an achromat is superior in
approach the paraxial focus. performance to a singlet when used at the infinite conjugate ratio
and at low f-numbers. Since the unit conjugate case can be thought
A dramatic improvement in performance is gained by using two
of as two lenses, each working at the infinite conjugate ratio, the next
identical plano-convex lenses with convex surfaces facing and nearly
step is to replace the plano-convex singlets with achromats, yielding
in contact. Those shown in figure 1.25 are both 01 LPX 081. The com-
a four-element system. The third part of figure 1.25 shows a system
bination of these two lenses yields almost exactly the same focal
composed of two 01 LAO 037 lenses. Once again, spherical aberration
length as the biconvex lens. To understand why this configuration
is not evident, even in the f/2.7 ray.
improves performance so dramatically, consider that if the bicon-
vex lens were split down the middle, we would have two identical
plano-convex lenses, each working at an infinite conjugate ratio,
but with the convex surface toward the focus. This orientation is
opposite to that shown to be optimum for this shape lens. On the other
hand, if these lenses are reversed, we have the system just described
Optical Coatings
but with a better correction of the spherical aberration.

Fundamental Optics
SYMMETRIC BICONVEX LENS
ray f-numbers 2.7

3.3 paraxial image plane
4.4
6.7
13.3
01 LDX 027
IDENTICAL PLANO-CONVEX LENSES
2.7
3.3
4.4
6.7
13.3
01 LPX 081
IDENTICAL ACHROMATS
Material Properties
2.7
3.3
4.4
6.7
13.3
01 LAO 037
Optical Coatings
Figure 1.25 Three possible systems for use at the unit conjugate ratio

Diffraction Effects
Fundamental Optics
In all light beams, some energy is spread outside the region pre- CIRCULAR APERTURE
dicted by rectilinear propagation. This effect, known as diffrac- Fraunhofer diffraction at a circular aperture dictates the
tion, is a fundamental and inescapable physical phenomenon. fundamental limits of performance for circular lenses. It is important
Diffraction can be understood by considering the wave nature to remember that the spot size, caused by diffraction, of a circular
of light. Huygen’s principle (figure 1.26) states that each point on lens is
a propagating wavefront is an emitter of secondary wavelets. The d = 2.44 l f/# (1.24)
combined focus of these expanding wavelets forms the propagating
where d is the diameter of the focused spot produced from plane-
wave. Interference between the secondary wavelets gives rise to a
wave illumination and l is the wavelength of light being focused.

fringe pattern that rapidly decreases in intensity with increasing
Notice that it is the f-number of the lens, not its absolute diameter,
angle from the initial direction of propagation. Huygen’s principle that determines this limiting spot size.
nicely describes diffraction, but rigorous explanation demands a
The diffraction pattern resulting from a uniformly illuminated cir-
detailed study of wave theory.
cular aperture actually consists of a central bright region, known as
Diffraction effects are traditionally classified into either Fresnel
the Airy disc (see figure 1.27), which is surrounded by a number of much
or Fraunhofer types. Fresnel diffraction is primarily concerned fainter rings. Each ring is separated by a circle of zero intensity. The
with what happens to light in the immediate neighborhood of a irradiance distribution in this pattern can be described by
diffracting object or aperture. It is thus only of concern when the
2
illumination source is close to this aperture or object. Consequently,  2J (x) 
Ix = I0  1  (1.25)
Fresnel diffraction is rarely important in most optical setups.  x 
Fraunhofer diffraction, however, is often very important. This is
where I0 = peak irradiance in image
the light-spreading effect of an aperture when the aperture (or
object) is illuminated with an infinite source (plane-wave illumi- ∞

x 2n42
nation) and the light is sensed at an infinite distance (far-field) from J1 (x) = x ∑ (41) n+1
(n 4 1)!n!2 2n41
this aperture. n=1
From these overly simple definitions, one might assume that

Fraunhofer diffraction is important only in optical systems with J1 (x) = Bessel function of the first kind of order unity
infinite conjugate, whereas Fresnel diffraction equations should be πD
x = sin v
considered at finite conjugate ratios. Not so. A lens or lens system l
of finite positive focal length with plane-wave input maps the far-
where l = wavelength
field diffraction pattern of its aperture onto the focal plane; there-
D= aperture diameter
fore, it is Fraunhofer diffraction that determines the limiting v = angular radius from pattern maximum.
performance of optical systems. More generally, at any conjugate
ratio, far-field angles are transformed into spatial displacements This useful formula shows the far-field irradiance distribution from
in the image plane. a uniformly illuminated circular aperture of diameter, D.
Material Properties
APPLICATION NOTE some light diffracted

into this region
Rayleigh Criterion
In imaging applications, spatial resolution is ultimately
secondary
limited by diffraction. Calculating the maximum possible
wavelets
spatial resolution of an optical system requires an
arbitrary definition of what is meant by resolving two
features. In the Rayleigh criterion, it is assumed that
wavefront
two separate point sources can be resolved when the wavefront
center of the Airy disc from one overlaps the first
dark ring in the diffraction pattern of the second. In
this case, the smallest resolvable distance, d, is
Optical Coatings
aperture
0.61 l
d = = 1.22 l f/#.
N.A.
Figure 1.26 Huygen’s principle

Fundamental Optics
ENERGY DISTRIBUTION TABLE
The table below shows the major features of pure (unaberrated)
Fraunhofer diffraction patterns of circular and slit apertures. The
table shows the position, relative intensity, and percentage of total
pattern energy corresponding to each ring or band. It is especially
convenient to characterize positions in either pattern with the same
variable x. This variable is related to field angle in the circular

aperture case by
lx
sin v = (1.27)
AIRY DISC DIAMETER = 2.44 l f/# pD
Figure 1.27 Center of a typical diffraction pattern for a where D is the aperture diameter. For a slit aperture, this relationship
circular aperture is given by
lx (1.28)
sin v =
SLIT APERTURE pw
A slit aperture, which is mathematically simpler, is useful in where w is the slit width, p has its usual meaning, and D, w, and l
relation to cylindrical optical elements. The irradiance distribution are all in the same units (preferably millimeters).
in the diffraction pattern of a uniformly illuminated slit aperture is
described by Linear instead of angular field positions are simply found from
2
 sin x  r = s″ tan (v) (1.29)
I x = I0   (1.26)
 x  where s″ is the secondary conjugate distance. This last result is often
seen in a different form, namely the diffraction-limited spot-size
where I 0 = peak irradiance in image equation. For a circular lens that was stated at the outset of this
section:
p w sin v
x =
l
d = 2.44 l f/# (see 1.24)
where l = wavelength
w = slit width This value represents the smallest spot size that can be achieved
v = angular deviation from pattern maximum. by an optical system with a circular aperture of a given f-number.
Material Properties
Energy Distribution in the Diffraction Pattern of a Circular or Slit Aperture

Circular Aperture Slit Aperture
Relative Energy Relative Energy

Position Intensity in Ring Position Intensity in Band
Ring or Band (x) (Ix /I0) (%) (x) (Ix /I0) (%)
Central Maximum 0.0 1.0 83.8 0.0 1.0 90.3

First Dark 1.22p 0.0 1.00p 0.0
First Bright 1.64p 0.0175 7.2 1.43p 0.0472 4.7
Second Dark 2.23p 0.0 2.00p 0.0
Second Bright 2.68p 0.0042 2.8 2.46p 0.0165 1.7
Third Dark 3.24p 0.0 3.00p 0.0
Third Bright 3.70p 0.0016 1.5 3.47p 0.0083 0.8
Fourth Dark 4.24p 0.0 4.00p 0.0
Optical Coatings
Fourth Bright 4.71p 0.0008 1.0 4.48p 0.0050 0.5

Fifth Dark 5.24p 0.0 5.00p 0.0
Note: Position variable (x) is defined in the text.

Fundamental Optics
The graph in figure 1.28 shows the form of both circular and slit when dealing with Gaussian beams, the location of the focused spot
aperture diffraction patterns when plotted on the same normalized also departs from that predicted by the paraxial equations given
scale. Aperture diameter is equal to slit width so that patterns between in this chapter. This is also detailed in chapter 2.
x-values and angular deviations in the far-field are the same.
GAUSSIAN BEAMS
Apodization, or nonuniformity of aperture irradiance, alters
diffraction patterns. If pupil irradiance is nonuniform, the formu-

las and results given previously do not apply. This is important to
remember because most laser-based optical systems do not have
uniform pupil irradiance. The output beam of a laser operating
in the TEM00 mode has a smooth Gaussian irradiance profile.
Formulas to determine the focused spot size from such a beam are
discussed in Chapter 2, Gaussian Beam Optics. Furthermore,
CIRCULAR APERTURE
2
91.0% within first bright ring  2J1(x) 
yc =  
 x 
83.9% in Airy disc
∞
x 2n 4 2
where J1(x) = x ∑ (41)n+1
(n 4 1)!n!22n 4 1
n=1
NORMALIZED PATTERN IRRADIANCE (y)
1.0
.9 Note : J1 (x) is the Bessel function
.8 of the first kind of order unity.
.7 p
.6 x = D sinv
l
.5
l = wavelength
.4
slit circular D = aperture diameter
Material Properties
.3
aperture aperture
.2 v = angular radius from pattern maximum
.1
2
0.0  sin x  p
48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ys =   , where x = l w sin v
 x 
POSITION IN IMAGE PLANE (x)
l = wavelength
w = slit width
90.3% in v = angular deviation direction of pattern
central maximum
maximum
95.0% within the two
adjoining subsidiary maxima
SLIT APERTURE
Optical Coatings
Figure 1.28 Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of a singlet slit superimposed on the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of a
circular aperture

Lens Selection
Fundamental Optics
Having discussed the most important factors that affect a lens or While angular divergence decreases with increasing focal length,
a lens system’s performance, we will now address the practical matter spherical aberration of a plano-convex lens increases with increasing
of selecting the optimum catalog components for a particular task. focal length. To determine the appropriate focal length, set the
The following useful relationships are important to keep in mind spherical aberration formula for a plano-convex lens equal to the
throughout the selection process: source (spot) size:
$ Diffraction-limited spot size = 2.44 ¬ f/#

0.067 f (see eq. 1.22)
$ Approximate on-axis spot size = 1 mm.

f/# 3
of a plano-convex lens at the infinite 0.067 f
conjugate resulting from spherical aberration =
f/#3 This ensures a lens that meets the minimum performance needed.
NA
$ Optical invariant = m = . To select a focal length, make an arbitrary f-number choice. As
NA" can be seen from the relationship, as we lower the f-number (increase
collection efficiency), we decrease the focal length, which will worsen
Example 1: Collimating an Incandescent Source the resultant divergence angle (minimum divergence = 1 mm/f).
Produce a collimated beam from a quartz halogen bulb having In this example, we will accept f/2 collection efficiency, which gives
a 1-mm-square filament. Collect the maximum amount of light us a focal length of about 120 mm. For f/2 operation we would
possible and produce a beam with the lowest possible divergence need a minimum diameter of 60 mm. The 01 LPX 209 fits this
angle. specification exactly. Beam divergence would be about 8 mrad.
This problem, illustrated in figure 1.29, involves the typical trade- Finally, we need to verify that we are not operating below the
off between light-collection efficiency and resolution (where a beam theoretical diffraction limit. In this example, the numbers (1-mm
is being collimated rather than focused, resolution is defined by beam spot size) indicate that we are not, since
divergence). To collect more light, it is necessary to work at a low
diffraction-limited spot size = 2.44 ! 0.5 mm ! 2 = 2.44 mm.
f-number, but because of aberrations, higher resolution (lower diver-
gence angle) will be achieved by working at a higher f-number.
In terms of resolution, the first thing to realize is that the Example 2: Coupling an Incandescent Source into a Fiber
minimum divergence angle (in radians) that can be achieved using On pages 1.6 and 1.7 we considered a system in which the output
any lens system is the source size divided by system focal length. An of an incandescent bulb with a filament of 1 mm in diameter was
off-axis ray (from the edge of the source) entering the first principal to be coupled into an optical fiber with a core diameter of 100 µm
point of the system exits the second principal point at the same and a numerical aperture of 0.25. From the optical invariant and
angle. Therefore, increasing system focal length improves this lim- other constraints given in the problem, we determined that system
iting divergence because the source appears smaller. focal length is 9.1 mm, diameter = 5 mm, s = 100 mm, s″ = 10 mm,
An optic that can produce a spot size of 1 mm when focusing a NA″ = 0.25, and NA = 0.025 (or f/2 and f/20). The singlet lenses
perfectly collimated beam is therefore required. Since source size is that match these specifications are the plano-convex 01 LPX 003
Material Properties
inherently limited, it is pointless to strive for better resolution. This or biconvex lenses 01 LDX 003 and 01 LDX 005. The closest
level of resolution can be achieved easily with a plano-convex lens. achromat would be the 01 LAO 001.
v min
v min = source size

f
Optical Coatings
Figure 1.29 Collimating an incandescent source

Fundamental Optics
We can immediately reject the biconvex lenses because of length for a plano-convex lens, we again use the spherical aberra-
spherical aberration. We can estimate the performance of the tion estimate formula:
01 LPX 003 on the focusing side by using our spherical aberration
formula: 0.067 f
= 0.008 mm.
0.067 (10) 3.3 3
spot size = = 84 mm.
23 This formula yields a focal length of 4.3 mm and a minimum
diameter of 1.3 mm. The 01 LPX 423 meets these criteria. The
We will ignore, for the moment, that we are not working at the
infinite conjugate. biggest problem with utilizing these tiny, short focal length lenses
This is slightly smaller than the 100-µm spot size we’re trying is the practical considerations of handling, mounting, and position-
to achieve. However, since we are not working at infinite conju- ing them. Since using a pair of longer focal length singlets would
gate, the spot size will be larger than given by our simple calcula- result in unacceptable performance, the next step might be to
tion. This lens is therefore likely to be marginal in this situation, use a pair of the slightly longer focal length, larger achromats,
especially if we consider chromatic aberration. A better choice is the such as the 01 LAO 001. The performance data, given on page 1.26,
achromat. Although a computer ray trace would be required to shows that this combination does provide the required 8-mm spot
determine its exact performance, it is virtually certain to provide ade- diameter.
quate performance. Because fairly small spot sizes are being considered here, it is
important to make sure that the system is not being asked to work
Example 3: Symmetric Fiber-to-Fiber Coupling below the diffraction limit:
Couple an optical fiber with an 8-µm core and a 0.15 numerical
aperture into another fiber with the same characteristics. Assume 2.44 ! 0.5 mm ! 3.3 = 4 mm .
a wavelength of 0.5 µm.
This problem, illustrated in figure 1.30, is essentially a 1:1 imaging Since this is half the spot size caused by aberrations, it can be
situation. We want to collect and focus at a numerical aperture of safely assumed that diffraction will not play a significant role here.
0.15 or f/3.3, and we need a lens with an 8-µm spot size at this An entirely different approach to a fiber-coupling task such as
f-number. Based on the lens combination discussion on page 1.8, this would be a pair of spherical ball lenses (06 LMS series), listed
our most likely setup is either a pair of identical plano-convex lenses on page 15.15, or one of the gradient-index lenses (06 LGT series),
or achromats, faced front to front. To determine the necessary focal listed on page 15.19.
Material Properties
s=f s"= f
Optical Coatings
Figure 1.30 Symmetric fiber-to-fiber coupling

Fundamental Optics
Example 4: Diffraction-Limited Performance
Determine at what f-number a plano-convex lens being used at MELLES GRIOT LENS DATABASE
an infinite conjugate ratio with 0.5-mm wavelength light becomes A database containing prescription information
diffraction limited (i.e., the effects of diffraction exceed those caused for most of the optical components listed in this
by aberration). catalog is included in the Melles Griot catalog on
To solve this problem, set the equations for diffraction-limited spot CD-ROM. This database, in a Zemax format,
size and third-order spherical aberration equal to each other. The facilitates the determination of

result depends upon focal length, since aberrations scale with focal
• Spot size
length, while diffraction is solely dependent upon f-number. Sub-
stituting some common focal lengths into this formula, we get f/8.6 • Prescription information
at f = 100 mm, f/7.2 at f = 50 mm, and f/4.8 at f = 10 mm.
• Wavefront distortion.
0.067 ! f Please contact our sales department for your free
2.44 ! 0.5 mm ! f/# =
f/# 3 Melles Griot Catalog on CD-ROM:
or Phone: 1-800-835-2626 / (949) 261-5600
FAX: (949) 261-7790
f/# = (54.9 ! f)1/4 .
E-mail: mglit@irvine.mellesgriot.com
When working with these focal lengths (and under the conditions Non-US customers should contact the nearest
previously stated), we can assume essentially diffraction-limited Melles Griot office (see back cover).
performance above these f-numbers. Keep in mind, however, that
this treatment does not take into account manufacturing tolerances
or chromatic aberration, which will be present in polychromatic
applications.
Material Properties
Optical Coatings

Spot Size
Fundamental Optics
In general, the performance of a lens or lens system in a specific The effect on spot size caused by spherical aberration is strongly
circumstance should be determined by an exact trigonometric ray dependent on f-number. For a plano-convex singlet, spherical
trace. Melles Griot applications engineers can supply ray-trace aberration is inversely dependent on the cube of the f-number. For
data for particular lenses and systems of catalog components on doublets, this relationship can be even higher. On the other hand,
request. However, for certain situations, some simple guidelines the spot size caused by diffraction increases linearly with f-number.
can be used for lens selection. The optimum working conditions Thus, for some lens types, spot size at first decreases and then
for some of the lenses in this catalog have already been presented. increases with f-number, meaning that there is some optimum
The following tables give some quantitative results for a variety performance point where both aberrations and diffraction combine
of simple and compound lens systems that can be constructed to form a minimum.
from standard catalog optics. Unfortunately, these results cannot be generalized to situations
In interpreting these tables, remember that these theoretical val- where the lenses are used off axis. This is particularly true of the
ues obtained from computer ray tracing consider only the effects achromat/aplanatic meniscus lens combinations because their
of ideal geometric optics. Effects of manufacturing tolerances have performance degrades rapidly off axis.
not been considered. Furthermore, remember that using more than
one element provides a higher degree of correction but makes
alignment more difficult. When actually choosing a lens or a lens
system, it is important to note the tolerances and specifications
clearly described for each Melles Griot lens in the product listings.
The tables give spot size for a variety of lenses used at several dif-
ferent f-numbers. All the tables are for on-axis, uniformly illuminated,
collimated input light at 632.8 nm. They assume that the lens is
facing in the direction that produces a minimum spot size. When

the spot size caused by aberrations is smaller or equal to the
diffraction-limited spot size, the notation “DL’’ appears next to
the entry. The shorter focal length lenses produce smaller spot sizes
because aberrations increase linearly as a lens is scaled up.
Focal Length = 10 mm Focal Length = 30 mm

Spot Size (µm)* Spot Size (µm)*
01 LDX 005 01 LPX 005 01 LAO 001 01 LAO 059 &
01 LPX 049 01 LAO 024 01 LAM 059
f/2 550 95 4
f/3 120 25 5 (DL) f/2 350 80 4
f/3 90 11 5 (DL)
Material Properties
f/5 30 8 (DL) 8 (DL)

f/10 15 (DL) 15 (DL) 15 (DL) f/5 17 8 (DL) 8 (DL)
*Diffraction-limited performance is indicated by DL.
f/10 15 (DL) 15 (DL) 15 (DL)
Focal Length = 60 mm
Spot Size (µm)*
01 LDX 123 01 LPX 127 01 LAO 079 01 LAO 126 & 01 LAM 126
f/2 800 600 80 6
f/3 225 200 35 5 (DL)
f/5 42 30 9 8 (DL)
f/10 15 (DL) 15 (DL) 15 (DL) 15 (DL)
Optical Coatings

Aberration Balancing
Fundamental Optics
To improve system performance, optical designers make sure aberration of this Galilean-type beam expander, which consists of
that the total aberration contribution from all surfaces taken together a positive focal length objective and a negative diverging lens.
sums to nearly zero. Normally, such a process requires computer- If a plano-convex lens of focal length f1 oriented in the normal
ized analysis and optimization. However, there are some simple direction is combined with a plano-concave lens of focal length f2
guidelines that can be used to achieve this with lenses available in oriented in its reverse direction, the total spherical aberration of
this catalog. This approach can yield systems that operate at a much the system is
lower f-number than can usually be achieved with simple lenses.
0.272 f1 1.069 f 2
+

Specifically, we will examine how to null the spherical aberration LSA = . (1.30)
from two or more lenses in collimated, monochromatic light. Thus, f/# 2 f/# 2
this technique will be most useful for laser beam focusing and After setting this equal to zero, we obtain
expanding.
f1 1.069
Figure 1.31 shows the third-order longitudinal spherical =4 = 43.93.
f2 0.272
aberration coefficients for four of the most common positive and
negative lens shapes when used with parallel, monochromatic To make the magnitude of aberration contributions of the two
incident light. The plano-convex and plano-concave lenses both elements equal so they will cancel out, and thus correct the system,
show minimum spherical aberration when oriented with their curved select the focal length of the positive element to be 3.93 times that
surface facing the incident parallel beam. All other configurations of the negative element.
exhibit larger amounts of spherical aberration. With these lens types, Figure 1.32 shows a beam-expander system made up of catalog
it is now possible to show how various systems can be corrected for elements, in which the focal length ratio is 4:1. This simple system is
spherical aberration. corrected to about 1/6 wavelength at 632.8 nm, even though the objec-
A two-element laser beam expander is a good starting exam- tive is operating at f/4 with a 20-mm aperture diameter. This is remark-
ple. In this case, two lenses are separated by a distance which is the ably good wavefront correction for such a simple system; one would
sum of their focal lengths, so that the overall system focal length is normally assume that a doublet objective would be needed and a
infinite. This system will not focus incoming collimated light, but complex diverging lens as well. This analysis does not take into
it will change the beam diameter. By definition, each of the lenses account manufacturing tolerances.
is operating at the same f-number. A beam expander of lower magnification can also be derived
The equation for longitudinal spherical aberration shows that from this information. If a symmetric-convex objective is used
for two lenses with the same f-number, aberration varies directly with together with a reversed plano-concave diverging lens, the aberration
the focal lengths of the lenses. The sign of the aberration is the same coefficients are in the ratio of 1.069/40.403 = 42.65. Figure 1.32
as focal length. Thus, it should be possible to correct the spherical shows a system of catalog lenses that provides a magnification of
Material Properties
positive lenses
plano-convex (reversed) 01 LPX symmetric-convex 01 LDX plano-convex (normal) 01 LPX
negative lenses
plano-concave (reversed) 01 LPK symmetric-concave 01 LDK plano-concave (normal) 01 LPK

aberration 1.069 0.403 0.272
coefficient
longitudinal spherical aberration (3rd order) = kf2
Optical Coatings
(k) f/#
Figure 1.31 Third-order longitudinal spherical aberration of typical lens shapes

Fundamental Optics
2.7 (the closest possible given the available focal lengths). The
maximum wavefront error in this case is only 1/4 wave, even though
a) CORRECTED 4!BEAM EXPANDER
the objective is working at f/3.3.
The relatively fast speed of these objectives is a great advantage
in minimizing the length of these beam expanders. They would be
particularly useful with Nd:YAG and argon-ion lasers, which tend
to have large output beam diameters.
These same principles can be utilized to create high numerical
aperture objectives that might be used as laser focusing lenses.

Figure 1.32 shows an objective consisting of an initial negative
f= 420 mm f= 80 mm
element, followed by two identical plano-convex positive elements.
10-mm diameter 22.4-mm diameter
plano-concave plano-convex Again, all of the elements operate at the same f-number, so that
01 LPK 001 01 LPX 149 their aberration contributions are proportional to their focal lengths.
To obtain zero total spherical aberration from this configuration,
we must satisfy
1.069 f1 + 0.272 f 2 + 0.272 f 2 = 0

b) CORRECTED 2.7x BEAM EXPANDER or
f1
= 40.51.
f2
Therefore, a corrected system should result if the focal length of

the negative element is just about half that of each of the positive
lenses. In this case, f1 = 425 mm and f2 = 50 mm yield a total system
f= 420 mm f= 54 mm focal length of about 25 mm and an f-number of approximately
10-mm diameter 32-mm diameter f/2. This objective, corrected to 1/6 wave, has the additional advan-
plano-concave symmetric-convex tage of a very long working distance.
01 LPK 001 01 LDX 119
UV OPTICS
c) SPHERICALLY CORRECTED 25-mm EFL f/2.0 OBJECTIVE

Material Properties
f= 425 mm f= 50 mm (2)
25-mm diameter 27-mm diameter
plano-concave plano-convex
01 LPK 003 01 LPX 108
Figure 1.32 Combining catalog lenses for aberration

balancing
Optical Coatings
Melles Griot now offers a selection of UV optics

ranging from 193 to 355 nm. See Chapter 16,
The material presented in this section is based on the work of John UV Optics, for details.
F. Forkner.

Definition of Terms
Fundamental Optics
FOCAL LENGTH (f) FOCAL POINT (F OR F″)
Two distinct terms describe the focal lengths associated with Rays that pass through or originate at either focal point must be,
every lens or lens system. The effective focal length (EFL) or on the opposite side of the lens, parallel to the optical axis. This
equivalent focal length (denoted f in figure 1.33) determines fact is the basis for locating both focal points.
magnification and hence the image size. The term f appears
frequently in the lens formulas and tables of standard lenses. PRIMARY PRINCIPAL SURFACE
Unfortunately, f is measured with reference to principal points
Let us imagine that rays originating at the front focal point F (and

which are usually inside the lens so the meaning of f is not
therefore parallel to the optical axis after emergence from the oppo-
immediately apparent when a lens is visually inspected.
site side of the lens) are singly refracted at some imaginary surface,
The second type of focal length relates the focal plane positions instead of twice refracted (once at each lens surface) as actually
directly to landmarks on the lens surfaces (namely the vertices) happens. There is a unique imaginary surface, called the principal
which are immediately recognizable. It is not simply related to image surface, at which this can happen.
size but is especially convenient for use when one is concerned about
To locate this unique surface, consider a single ray traced from
correct lens positioning or mechanical clearances. Examples of this
the air on one side of the lens, through the lens and into the air on
second type of focal length are the front focal length (FFL, denoted
the other side. The ray is broken into three segments by the lens.
ff in figure 1.33) and the back focal length (BFL, denoted fb).
Two of these are external (in the air), and the third is internal (in
The convention in all of the figures (with the exception of a single the glass). The external segments can be extended to a common
deliberately reversed ray) is that light travels from left to right. point of intersection (certainly near, and usually within, the lens). The
tc secondary principal surface
primary principal point secondary principal point
te
primary principal surface
ray from object at infinity rear (secondary)

focal point
ray from object at infinity
r2
primary vertex A1
optical axis F
H H″ A2 secondary vertex F″
front (primary) r1
focal point reversed ray locates front focal
point or primary principal surface
Material Properties
ff fb
A B
f f
front focal point rear focal point
A = front focus to front f = effective focal length; te = edge thickness r1 = radius of curvature of first
edge distance may be positive (as shown) surface (positive if center of
or negative tc = center thickness curvature is to right)
B = rear edge to rear
focus distance ff = front focal length r2 = radius of curvature of second
surface (negative if center of
fb = back focal length curvature is to left)
Optical Coatings
Figure 1.33 Focal length and focal points

Fundamental Optics
principal surface is the locus of all such points of intersection of BACK FOCAL LENGTH (fb)
extended external ray segments. The principal surface of a perfectly This length is the distance from the secondary vertex (A2) to
corrected optical system is a sphere centered on the focal point.
the rear focal point (F″ ).
Near the optical axis, the principal surface is nearly flat, and
for this reason, it is sometimes referred to as the principal plane.
EDGE-TO-FOCUS DISTANCES (A AND B)
SECONDARY PRINCIPAL SURFACE
A is the distance from the front focal point to the front edge of
This term is defined analogously to the primary principal surface, the lens. B is the distance from the rear edge of the lens to the rear
but it is used for a collimated beam incident from the left and focused focal point. Both distances are presumed always to be positive.
to the rear focal point F ≤ on the right. Rays in that part of the
beam nearest the axis can be thought of as once refracted at the
secondary principal surface, instead of being refracted by both lens REAL IMAGE
surfaces. A real image is one in which the light rays actually converge;
if a screen were placed at the point of focus, an image would be
PRIMARY PRINCIPAL POINT (H) formed on it.
OR FIRST NODAL POINT
This point is the intersection of the primary principal surface with
VIRTUAL IMAGE
the optical axis.
A virtual image does not represent an actual convergence of light
SECONDARY PRINCIPAL POINT (H≤) rays. A virtual image can be viewed only by looking back through
OR SECONDARY NODAL POINT the optical system, such as in the case of a magnifying glass.
This point is the intersection of the secondary principal surface

with the optical axis. F-NUMBER (F/#)
CONJUGATE DISTANCES (S AND S″) The f-number (also known as the focal ratio, relative aperture,
or speed) of a lens system is defined to be the effective focal length
The conjugate distances are the object distance, s, and image
divided by system clear aperture. Ray f-number is the conjugate
distance, s″. Specifically, s is the distance from the object to H, and
distance for that ray divided by the height at which it intercepts the
s″ is the distance from H″ to the image location. The term infinite
principal surface.
conjugate ratio refers to the situation in which a lens is either focusing
incoming collimated light, or being used to collimate a source (there- f
f /# = .
fore either s or s″ is infinity). φ
PRIMARY VERTEX (A1)

NUMERICAL APERTURE (NA)
The primary vertex is the intersection of the primary lens surface
Material Properties
The numerical aperture of a lens system is defined to be the sine

with the optical axis.
of the angle, v1, that the marginal ray (the ray that exits the lens
SECONDARY VERTEX (A2) system at its outer edge) makes with the optical axis multiplied by
the index of refraction (n) of the medium. The numerical aperture
The secondary vertex is the intersection of the secondary lens can be defined for any ray as the sine of the angle made by that ray
surface with the optical axis. with the optical axis multiplied by the index of refraction:
EFFECTIVE FOCAL LENGTH (EFL, f) NA = n sin v. (1.31)
Assuming that the lens is surrounded by air or vacuum (refractive

index 1.0), this is both the distance from the front focal point (F) to the MAGNIFICATION POWER
primary principal point (H) and the distance from the secondary princi-
Often, positive lenses intended for use as simple magnifiers are
pal point (H″) to the rear focal point (F″). Later we use f to designate
rated with a single magnification, such as 4#. To create a virtual
the paraxial effective focal length for the design wavelength (¬0).
image for viewing with the human eye, in principle, any positive
lens can be used at an infinite number of possible magnifications.
Optical Coatings
FRONT FOCAL LENGTH (ff) However, there is usually a narrow range of magnifications that
This length is the distance from the front focal point (F) to the will be comfortable for the viewer. Typically, when the viewer adjusts
primary vertex (A1). the object distance so that the image appears to be essentially at

Fundamental Optics
infinity (which is a comfortable viewing distance for most individ-
uals), magnification is given by the relationship APPLICATION NOTE
250 mm Technical Reference

magnification = (f in mm). (1.32)
f For further reading about the definitions and
formulas presented here, refer to the following
Thus, a 25-mm focal length positive lens would be a 10! magnifier.
publications:

DIOPTERS Rudolph Kingslake, Lens Design Fundamentals
(Academic Press)
Diopter is a term used to define the reciprocal of the focal length,
which is commonly used for ophthalmic lenses. The inverse focal Rudolph Kingslake, Optical System Design
length of a lens expressed in diopters is (Academic Press)
1000 Warren Smith, Modern Optical Engineering

diopters = (f in mm). (1.33) (McGraw Hill).
f
If you need help with the use of definitions and
Thus, the smaller the focal length, the larger the power in diopters.
formulas presented in this catalog, our applications
engineers will be pleased to assist you.
DEPTH OF FIELD AND DEPTH OF FOCUS
In an imaging system, depth of field refers to the distance in
object space over which the system delivers an acceptably sharp
image. The criteria for what is acceptably sharp is arbitrarily chosen
by the user; depth of field increases with increasing f-number.
For an imaging system, depth of focus is the range in image

space over which the system delivers an acceptably sharp image. In
other words, this is the amount that the image surface (such as a
screen or piece of photographic film) could be moved while main-
taining acceptable focus. Again, criteria for acceptability are defined
arbitrarily.
In nonimaging applications, such as laser focusing, depth of
focus refers to the range in image space over which the focused
spot diameter remains below an arbitrary limit.
Material Properties
Optical Coatings

Paraxial Lens Formulas

Fundamental Optics
PARAXIAL FORMULAS FOR LENSES IN AIR Surface Sagitta and Radius of Curvature
(refer to figure 1.34)
The following formulas are based on the behavior of paraxial
rays, which are always very close and nearly parallel to the optical
axis. In this region, lens surfaces are always very nearly normal to 2
 d
the optical axis, and hence all angles of incidence and refraction r 2 = (r 4 s) 2 +   (1.36)
 2
are small. As a result, the sines of the angles of incidence and
refraction are small (as used in Snell’s law) and can be approximated 2
 d
s = r4 r2 4   > 0
by the angles themselves (measured in radians). (1.37)

 2
The paraxial formulas do not include effects of spherical
aberration experienced by a marginal ray — a ray passing through s d2
r = + . (1.38)
the lens near its edge or margin. All effective focal length values (f) 2 8s
tabulated in this catalog are paraxial values which correspond to the
paraxial formulas. An often useful approximation is to neglect s/2.
The following paraxial formulas are valid for both thick and
thin lenses unless otherwise noted. The refractive index of the lens
Symmetric Lens Radii (r2 = 5r1)
glass, n, is the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to the speed of
light in the lens glass. All other variables are defined in figure 1.33. With center thickness constrained,
 
  ft c  
Focal Length r1 = (n 4 1) f ± f 4   
2
(1.39)
  n 

1 1 1 (n 4 1) 2 t c
= (n 4 1)  4  + (1.34)  
 tc 
 r1 = (n 4 1) f 1 + 1 4   
f r2  n r1 r2
  nf  

where n is the refractive index, tc is the center thickness, and the
sign convention previously given for the radii r1 and r2 applies. For where, in the first form, the + sign is chosen for the square root if f is
thin lenses, tc ≅ 0, and for plano lenses either r1 or r2 is infinite. In positive, but the 4 sign must be used if f is negative. In the second
either case the second term of the above equation vanishes, and we form, the + sign must be used regardless of the sign of f. With edge
are left with the familiar Lens Maker’s formula thickness constrained, the equation for r1 becomes transcendental:
1 1 1 1 2 (n41) (n41) 2    f  
= (n 4 1)  4  . (1.35)
 t c + 2r1 14 cos  arcsin
 r1 r2  = 4 
f f r1 nr12    2r1  

(1.40)
Material Properties
where Ω is the lens diameter. This equation can be solved by numerical

s>0 methods.
Plano Lens Radius

Since r2 is infinite,
0 r1 = (n 4 1) f. (1.41)
r> d
2
Principal-Point Locations (signed distances from vertices)
4r2 t c
A 2 H ′′ = (1.42)
(r4s) n (r2 4 r1 ) + t c (n 4 1)
4r1 t c
Optical Coatings
A1 H = (1.43)
n (r2 4 r1 ) + t c (n 4 1)
Figure 1.34 Surface sagitta and radius of curvature where the above sign convention applies.

Fundamental Optics
For symmetric lenses (r2 = 4r1), Back Focal Length
A1 H = 4A 2 H ′′ f b = f" + A 2 H ′′
r1 t c r2 t c
= . (1.44) = f "4 (1.49)
2nr1 4 t c (n 4 1) n(r2 4 r1 ) + t c (n 4 1)
where the sign convention presented above applies to A2H″ and to

If either r1 or r2 is infinite, l’Hôpital’s rule from calculus must be used.
the radii. If r2 is infinite, l’Hôpital’s rule from calculus must be used,
Thus, referring to page 1.27, for plano-convex lenses in the correct

whereby
orientation,
tc
A1 H = 0 f b = f "4 . (1.50)
n (1.50)
and
tc Front Focal Length
A 2 H ′′ = 4 . (1.45)
n (1.51)
f f = f 4 A1 H
r1 t c
For flat plates, by letting r1 → ∞ in a symmetric lens, we obtain = f+
n(r2 4 r1 ) + t c (n 4 1)
A1H = A2H″ = tc /2n. These results are useful in connection with
the following paraxial lens combination formulas. where the sign convention presented above applies to A1H and to
the radii. If r1 is infinite, l’Hôpital’s rule from calculus must be used,
Hiatus or Interstitium (principal-point separation) whereby
 f 1 (n 4 1) 2 t c   tc
HH ′′ = t c 1 4  4  (1.46) ff = f 4 . (1.52)
n f n r1 r2   n
  
Edge-to-Focus Distances
For positive lenses,
which, in the thin-lens approximation (exact for plano lenses),
becomes A = f f + s1 (1.53)
 1 and
HH ′′ = t c 1 4  . (1.47) (1.54)
 n B = fb + s 2
where s1 and s2 are the sagittas of the first and second surfaces.
Bevel is neglected.
Solid Angle
The solid angle subtended by a lens, for an observer situated at an Magnification or Conjugate Ratio
Material Properties
on-axis image point, is

s ′′
m =
Q = 2p (14 cos v ) s
v =
f
(1.55)
= 4p sin 2   (1.48)
s4 f
 2
s ′′ 4 f
= .
f
where this result is in steradians, and where PARAXIAL FORMULAS FOR
LENSES IN ARBITRARY MEDIA
 f 
v = arctan   These formulas allow for the possibility of distinct and completely
 2 s ′′ 
arbitrary refractive indices for the object space medium (refractive
is the apparent angular radius of the lens clear aperture. For an index n′), lens (refractive index n″), and image space medium (refractive
observer at an on-axis object point, use s instead of s″. To convert index n). In this situation, the effective focal length assumes two
from steradians to the more intuitive sphere units, simply divide
Optical Coatings
distinct values, namely f in object space and f″ in image space. It is

Q by 4p. If the Abbé sine condition is known to apply, ß may also necessary to distinguish the principal points from the nodal
be calculated using the arc sine function instead of the arc points. The lens serves both as a lens and as a window separating
tangent. the object space and image space media.

Fundamental Optics
The situation of a lens immersed in a homogenous fluid (fig- Principal-Point Locations

ure 1.35) is included as a special case (n = n″). This case is of
nt c  n ′′ 4 n ′ 
considerable practical importance. The two values f and f″ are again A1 H =   (1.60)
equal, so that the lens-combination formulas are applicable to k  n ′r2 
systems immersed in a common fluid. The general case (two different 4n ′′t c  n ′ 4 n 
A 2 H ′′ =  . (1.61)
fluids) is more difficult, and it must be approached by ray tracing on k  n ′r1 
a surface-by-surface basis.
Object-to-First-Principal-Point Distance
LENS CONSTANT (k) ns ′′

s = . (1.62)
ks ′′ 4 n ′′
This number appears frequently in the following formulas. It is
an explicit function of the complete lens prescription (both radii, Second Principal-Point-to-Image Distance
tc and n′ ) and both media indices (n and n″). This dependence is
n ′′s
implicit anywhere that k appears. s ′′ = . (1.63)
ks 4 n
n ′4n n ′′4 n ′ t (n ′4 n)(n ′′4 n ′)
k = + 4 c . (1.56)
r1 r2 n ′r1 r2 Magnification
ns ′′
Effective Focal Lengths m = . (1.64)
n ′′s
n n ′′
f = f ′′ = . (1.57)
k k Lens Maker’s Formula
Lens Formula (Gaussian form)
n n ′′
= = k. (1.65)
n n ′′ f f ′′
+ = k. (1.58)
s s ′′
Nodal-Point Locations
Lens Formula (Newtonian form)
A1N = A1 H+ HN (1.66)
nn ′′
xx ′′ = ff ′′ = (1.59) A 2 N ′′ = A 2 H ′′ + H ′′N ′′. (1.67)
k2
where x = s4f and x″ = s″4f ″.
index n = 1 (air or vacuum) index n"= 1.333 (water)
f f″
Material Properties
ff fb
A1 A2
F H H″ N N″ F″
Optical Coatings
index n′ = 1.51872 (BK7)
Figure 1.35 Symmetric lens with disparate object and image space indices

Fundamental Optics
Separation of Nodal Point
from Corresponding Principal Point APPLICATION NOTE
HN = H″N″ = (n″4n)/k, positive for N to right of H
and N″ to right of H″. For Quick Approximations
Much time and effort can be saved by ignoring the
Back Focal Length differences among f, fb, and ff in these formulas
(assume f = fb = ff) by thinking of s as the lens-to-
f b = f ′′ + A 2 H ′′. (see eq. 1.49)
object distance, by thinking of s″ as the lens-to-image

distance, and by thinking of the sum of conjugate
Front Focal Length
distances s + s″ as being the object-to-image distance.
f f = f 4 A1 H. (see eq. 1.51)
This is known as the thin-lens approximation.
Focal Ratios
The focal ratios are f/f and f ″/f, where f is the diameter of the
clear aperture of the lens.
Numerical Apertures APPLICATION NOTE
Physical Significance of the Nodal Points

n sin v
A ray directed at the primary nodal point N of a lens
f
where v = arcsin   appears to emerge from the secondary nodal point
 2s  N″ without change of direction. Conversely, a ray
and
directed at N″ appears to emerge from N without
n ′′sin v" change of direction. At the infinite conjugate ratio,
 f  if a lens is rotated about a rotational axis orthogonal
where v" = arcsin  . to the optical axis at the secondary nodal point
 2s ′′  (i.e., if N″ is the center of rotation), the image
remains stationary during the rotation. This fact
Solid Angles (in steradians)
is the basis for the nodal slide method for measuring
Q = 2p (1 4 cos v ) (see eq.1.48)
nodal-point location. The nodal points coincide with
v their corresponding principal points when the image
= 4p sin 2   space and object space refractive indices are equal (n
 2
= n″). This makes the nodal slide method the most
f
where v = arctan   precise method of principal-point location.
 2s 
Material Properties
QQ ″== 2p 4 cos
(14
2p (1 ′′ )
cos vv″)
v
= 4p sin 2   (1.68)
 2
 f 
where v ′′ = arctan  .
 2s ′′ 
To convert from steradians to spheres, simply divide by 4p.
Optical Coatings

Principal-Point Locations
Fundamental Optics
Figure 1.36 indicates approximately where the principal points fall both principal points will fall outside the lens boundaries. For
in relation to the lens surfaces for various standard lens shapes. The symmetric lenses, the principal points divide that part of the optical
exact positions depend on the index of refraction of the lens mater- axis between the vertices into three approximately equal segments.
ial, and on the lens radii, and can be found by formula. In extreme For plano lenses, one principal point is at the curved vertex, and the
meniscus lens shapes (short radii or steep curves), it is possible that other is approximately one-third of the way to the plane vertex.
F″
H″ F″ H″
H″ F″ F″
H″
F″ F″
H″ H″
Material Properties
F″ F″
H″ H″
F″ F″
H″ H″
Optical Coatings
Figure 1.36 Principal points of common lenses

Chpt. 2 Final 7/30/99 4:59 PM Page 2.1
Fundamental Optics

Introduction to Gaussian Beam Optics 2.2
Transformation and Magnification by Simple Lenses 2.6
Lens Selection 2.10
Material Properties
Optical Coatings
2.1 1
Introduction to Gaussian Beam Optics

Fundamental Optics
In most laser applications it is necessary to focus, modify, or In order to gain an appreciation of the principles and limitations
shape the laser beam by using lenses and other optical elements. In of Gaussian beam optics, it is necessary to understand the nature of
general, laser-beam propagation can be approximated by assum- the laser output beam. In TEM00 mode, the beam emitted from a laser
ing that the laser beam has an ideal Gaussian intensity profile, is a perfect plane wave with a Gaussian transverse irradiance profile
corresponding to the theoretical TEM00 mode. Coherent Gaussian as shown in figure 2.1. The Gaussian shape is truncated at some
beams have peculiar transformation properties that require special diameter either by the internal dimensions of the laser or by some
consideration. In order to select the best optics for a particular laser limiting aperture in the optical train. To specify and discuss propa-
application, it is important to understand the basic properties of gation characteristics of a laser beam, we must define its diameter
Gaussian beams. Unfortunately, the output from real-life lasers is in some way. The commonly adopted definition is the diameter at
not truly Gaussian (although helium neon lasers and argon-ion which the beam irradiance (intensity) has fallen to 1/e2 (13.5%) of its
lasers are a very close approximation). To accommodate this variance, peak, or axial, value.
a quality factor, M2 (called the “M-square” factor), has been defined
to describe the deviation of the laser beam from a theoretical BEAM WAIST AND DIVERGENCE
Gaussian. For a theoretical Gaussian, M2=1; for a real laser beam, Diffraction causes light waves to spread transversely as they
M2>1. Helium neon lasers typically have an M2 factor that is less propagate, and it is therefore impossible to have a perfectly collimated
than 1.1. For ion lasers, the M2 factor is typically between 1.1 and beam. The spreading of a laser beam is in precise accord with the
1.3. Collimated TEM00 diode laser beams usually have an M2 factor predictions of pure diffraction theory; aberration is totally insignif-
ranging from 1.1 to 1.7. For high-energy multimode lasers, the M2 icant in the present context. Under quite ordinary circumstances,
factor can be as high as 3 or 4. In all cases, the M2 factor, which the beam spreading can be so small it can go unnoticed. The fol-
varies significantly, affects the characteristics of a laser beam and lowing formulas accurately describe beam spreading, making it
cannot be neglected in optical designs. easy to see the capabilities and limitations of laser beams. The
notation is consistent with much of the laser literature, particularly

In the following discussion, we will first treat the characteristics
with Siegman’s excellent Introduction to Lasers and Masers
of a theoretical Gaussian beam (M2 = 1) and then show how these
(McGraw-Hill).
characteristics change as the beam deviates from the theoretical. In
all cases, a circularly symmetric wavefront is assumed, as would be
the case for a helium neon laser or an argon-ion laser. Diode laser
beams are asymmetric and often astigmatic, which causes their
transformation to be more complex.
Although in some respects component design and tolerancing

for lasers are more critical than they are for conventional optical
components, the designs often tend to be simpler since many of
the constants associated with imaging systems are not present. For
instance, laser beams are nearly always used on axis, which eliminates
Material Properties
the need to correct asymmetric aberration. Chromatic aberrations 100

are of no concern in single-wavelength lasers, although they are
critical for some tunable and multiline laser applications. In fact, the
80
only significant aberration in most single-wavelength applications
PERCENT IRRADIANCE
is primary (third-order) spherical aberration.

60
Scatter from surface defects, inclusions, dust, or damaged coat-
ings is of greater concern in laser-based systems than in incoherent
systems. Speckle content arising from surface texture and beam 40
coherence can limit system performance.
Because laser light is generated coherently, it is not subject to 20

13.5
some of the limitations normally associated with incoherent sources.
All parts of the wavefront act as if they originate from the same
point, and consequently the emergent wavefront can be precisely
Optical Coatings
41.5w 4w 0 w 1.5w
defined. Starting out with a well-defined wavefront permits more CONTOUR RADIUS
precise focusing and control of the beam than would otherwise be
possible. Figure 2.1 Irradiance profile of a Gaussian TEM00 mode

Fundamental Optics
Even if a Gaussian TEM00 laser-beam wavefront were made This value is the far-field angular radius of the Gaussian TEM00
perfectly flat at some plane, with all elements moving in precisely beam. The vertex of the cone lies at the center of the waist (see
parallel directions, it would quickly acquire curvature and begin figure 2.2).
spreading in accordance with It is important to note that, for a given value of l, variations of
 2 beam diameter and divergence with distance z are functions of a
 p w 20 
R(z) = z 1 +  
 (2.1)
single parameter. This is often chosen to be w0, or the beam waist
 
  lz  
radius.
The direct relationship between beam waist and divergence

and
(v ∝ 1/w0) must always be considered when focusing a TEM00 laser
1/ 2
  lz  
2 beam. Because of this relationship, the spectrally selective coating

w(z) = w 0 1 +  
2
(2.2) of the spherical output mirror of a Melles Griot laser is actually sup-
  p w0  
  ported on the concave inner surface of a weak meniscus lens. In
where z is the distance propagated from the plane where the wavefront this paraxial, high f-number configuration, the lens introduces no
is flat, l is the wavelength of light, w0 is the radius of significant aberration. A new beam waist, larger than the intra-
the 1/e2 irradiance contour at the plane where the wavefront is flat, w(z) cavity beam waist, is formed by this lens near its output pupil. The
is the radius of the 1/e2 contour after the wave has propagated a transformed beam has greatly reduced divergence, which is
distance z, and R(z) is the wavefront radius of curvature after advantageous for most applications. Note that it is the 1/e2 beam
propagating a distance z. R(z) is infinite at z = 0, passes through diameter of this extracavity waist that is published in this catalog.
a minimum at some finite z, and rises again toward infinity as As an example to illustrate the relationship between beam waist
z is further increased, asymptotically approaching the value of z itself. and divergence, let us consider the real case of a Melles Griot red
5-mW HeNe laser, 05 LHR 151, with a specified beam diameter of
The plane z = 0 marks the location of a Gaussian waist, or a place
where the wavefront is flat, and w0 is called the beam waist radius. 0.8 mm (i.e., w0 = 0.4 mm). In the far-field region,
A waist occurs naturally at the midplane of a symmetric confocal
cavity. Another waist occurs at the surface of the planar mirror l 632.8 × 1056
v = = = 5.04 × 1054 rad.
of the quasi-hemispherical cavity used in many Melles Griot lasers. pw0 (p)(0.4)
The irradiance distribution of the Gaussian TEM00 beam,
Using the asymptotic approximation, at a distance of z = 100 m,
namely,
2 2 2P 2
/ w2 (2.3) w(z) = zv
I (r) = I 0e42r /w
= e42r ,
pw2 = (10 5 )(5.04 × 1044 )
where w = w(z) and P is the total power in the beam, is the same = 50.4 mm
at all cross sections of the beam. The invariance of the form of the
which is approximately 126 times larger than w0.
distribution is a special consequence of the presumed Gaussian
Material Properties
distribution at z = 0. If a uniform irradiance distribution had been

presumed at z = 0, the pattern at z = ∞ would have been the familiar
Airy disc pattern given by a Bessel function, while the pattern at
intermediate z values would have been enormously complicated. (See
Born and Wolf, Principles of Optics, 2d ed, Pergamon/ Macmillan).
Simultaneously, as R(z) asymptotically approaches z for large
z, w(z) asymptotically approaches the value
1
lz irradiance surface
w(z) ≅ (2.4) w e2
ne
p w0 w0 ic co
ptot
asym
where z is presumed to be much larger than pw0/l so that the 1/e2 w0 v
irradiance contours asymptotically approach a cone of angular z
w0
Optical Coatings
radius
w(z) l
v = = . (2.5) Figure 2.2 Growth in 1/e2 contour radius with distance
z p w0 propagated away from Gaussian waist

Fundamental Optics
Suppose instead that we decide to reduce the divergence graphically in figure 2.4. If we put this value for w0 (optimum) back
by directing the laser into a beam expander (reversed telescope) into the expression for w(z), w(z) = √}} 2 w0. Thus, for this example,
of angular magnification m = 10, such as Melles Griot model w(100) = √}}
2 (4.48) = 6.3 mm.
09 LBM 013 (figure 2.3). Consider the case in which the expander By turning this previous equation around, we can define a
is focused to form a waist of radius w0 = 4.0 mm at the expander distance, called the Rayleigh range (zR), over which the beam radius
output lens. Since v ∝ 1/w0, by definition, v is reduced by a factor spreads by a factor of √}}2 as
of 10; therefore, for z = 100 m,
p w 20
zR = (2.7)
(10 )(5.04 × 10
5 54
) l
w(z) = = 5.04 mm.
10 with
For the expanded beam, the ratio w(z)/w0 is only a factor of 12.6 w(z R ) = 2w0 .
for a distance of 100 m, but it is a factor of 126 for the same distance If we use beam-expanding optics (such as the 09 LBC, 09 LBX,
when the laser is used alone. 09 LBZ, or 09 LCM series), which allow us to adjust the position
OPTIMUM COLLIMATION of the beam waist, we can actually double the distance over which
beam divergence is minimized. Figure 2.5 illustrates this situation,
Typically, one has a fixed value for w0 and uses the previously given
in which the beam starts off at a value of w(zR) = (2lz /p)1/2, goes
expression to calculate w(z) for an input value of z. However, one can
through a minimum value of w0 = w(zR)/√}} 2 , and then returns to
also utilize this equation to see how final beam radius varies with start-
w(zR). By focusing the beam-expanding optics to place the beam
ing beam radius at a fixed distance, z. Figure 2.4 shows the Gaussian
waist at the midpoint, we can restrict beam spread to a factor of √}}
2
beam propagation equation plotted as a function of w0, with the
over a distance of 2zR, as opposed to just zR.
particular values of l = 632.8 nm and z = 100 m.

The beam radius at 100 m reaches a minimum value for a starting This result can now be used in the problem of finding the starting
beam radius of about 4.5 mm. Therefore, if we wanted to achieve beam radius that yields the minimum beam diameter and beam
the best combination of minimum beam diameter and minimum spread over 100 m. Using 2zR = 100, or zR = 50, and l = 632.8 nm,
beam spread (or best collimation) over a distance of 100 m, our we get a value of w(zR) = (2lz /p)1/2 = 4.5 mm, and w0 = 3.2 mm.
optimum starting beam radius would be 4.5 mm. Any other starting Thus, the optimum starting beam radius is the same as previously
value would result in a larger beam at z = 100 m. calculated. However, by focusing the expander we achieve a final
beam radius that is no larger than our starting beam radius, while
We can find the general expression for the optimum starting
still maintaining the √}}
2 factor in overall variation.
beam radius for a given distance, z. Doing so yields
Alternately, if we started off with a beam radius of 6.3 mm
1/2 (√}}
2 w0 ), we could focus the expander to provide a beam waist of
 lz 
w 0 (optimum) =   . (2.6) w0 = 4.5 mm at 100 m, and a final beam radius of 6.3 mm at 200 m.
 p
Material Properties
Using this optimum value of w0 will provide the best combina-

tion of minimum starting beam diameter and minimum beam
spread (ratio of w(z)/w0) over the distance z. The previous example 100
FINAL BEAM RADIUS (mm)
of z = 100 and l=632.8 nm gives w0 (optimum) = 4.48 mm, shown

80
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
STARTING BEAM RADIUS w0 (mm)
Optical Coatings
Figure 2.3 Laser beam expander 09 LBM 013 (reversed Figure 2.4 Beam radius at 100 m as a function of starting
telescope) beam radius for a HeNe laser at 632.8 nm

Fundamental Optics
LASERS AND LASER SYSTEMS
w0
beam expander
w(–zR) = √2w0
w(zR) = √2w0

zR zR
Figure 2.5 Focusing a beam expander to minimize beam

radius and spread over a specified distance
INCORPORATING M2 INTO THE BASIC EQUATIONS

The following discussion is taken from the analysis by Sun [Haiyin
Sun, “Thin Lens Equation for a Real Laser Beam with Weak Lens Melles Griot manufactures many types of lasers and
Aperture Truncation,” Opt. Eng. 37, no. 11 (November 1998)]. From laser systems for laboratory and OEM applications.
equation 2.5 we see that, for a theoretical Gaussian beam, the small- These, along with a wide variety of laser accessories, are
found in Chapter 41 through 47. Laser types include
est possible value of the radius-divergence product is
helium neon (HeNe) and helium cadmium (HeCd) lasers;
w0v = l/p. argon, krypton, and mixed gas (argon/krypton) ion
lasers; diode lasers, and diode-pumped solid-state
For a real laser beam, we have (DPSS) lasers.
(2.8)
w0MvM = M2l/p >l/p
where w0M and vM are the 1/e2 intensity waist radius and the far-
field half-divergent angle of the real laser beam, respectively, and
M2 factors into equations 2.1 and 2.2 as follows:
wM(z) = w0M[1+(zlM2/pw0M2)2]1/2 (2.9)

Material Properties
RM(z) = z[1+(pw0M2/zlM2)2] (2.10)
where wM and RM are the 1/e2 intensity radius of the beam and the
beam wavefront radius at z, respectively.
The definition for the Rayleigh range (equation 2.7) remains
the same for a real laser beam and becomes
zR = pw0R2/l. (2.11)
Together, equations 2.9, 2.10, and 2.11 form a complete set to

denote the input of a real laser beam into a thin lens.
Optical Coatings

Transformation and Magnification by Simple Lenses

Fundamental Optics
It is already clear from the previous discussion that Gaussian

beams transform in an unorthodox manner. Siegman uses matrix
5
transformations to treat the general problem of Gaussian beam
propagation with lenses and mirrors. A less rigorous, but in many 4 0
(s"/f)
ways more insightful, approach to this problem has been developed 0.25
3 0.50
by Self [S.A. Self, “Focusing of Spherical Gaussian Beams,” Appl. 1
Opt. 22, no. 5 (March 1983): 658]. Self shows a method to model 2 2
transformations of a laser beam through simple optics, under
1
paraxial conditions, by calculating the Rayleigh range and beam
IMAGE DISTANCE
waist location following each individual optical element. These 0
parameters are calculated using a formula analogous to the
41
well-known standard lens formula. Melles Griot engineers have
found this method to be particularly useful. The main points are as 42
parameter
()
zR
f
follows.
43
The standard lens equation can be written in dimensionless
form: 44
45 44 43 42 41 0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 OBJECT DISTANCE (s/f)
+ = 1. (2.12)
s/f s″ /f
For Gaussian beams, Self has derived an analogous formula by Figure 2.6 Plot of the lens formula for Gaussian beams,
with normalized Rayleigh range of the input beam as
assuming that the waist of the input beam represents the object,
and the waist of the output beam represents the image. The for- the parameter
mula is expressed in terms of the Rayleigh range of the input beam.
In the regular form, $ A lens appears to have a shorter focal length as zR/f increases
from zero (i.e., there is a Gaussian focal shift).
1 1 1
+ = (2.13)
s+ z R2 /(s 4 f) s″ f Self recommends calculating zR, w0, and the position of w0 for
each optical element in the system in turn so that the overall trans-
or, in dimensionless form,
formation of the beam can be calculated. To carry this out, it is
1 1 also necessary to consider magnification: w0″/w0. The magnification
+ = 1. (2.14)
2
(s/f) + (z R /f) /(s/f 4 1) (s″ /f) is given by
In the far-field limit as zR→ 0, this reduces to the geometric w0 ″ 1

optics equation. A plot of (s/f) versus (s″/f) for various values of m = = .
Material Properties
w0 (2.15)
(zR/f) is shown in figure 2.6. There are three distinct regions of 

[ ]
 1 4 (s/f) 2 + (z /f) 2 
R 

interest. For a positive thin lens, these correspond to real object
and real image, real object and virtual image, and virtual object
and real image. The Rayleigh range of the output beam depends on m2, as can
The main differences between Gaussian beam optics and be seen from the previous example, and is given by
geometric optics, highlighted in such a plot, can be summarized as
follows: z R″ = m 2 z R . (2.16)
$ There is a maximum and minimum image distance for

Gaussian beams. All the above formulas are written in terms of the Rayleigh range
of the input beam. Unlike the geometric case, the formulas are not
$ The maximum image distance occurs at s = f + zR, rather than symmetric with respect to input and output beam parameters. For
at s = f. back tracing beams, it is useful to know the Gaussian beam formula
$ There is a common point in the Gaussian beam expression in terms of the Rayleigh range of the output beam:
Optical Coatings
at s/f = s″/f =1. For a simple positive lens, this is the point at
which the incident beam has a waist at the front focus and the 1 1 1
+ = . (2.17)
emerging beam has a waist at the rear focus. s s″ + z R″ 2 /(s″4 f ) f

Fundamental Optics
M2 AND THE LENS EQUATION If a particularly small spot is desired, there is an advantage to
using a well-corrected high-numerical-aperture microscope objective
For real-world beams, the lens equation can be modified to
(see Chapter 29, Microscope Components, Spatial Filters and
incorporate M2. Equation 2.12 becomes
Apertures) to concentrate the laser beam. The principal advantage
(2.18) of the microscope objective over a simple lens is the diminished
1/[s+(zR/M2)2/(s-f)]+1/2″ = 1/f,
level of spherical aberration. Although microscope objectives are
often used for this purpose, they are never designed for use at the
and equation 2.14 transforms to
infinite conjugate ratio. Suitably optimized lens systems, which

Melles Griot can design and build on special request, are more
1/[(s/f)+(zR/M2f)2/(s/f-1)]+1/(s″/f) = 1. (2.19)
effective in beam-concentration tasks.
BEAM CONCENTRATION DEPTH OF FOCUS

The spot size and focal position of a Gaussian beam can be Depth of focus (±D z), that is, the range in image space over
determined from the previous equations. Two cases of particular which the focused spot diameter remains below an arbitrary limit,
interest occur when s = 0 (the input waist is at the first principal can be derived from the formula
surface of the lens system) and s = f (the input waist is at the front
1/ 2
focal point of the optical system). For s = 0, we get   lz  
2
(2.22)

w(z) = w 0 1 +   .
 2
f  pw0  
s″ = (2.20)  
1 + (lf/p w 20 ) 2
and The first step in performing a depth-of-focus calculation is to set
the allowable degree of spot size variation. If we choose a typical
lf/p w 0
w = . value of 5%, or w(z) = 1.05w0, and solve for z = D z, the result is
[ ]
1/ 2
(2.21)
1 + (lf/p w 20 ) 2
0.32p w 02
Dz ≈ ± .
For the case of s = f, the equations for image distance and waist l
size reduce to the following:
By applying this result to the combination of the 05 LHR 151
s″ = f laser and laser-line focusing singlet 01 LFS 033, we find
and
0.32p( 4.70 × 1043 ) 2
w = lf/p w 0 . Dz = ±
6328 × 1047
Substituting typical values into these equations yields nearly = ± 35.1 mm.
identical results, and for most applications, the simpler, second set
Since the depth of focus is proportional to the square of focal
Material Properties
of equations can be used.

spot size, and focal spot size is directly related to f-number, the
In many applications, a primary aim is to focus the laser to a very depth of focus is proportional to the square of the f-number of the
small spot, as shown in figure 2.7, by using either a single lens or a focusing system.
combination of several lenses. Melles Griot has designed a series of
single lenses optimized for this specific purpose. For example, by
using a 05 LHR 151 laser and a focusing singlet, 01 LFS 033, the
formula should be modified as follows:
2w0
4lf 4(632.8 × 1046 )(7 ) w
w(z) ≅ = 1
Dbeam
3p w (3)(0.4p) e2
= 4.70 × 10 43
mm
= 4.7 mm.
Optical Coatings
The factor 4/3 arises because of the careful balance of spherical

aberration and diffraction designed into the singlet. The ratio f/w Figure 2.7 Concentration of a laser beam by a laser-line
is proportional to lens f-number, but is not equal to it. focusing singlet

Fundamental Optics
TRUNCATION profile results as shown in figure 2.9. When the pupil illumination
In a diffraction-limited lens, the diameter of the image spot is is between these two extremes, a hybrid intensity profile results.
In the case of the Airy disc, the intensity falls to zero at the
d = K × l × f/# (2.23)
point dzero= 2.44 ! l ! f/#, defining the diameter of the spot (see
where K is a constant dependent on truncation ratio and pupil figure 2.8). When the pupil illumination is not uniform, the image
illumination, l is the wavelength of light, and f/# is the speed of the spot intensity never falls to zero making it necessary to define the
lens at truncation. The intensity profile of the spot is strongly depen- diameter at some other point. This is commonly done for two
dent on the intensity profile of the radiation filling the entrance points:
pupil of the lens. For uniform pupil illumination, the image spot takes
on an Airy disc intensity profile as shown in figure 2.8. If the pupil d FWHM = 50% intensity point
illumination is Gaussian in profile, an image spot of Gaussian and
d1/e 2 = 13.5% intensity point.
It is helpful to introduce the truncation ratio

1.0
Db
.9 T =
Dt (2.24)
.8
.7 where Db is the Gaussian beam diameter measured at the 1/e2
intensity point, and Dt is the limiting aperture diameter of the lens.
INTENSITY
.6
50% If T = 2, which approximates uniform illumination, the image spot
.5
intensity intensity profile approaches that of the classic Airy disc. When
.4 T = 1, the Gaussian profile is truncated at the 1/e2 diameter, and the

.3 spot profile is clearly a hybrid between an Airy pattern and a
.2 Gaussian distribution. When T = 0.5, which approximates the case
13.5% for an untruncated Gaussian input beam, the spot intensity profile
.1 intensity
approaches a Gaussian distribution.
2.44 l (f-number) Calculation of spot diameter for these or other truncation ratios
requires that K be evaluated. This is done by using the formulas
Figure 2.8 Airy disc intensity distribution at the image 0.7125 0.6445
plane K FWHM = 1.029 + 4
(T 4 0.2161) 2.179 (T 4 0.2161) 2.221
and (2.25)
0.6460 0.5320
4 .
K1/e 2 = 1.6449 + (T 4 0.2816)1.821 (T 4 0.2816)1.891
Material Properties
1.0
(2.26)
.9
The k function, plotted in figure 2.10, permits calculation of
.8
on-axis spot diameter for any beam truncation ratio.
.7
The optimal choice for truncation ratio depends on the relative
INTENSITY
.6
importance of spot size, peak spot intensity, and total power in the
50%
.5 spot as demonstrated in the table below. The total power loss in
intensity
.4 the spot can be calculated by using
2
(2.27)
.3 PL = e42(Dt /Db )
.2 for a truncated Gaussian beam. A good compromise between power
13.5%
.1 intensity loss and spot size is often a truncation ratio of one. When T = 2
(approximately uniform illumination), fractional power loss is 60%.
1.83 l (f-number) When T = 1, d1/e2 is just 8.0% larger than when T = 2, while fractional
Optical Coatings
power loss is down to 13.5%. Because of this large savings in power

Figure 2.9 Gaussian intensity distribution at the image with relatively little growth in the spot diameter, truncation ratios
plane of 0.7 to 1.0 are typically used. Ratios as low as 0.5 might be

Fundamental Optics
employed when laser power must be conserved. However, this low beam to pass unscathed. The result is a cone of light that has a very
value often wastes too much of the available clear aperture of the smooth irradiance distribution and can be refocused to form a
lens. collimated beam that is almost equally smooth (see figure 2.11).
The mathematics of the effects of truncation on a real-world As a compromise between ease of alignment and complete
laser beam are beyond the scope of this chapter. Suffice it to say that spatial filtering, it is best that the aperture diameter be about two
truncation, in general, increases the M2 factor of the beam. For an times the 1/e2 beam contour at the focus, or about 1.33 times the
in-depth treatment of this problem, please refer to the 99% throughput contour diameter.
aforementioned paper by Haiyin Sun as well as “Changes in

Characteristics of a Gaussian Beam Weakly Diffracted by a Circular
Aperture” by P. Belland and J. Crenn, App. Opt. 21 (1982).
Spot Diameters and Fractional Power Loss

for Three Values of Truncation
Truncation Ratio dFWHM d1/e2 dzero PL (%)
Infinity 1.03 1.64 2.44 100

2.0 1.05 1.69 — 60
1.0 1.13 1.83 — 13.5
0.5 1.54 2.51 — 0.03
Figure 2.11 Spatial filtering smoothes the irradiance
distribution
SPATIAL FILTERING
Laser light scattered from dust particles residing on optical
surfaces may produce interference patterns resembling holographic
zone planes. Such patterns can cause difficulties in interferometric
and holographic applications where they form a highly detailed,
contrasting, and confusing background that interferes with desired
information. Spatial filtering is a simple way of suppressing this
interference and maintaining a very smooth beam irradiance distri-
APPLICATION NOTE
bution. The scattered light propagates in different directions from
the laser light and hence is spatially separated at a lens focal plane. Modular and Multiaxis Spatial Filters
By centering a small aperture around the focal spot of the direct The Melles Griot range of spatial filters includes
beam, it is possible to block scattered light while allowing the direct a three-axis unit with precision micrometers
Material Properties
(07 SFM 001) and a compact five-axis version

(07 SFM 003). These devices feature an open design
that provides access to the beam as it passes
through the instrument. Details of these products
3.0
and standard microscope objectives and mounted
2.5 pinholes that work with these spatial filters are
2.0 spot measured at 13.5% intensity level described in Chapter 29, Microscope Components,
K FACTOR
Spatial Filters, and Apertures.

1.5
spot measured at 50% intensity level For those who wish to fabricate their own spatial
1.0 filters, unmounted pinholes can also be found in
Chapter 29, Microscope Components, Spatial Filters,
0.5 spot diameter = K ! l ! f-number and Apertures. The precision individual pinholes are
for general-purpose spatial-filtering tasks. The high-
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
energy laser precision pinholes are constructed
Optical Coatings
T(Db/Dt)
specifically to withstand irradiation from high-energy
lasers.
Figure 2.10 K factors as a function of truncation ratio

Lens Selection
Fundamental Optics
The most important relationships that we will use in the process tables list beam diameter, so remember to divide by 2). Assuming a
of lens selection for Gaussian beam optical systems are as follows: collimated beam, we use the propagation formula to determine the
spot size at 80 m:
Focused spot radius 1/ 2
   
2
 0.6328 × 1053 × 80, 000 
lf w (80 m) = 0.41 +   
( )
(p) 0.4 2
w= . (from 2.4)
p w0    

 
Beam propagation = 40.3 - mm beam radius
1/ 2
or 80.6-mm beam diameter. This is just about exactly a factor of 10
  lz  2  larger than we wanted. We can use the formula for w0 (optimum)
w(z) = w0 1 +   (from 2.2)
  pw 20   to determine the smallest collimated beam diameter we could
  achieve at a distance of 80 m:
1/ 2
 lz  1/2
w0 (optimum) =    0.6328 × 1043 × 80,000 
 p w 0 (optimum) =   = 4.0 mm.
and  p 
p w 20 This tells us that if we expand the beam by a factor of 10

(from 2.7)
zR = . (4.0 mm/0.4 mm), we can produce a collimated beam 8 mm in
l
diameter, which, if focused at the midpoint (40 m), will again be
We can also utilize the equation for the approximate on-axis
8 mm in diameter at a distance of 80 m. This 10# expansion could
spot size caused by spherical aberration for a plano-convex lens at
be accomplished most easily with one of the Melles Griot beam
the infinite conjugate:
expanders, such as the 09 LBX 003 or 09 LBM 013. However, if there

0.067 f is a space constraint and a need to perform this task with a system
spot diameter (3rd - order spherical aberration) = . that is no longer than 50 mm, this can be accomplished by using
(f/# ) 3
catalog components.
This formula is for uniform illumination, not a Gaussian intensity Figure 2.13 illustrates the two main types of beam expanders. The
profile. However, since it yields a larger value for spot size than actu- Keplerian type consists of two positive lenses which are positioned
ally occurs, its use will provide us with conservative lens choices. with their focal points nominally coincident. The Galilean type con-
Keep in mind that this formula is for spot diameter whereas the sists of a negative diverging lens, followed by a positive collimating
Gaussian beam formulas are all stated in terms of spot radius. lens, again positioned with their focal points nominally coincident.
In both cases, the overall length of the optical system is given by
overall length = f1 + f 2
Example 1: Obtain 8-mm spot at 80 m and the magnification is given by
Material Properties
Using the Melles Griot HeNe laser 05 LHR 151, produce a spot f2
magnification =
8 mm in diameter at a distance of 80 m (see figure 2.12). f1
The product tables in Chapter 44, Helium Neon Lasers, gives the where a negative sign, in the Galilean system, indicates an inverted
output beam radius for the 25 LHR 151 as 0.4 mm (the product image (which is unimportant for laser beams). The Keplerian system,
01 LAO 059
01 LDK 001 8 mm
0.8 mm
Optical Coatings
45 mm 80 m
Figure 2.12 Lens spacing adjusted empirically to achieve the desired spot size at 80 m

Fundamental Optics
Ideally, a plano-concave diverging lens is used for minimum
spherical aberration, but the shortest catalog focal length available is
Keplerian beam expander
410 mm. There is, however, a biconcave lens with a focal length of
45 mm (01 LDK 001). Even though this is not the optimum shape
lens for this application, the extremely short focal length is likely to have
negligible aberrations at this f-number. Ray tracing would confirm
this.
Now that we have selected a diverging lens with a focal length

f1 f2
of 45 mm, we need to choose a collimating lens with a focal length
of 50 mm. To determine whether a plano-convex lens is acceptable,
check the spherical aberration formula:
Galilean beam expander
spot size resulting from spherical aberration
0.067 × 50
= = 14 mm.
6.25 3
The spot diameter resulting from diffraction is
f1
2 (0.6328 × 1043 ) 50
f2 2w 0 = = 5 mm.
p4.0
Clearly, a plano-convex lens will not be adequate. The next choice
Figure 2.13 Two main types of beam expanders would be an achromat, such as the 01 LAO 059. The data in the spot
size charts on page 1.26 indicates that this lens is probably diffraction
limited at this f-number. Our final system would therefore consist of
with its internal point of focus, allows one to utilize a spatial filter,
the 01 LDK 001 spaced about 45 mm from the 01 LAO 059, which
while the Galilean system has the advantage of shorter length for
would have its flint element facing toward the laser.
a given magnification.
In order to determine necessary focal lengths for an expander,
Example 2: Obtain 10 mm spot at > 100 mm
we need to solve these two equations for the two unknowns.
In this case, Focus the output of an 05 LHR 151 to a spot diameter of 10 mm,
but with the constraint that the last surface of the focusing optics
f1 + f 2 = 50 is no closer than 100 mm to the focal point (see figure 2.14).
and Using a 100-mm-focal-length lens, the Gaussian beam focusing

equation yields a spot radius of
f2
=410.
f1 0.6328 × 1043 × 100
Material Properties
w = = 50 mm.
p0.4
Using a negative value for the magnification will provide us
with a Galilean expander. This yields values of f2 = 55.5 mm and Thus, even a diffraction-limited focusing lens, with a 100-mm
f1 = 45.5 mm. focal length, will produce a 100-µm-diameter focal spot with an
01 LAO 059 01 LLP 017

01 LDK 001
Optical Coatings
45 mm 95 mm
Figure 2.14 Laser focusing system with long working distance

Fundamental Optics
0.8-mm-diameter input beam. In order to achieve the spot size collimating lens, such as the 06 GLC 002, which has a numerical
wanted, the beam must first be expanded by a factor of 10 before aperture of 0.5.
it is focused. The 10# expander described in the previous example The 06 GLC 002 yields a collimated elliptical beam with dimen-
could perform the task, as could any of the standard 10# expanders sions of 8 mm ! 2.7 mm. The smaller dimension of this beam must
offered by Melles Griot. be expanded to match the larger dimension; otherwise, it will have
For focusing, we now have an 8-mm-diameter beam going into a larger beam divergence because of diffraction. Since there is
the 100-mm-focal-length lens, so we are operating at f/12.5. At this approximately a 3:1 ratio in the two dimensions, we will use a 3#
f-number we can probably use a plano-convex lens, but it is a good anamorphic prism pair, 06 GPA 004, to accomplish the expansion.
idea to check the spherical aberration to make sure. This will now yield a collimated beam 8 mm in diameter.
0.067 × 100 The next step is to expand the beam by a factor of 3.125#in order
spot size (spherical aberration) = = 3 mm.
12.5 3 to get to the desired 25-mm beam diameter. Since no constraint has
The plano-convex lens, oriented with its convex surface toward been given on the length of our optical system, we’ll play it safe and
the beam expander, will provide diffraction-limited performance in operate our beam expander at a minimum of f/10. This virtually
this case. ensures diffraction-limited performance, even with singlets.
Although the effects of manufacturing tolerances should always At f/10 and an 8-mm-diameter input beam, we would need a
be taken into account when choosing a standard catalog lens, they focal length of 80 mm for the input lens of our collimator. Since we
are not significant for the input lens of this beam expander because are looking for diffraction-limited performance, our best choice
the aperture is so small. With a diameter of 1 mm or less, virtually would be one of the precision diode laser singlets (06 LXP series).
any of the lenses in this catalog introduce only a fraction of a wave Once again, we choose a high-precision lens because our beam has
of wavefront distortion as a result of manufacturing errors. How- a fairly large diameter and the effects of manufacturing tolerances
ever, with a larger beam, lens quality is a consideration. One of the must be considered.
precision-grade lenses, in this case the 01 LLP 017, should be used The closest focal length we have in this series of lenses is the
for this precision application. 06 LXP 009 with a focal length of 110 mm. Operating at f/13.75,
we will have diffraction-limited performance, which can be veri-
Example 3: Collimate a diode laser fied by using the formula for spherical aberration. We now need a
collimating lens with a focal length of 3.125 ! 110 mm = 344 mm.
Collect and collimate the output of a diode laser to a 25-mm-
The best choice is probably the 01 LAO 277 because there is no
diameter diffraction-limited beam. The output wavelength is 780 nm
precision singlet lens with the necessary focal length. The achromat
and has a full-angle divergence of 60°!20° (see figure 2.15).
The first step is to determine the numerical aperture needed to is also manufactured to tighter tolerances.
collect all the light from a source with a 60-degree divergence angle. The final system would then consist of the 06 GLC 002 mated
Since numerical aperture is defined to be the sine of the half angle directly to the 06 GPA 004, followed by the 06 LXP 009 with its
of divergence, curved surface facing toward the diode laser. The spacing between
the 06 LXP 009 and 06 GPA 004 is not critical. Finally, the
NA = sin 30º = 0.5.
Material Properties
01 LAO 277 would follow, spaced approximately 455 mm from the

Stated in terms of f-number, 1/(2 NA), this is f/1. At this low singlet, with its flint surface facing toward the diode laser.
f-number we can immediately rule out virtually any simple lens or Since the standard coating supplied with the 01 LAO series
achromat; even if a simple lens were available at this low achromats does not perform very well at 780 nm, this lens should
f-number, it would not provide the performance level required. The be specified with a /076 coating, which is optimized for performance
best choice would be a highly corrected, multielement diode laser at 780 nm.
06 GPA 004
06 LXP 009 01 LAO 277
06 GLC 002
1.1 mm
Optical Coatings
455 mm
Figure 2.15 Melles Griot diode laser components, showing how they may be used in relation to each other

Fundamental Optics

Wavefront Distortion 3.2
Centration 3.3
Modulation Transfer Function 3.4
Cosmetic Surface Quality – U.S. Military Specifications 3.6
Surface Accuracy 3.8
Material Properties
Optical Coatings
3.1 1
Wavefront Distortion
Fundamental Optics
Sometimes the best specification for an optical component is

its effect on the emergent wavefront. This is particularly true for
optical flats, collimation lenses, mirrors, and retroreflectors where
the presumed effect of the element is to transmit or reflect the
wavefront without changing its shape. Wavefront distortion is often
characterized by the peak-to-valley deformation of the emergent
wavefront from its intended shape. Specifications are normally
quoted in fractions of a wavelength.
Consider a perfectly plane, monochromatic wavefront, incident

at an angle normal to the face of a window. Deviation from perfect
surface flatness, as well as inhomogeneity of the bulk material
refractive index of the window, will cause a deformation of the
transmitted wavefront away from the ideal plane wave. In a
retroreflector, each of the faces plus the material will affect the
emergent wavefront. Consequently, any reflecting or refracting
element can be characterized by the distortions imparted to a perfect
Fringes that curve around the center of tilt (zero-order) are
incident wavefront.
convex, as a result of a high area on the test surface. Conversely,
fringes that curve away from the center of tilt (zero-order) are
INTERFEROMETER MEASUREMENTS concave as a result of a low area on the test surface.
Melles Griot measures wavefront distortion with a laser By using a known tilt and zero-order direction, the amount and
interferometer. The wavefront from a helium neon laser direction (convex or concave) of the error in the test element can be
(l = 632.8 nm) is expanded and then divided into a reference determined from the fringe pattern. Six fringes of tilt are introduced
wavefront and test wavefronts by using a partially transmitting for typical examinations. Melles Griot uses wavefront distortion
reference surface. The reference wavefront is reflected back to the measurements to characterize achromats, windows, filters, beam-
interferometer, and the test wavefront is transmitted through the splitters, prisms, and many other optical elements. This testing
surfaces to the test element. The reference surface is a known flat method is consistent with the way in which these components are
or spherical surface whose surface error is on the order of l/20. normally used.
When the test wavefront is reflected back to the interferometer,
INTERFEROGRAM INTERPRETATION
either from the surface being tested or from another l/20 reference
surface, the reference and test wavefronts recombine at the Melles Griot tests lenses with a noncontact phase-measuring
interferometer. Constructive and destructive interference occurs interferometer. The interferometer has a zoom feature to increase
between the two wavefronts. A difference in the optical paths of resolution of the optic under test. The interferometric cavity length
Material Properties
the two wavefronts is caused by any error present in the test element is modulated, and a computerized data analysis program is used
and any tilt of one wavefront relative to the other. The fringe pattern to interpret the interferogram. This computerized analysis increases
is projected onto a viewing screen or camera system. the accuracy and repeatability of each measurement and eliminates
A slight tilt of the test wavefront to the reference wavefront pro- subjective operator interpretation.
duces a set of fringes whose parallelism and straightness depend on
the element under test. The distance between successive fringes
(usually measured from dark band to dark band) represents one
wavelength difference in the optical path traveled by the two
wavefronts. In surface and transmitted wavefront testing, the test
wavefront travels through an error in the test piece twice. There-
fore, one fringe spacing represents one half wavelength of surface
error or transmission error of the test element.
A determination of the convexity or concavity of the error in the
test element can be made if the zero-order direction of the inter-
Optical Coatings
ference cavity (the space between the reference and test surfaces) is
known. The zero-order direction is the direction of the center of tilt
between the reference and test wavefronts.

Centration
Fundamental Optics
The mechanical axis and optical axis exactly coincide in a DOUBLETS AND TRIPLETS
perfectly centered lens. It is more difficult to achieve a given centration specification
for a doublet than it is for a singlet because each element must be
OPTICAL AND MECHANICAL AXES individually centered to a tighter specification, and the two optical
For a simple lens, the optical axis is defined as a straight line axes must be carefully aligned during the cementing process.
that joins the centers of lens curvature. For a plano-convex or plano- Centration is even more complex for triplets because three optical
concave lens, the optical axis is the line through the center of axes must be aligned. The centration error of doublets and triplets
curvature and perpendicular to the plano surface.

is measured in the same manner as that of simple lenses. One
The mechanical axis is determined by the way in which the lens method used to obtain precise centration in compound lenses is
will be mounted during use. There are typically two types of to align the elements optically and edge the combination.
mounting configurations, edge mounting and surface mounting.
With edge mounting, the mechanical axis is the centerline of the lens CYLINDRICAL OPTICS
mechanical edge. Surface mounting uses one surface of the lens as Cylindrical optics can be evaluated for centering error in a
the primary stability for lens tip and then encompasses the lens manner similar to simple lenses. The major difference is that
diameter for centering. The mechanical axis for this type of mounting cylindrical optics have mechanical and optical planes rather than
is a line perpendicular to the mounting surface and centered on axes. The mechanical plane is established by the expected mount-
the entrapment diameter. ing, which can be edge only or the surface-edge combination
Ideally, the optical and mechanical axes coincide. The tolerance described above. The radial separation between the focal line and
on centration is the allowable amount of radial separation of these the established mechanical plane is the centering error and can
two axes, measured at the focal point of the lens. The centration be converted into an angular deviation in the same manner as for
angle is equal to the inverse tangent of the allowable radial separation
simple lenses. The centering error is measured by first noting the focal
divided by the focal length. line displacement in one orientation, then rotating the lens
180 degrees and noting the new displacement. The centering error
MEASURING CENTRATION ERROR
angle is the inverse tangent of the total separation divided by twice
Centration error is measured by rotating the lens on its mechan- the focal length.
ical axis and observing the orbit of the focal point. To determine
the centration error, the radius of this orbit is divided by the lens focal
length and then converted to an angle.
Material Properties
orbit of
apparent focus
H″′
C2 true focus C1
optical axis v H H″ F″
ical axis
mechan c
edge grinding removes

material outside imaginary cylinder
Optical Coatings
Figure 3.1 Centration and orbit of apparent focus

Modulation Transfer Function

Fundamental Optics
The modulation transfer function (MTF), a quantitative measure PERFECT CIRCULAR LENS
of image quality, is far superior to any classic resolution criteria. The monochromatic, diffraction-limited MTF (or MDMTF) of
MTF describes the ability of a lens or system to transfer object a circular aperture (perfect aberration-free spherical lens) at an
contrast to the image. Curves can be associated with the subsystems arbitrary conjugate ratio is given by the formula
that make up a complete electro-optical or photographic system.
MTF data can be used to determine the feasibility of overall system 2  2 
MDMTF(x) = arc cos (x) 4 x 1 4 x  (3.4)
expectations. π  
Bar-chart resolution testing of lens systems is deceptive because
where the arc cosine function is in radians and x is the normalized

almost 20% of the energy arriving at a lens system from a bar chart
spatial frequency defined by
is modulated at the third harmonic and higher frequencies. Consider
instead a sine-wave chart in the form of a positive transparency in u
x = (3.5)
which transmittance varies in one dimension. Assume that the u ic
transparency is viewed against a uniformly illuminated background.
The maximum and minimum transmittances are Tmax and Tmin, where u is the absolute spatial frequency and uic is the incoherent
respectively. A lens system under test forms a real image of the diffraction cutoff spatial frequency. There are several formulas for
sine-wave chart, and the spatial frequency (u) of the image is uic including
measured in cycles per millimeter. Corresponding to the trans-
1.22
mittances Tmax and Tmin are the image irradiances Imax and Imin. u ic =
rd
By analogy with Michelson’s definition of visibility of interference
fringes, the contrast or modulation of the chart and image are 2
defined, respectively, as  1.22l 
n ′′ D 14 
 n ′′ D 
Tmax 4 Tmin =
Mc = (3.1) ls ′′
Tmax + Tmin
2
and  1.22l 
2n ′′ sin(u ′′ ) 14 
I max 4 I min  n ′′ D 
Mi = (3.2) =
I max + I min l
2n ′′ sin(u ′′ )
where Mc is the modulation of the chart and Mi is the modulation =
of the image. l
The modulation transfer function of the optical system at spatial n ′′ D
= (3.6)
frequency u is then defined to be ls ′′
MTF = MTF(u) = M i / M c . (3.3) where rd is the linear spot radius in the case of pure diffraction
(Airy disc radius), D is the diameter of the lens clear aperture (or
Material Properties
The graph of MTF versus u is a modulation transfer function of a stop in near-contact), l is the wavelength, s″ is the secondary
curve and is defined only for lenses or systems with positive focal conjugate distance, u″ is the largest angle between any ray and the
length that form real images. optical axis at the secondary conjugate point, the product n″ sin(u″)
It is often convenient to plot the magnitude of MTF (u) versus is by definition the image space numerical aperture, and n″ is the
u. Changes in MTF curves are easily seen by graphical compar- image space refractive index. It is essential that D, l, and s″ have
ison. For example, for lenses, the MTF curves change with field consistent units (usually millimeters, in which case u and uic will be
angle positions and conjugate ratios. In a system with astigmatism in cycles per millimeter). The relationship
or coma, different MTF curves are obtained that correspond to
various azimuths in the image plane through a single image point. D
sin(u ′′ ) = (3.7)
For cylindrical lenses, only one azimuth is meaningful. MTF 2s ′′
curves can be either polychromatic or monochromatic. Poly-
implies that the secondary principal surface is a sphere centered
chromatic curves show the effect of any chromatic aberration that
upon the secondary conjugate point. This means that the lens is
may be present. For a well-corrected achromatic system,
completely free of spherical aberration and coma, and, in the special
polychromatic MTF can be computed by weighted averaging of
Optical Coatings
case of infinite conjugate ratio (s″ = f″),

monochromatic MTFs at a single image surface. MTF can also
be measured by a variety of commercially available instruments. D
u ic = n ′′ . (3.8)
Most instruments measure polychromatic MTF directly. lf

Fundamental Optics
PERFECT RECTANGULAR LENS MTF is an extremely sensitive measure of image degradation.
The MDMTF of a rectangular aperture (perfect aberration- To illustrate this, consider a lens having a quarter wavelength of
free cylindrical lens) at arbitrary conjugate ratio is given by the spherical aberration. This aberration, barely discernible by eye,
formula would reduce the MTF by as much as 0.2 at the midpoint of the
spatial frequency range.
MDMTF(x) = (1 4 x) (3.9)
where x is again the normalized spatial frequency u/uic, where, in

the present cylindrical case,

1.0
1
u ic = (3.10)
rd
.8
rectangular aperture
and rd is one-half the full width of the central stripe of the diffraction
pattern measured from first maximum to first minimum. This
formula differs by a factor of 1.22 from the corresponding formula .6
MDMTF
in the circular aperture case. The following applies to both circular

and rectangular apertures:
.4
2n ′′ sin(u ′′ )
u ic = . (3.11)
l
The remaining three expressions for uic in the circular aperture case .2 circular aperture
can be applied to the present rectangular aperture case provided that
two substitutions are made. Everywhere the constant 1.22 formerly
appeared, it must be replaced by 1.00. Also, the aperture diameter 0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
D must now be replaced by the aperture width w. The relationship NORMALIZED SPATIAL FREQUENCY, X
sin(u″) = w/2s″ means that the secondary principal surface is a
circular cylinder centered upon the secondary conjugate line. In Figure 3.2 MDMTF(x) vs x, as a function of normalized
the special case of infinite conjugate ratio, the incoherent cutoff spatial frequency, x
frequency for cylindrical lenses is
w
u ic = n ′′ . (3.12)
lf 1.0
IDEAL PERFORMANCE AND REAL LENSES

In an ideal lens, the x-intercept and the MDMTF-intercept are .8
Material Properties
at unity (1.0). MDMTF(x) for the rectangular case is a straight line MDMTF
between these intercepts. For the circular case, MDMTF(x) is a
curve that dips slightly below the straight line. These curves are .6
MTF
shown in figure 3.2. Maximum contrast (unity) is apparent when

spatial frequencies are low (i.e., for large features). Poor contrast is
.4
apparent when spatial frequencies are high (i.e., small features).
All examples are limited at high frequencies by diffraction effects.
lens with
A normalized spatial frequency of unity corresponds to the .2 1
/4 wavelength
diffraction limit. aberration
All real cylindrical, monochromatic MTF curves fall on or below
the straight MDMTF(x) line. Similarly, all real spherical and mono-
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
chromatic MTF curves fall on or below the circular MDMTF(x)
curve. Thus the two ideal MDMTF(x) curves represent the perfect NORMALIZED SPATIAL FREQUENCY, X
(ideal) optical performance. Optical element or system quality is
Optical Coatings
measured by how closely the real MTF curve approaches the Figure 3.3 MTF as a function of normalized spatial
corresponding ideal MDMTF(x) curve (see figure 3.3). frequency, x

Cosmetic Surface Quality —

Fundamental Optics
U.S. Military Specifications

Cosmetic surface quality describes the level of defects that can SCRATCHES
be visually noted on the surface of an optical component. Specif- A scratch is defined as any marking or tearing of a polished
ically, it defines state of polish, freedom from scratches and digs, and optical surface. In principle, scratch numbers refer to the width
edge treatment of components. These factors are important, not only of the reference scratch in ten thousandths of a millimeter. For
because they affect the appearance of the component, but also example, an 80 scratch is equivalent to an 8-µm standard scratch.
because they scatter light, which adversely affects performance. However, this equivalence is determined strictly by visual
Scattering can be particularly important in laser applications because comparison, and the appearance of a scratch can depend upon the
of the intensity of the incident illumination. Unwanted diffraction
component material and the presence of any coatings. Therefore,

patterns caused by scratches can lead to degraded system a scratch on the test optic that appears equivalent to the 80 standard
performance, and scattering of high-energy laser radiation can scratch is not necessarily 8 mm wide.
cause component damage. Overspecifying cosmetic surface quality,
If maximum visibility scratches are present (e.g., several
on the other hand, can be costly. Melles Griot components are
60 scratches on a 60–40 lens), their combined lengths cannot exceed
tested at appropriate levels of cosmetic surface quality according
half of the part diameter. Even with some maximum visibility
to their intended application.
scratches present, MIL-0-13830A still allows many combinations
The most common and widely accepted convention for specify-
of smaller scratch sizes and lengths on the polished surface.
ing surface quality is the U.S. Military Surface Quality Specification,
MIL-0-13830A, Amendment 3. The surface quality of all
Melles Griot optics is tested in accordance with this specification.
In Europe, an alternative specification, the DIN (Deutsche Indus- DIGS
trie Norm) specification, DIN 3140, Sheet 7, is used. Melles Griot A dig is a pit or small crater on the polished optical surface.
can also work to ISO-10110 requirements. Digs are defined by their diameters, which are the actual sizes of the
digs in hundredths of a millimeter. The diameter of an irregularly

SPECIFICATION STANDARDS shaped dig is 1/2# (length plus width):
As stated above, all optics in this catalog are referenced to MIL- 50 dig = 0.5 mm in diameter
0-13830A standards. These standards include scratches, digs, grayness,
40 dig = 0.4 mm in diameter
edge chips, and cemented interfaces. It is important to note that
inspection of polished optical surfaces for scratches is accomplished 30 dig = 0.3 mm in diameter
by visual comparison to scratch standards. Thus, it is not the actual 20 dig = 0.2 mm in diameter
width of the scratch that is ascertained, but the appearance of the
10 dig = 0.1 mm in diameter.
scratch as compared to these standards. A part is rejected if any
scratches exceed the maximum size allowed. Digs, on the other hand,
specified by actual defect size, can be measured quantitatively.
Because of the subjective nature of this examination, it is critical
to use trained inspectors who operate under standardized conditions
Material Properties
in order to achieve consistent results. Melles Griot optics are

compared by experienced quality assurance personnel using scratch
and dig standards according to U.S. military drawing C7641866
Rev L. Additionally, our inspection areas are equipped with lighting
that meets the specific requirements of MIL-0-13830A.
The scratch-and-dig designation for a component or assembly
is specified by two numbers. The first defines allowable maximum
scratch visibility, and the second refers to allowable maximum dig
diameter, separated by a hyphen; for example,
80–50 represents a commonly acceptable cosmetic standard.
60–40 represents an acceptable standard for most scientific
research applications.
10–5 represents a precise standard for very demanding laser
Optical Coatings
applications.

Fundamental Optics
The permissible number of maximum-size digs shall be one per
each 20 mm of diameter (or fraction thereof) on any single surface.
The sum of the diameters of all digs, as estimated by the inspector,
shall not exceed twice the diameter of the maximum size specified
per any 20-mm diameter. Digs less than 25 micrometers are ignored.

EDGE CHIPS
Lens edge chips are allowed only outside the clear aperture of
the lens. The clear aperture is 90% of the lens diameter unless
otherwise specified. Chips smaller than 0.5 mm are ignored, and
those larger than 0.5 mm are ground so that there is no shine to
the chip. The sum of the widths of chips larger than 0.5 mm cannot
exceed 30% of the lens perimeter.
Prism edge chips outside the clear aperture are allowed. If the
prism leg dimension is 25.4 mm or less, chips may extend inward
1.0 mm from the edge. If the leg dimension is larger than 25.4 mm,
chips may extend inward 2.0 mm from the edge. Chips smaller than
0.5 mm are ignored, and those larger than 0.5 mm must be stoned
or ground, leaving no shine to the chip. The sum of the widths of
chips larger than 0.5 mm cannot exceed 30% of the length of the edge
on which they occur.
CEMENTED INTERFACES
Because a cemented interface is considered a lens surface, specified

surface quality standards apply. Edge separation at a cemented
interface cannot extend into the element more than half the distance
to the element clear aperture up to a maximum of 1.0 mm. The sum
of edge separations deeper than 0.5 mm cannot exceed 10% of the
element perimeter.
Material Properties
BEVELS
Although bevels are not specified in MIL-0-13830A, our

standard shop practice specifies that element edges are beveled to
a face width of 0.25 to 0.5 mm at an angle of 45°±15°. Edges meeting
at angles of 135° or larger are not beveled.
COATING DEFECTS
Defects caused by an optical element coating, such as scratches,

voids, pinholes, dust, or stains, are considered with the scratch-
and-dig specification for that element. Coating defects are allowed
if their size is within the stated scratch-and-dig tolerance. Coating
Optical Coatings
defects are counted separately form substrate defects.

Surface Accuracy
Fundamental Optics
When attempting to specify how closely an optical surface contact) appear. The number of rings indicates the difference in
conforms to its intended shape, a measure of surface accuracy is radius between the surfaces. This is known as power or sometimes
needed. Surface accuracy can be determined by interferometric as figure. It is measured in rings that are equivalent to half
techniques. Traditional techniques involve comparing the actual wavelengths.
surface to a the test plate gage. In this approach, surface accuracy Beyond their number, the rings may exhibit distortion that
is measured by counting the number of rings or fringes and exam- indicates nonuniform shape differences. The distortion may be local
ining the regularity of the fringe. The accuracy of the fit between to one small area, or it may be in the form of noncircular fringes
the lens and the test gage (as shown in figure 3.4) is described by the over the whole aperture. All such nonuniformities are known
number of fringes seen when the gage is in contact with the lens. Test collectively as irregularity.
plates are made flat or spherical to within small fractions of a fringe.
The accuracy of a test plate is only as good as the means used to
measure its radii. Extreme care must be used when placing a test plate
in contact with the actual surface to prevent damage to the surface.
Modern techniques for measuring surface accuracy utilize phase-
measuring interferometry with advanced computer data analysis
software. Removing operator subjectivity has made this approach
considerably more accurate and repeatable. A zoom function can
increase the resolution across the entire surface or a specific region
to enhance the accuracy of the measurement.
SURFACE FLATNESS
Surface flatness is simply surface accuracy with respect to a
plane reference surface. It is used extensively in mirror and optical
flat specifications.
POWER AND IRREGULARITY

During manufacture, a precision component is frequently com-
pared with a test plate that has an accurate polished surface that is
the inverse of the surface under test. When the two surfaces are
brought together and viewed in nearly monochromatic light,
Newton’s rings (interference fringes caused by the near-surface
Material Properties
standard surface in contact test surface
maximum deviation air gap between surfaces reference surface surface accuracy
Optical Coatings
Figure 3.4 Surface accuracy

Fundamental Optics
Material Properties

Material Properties Overview 4.2
Introduction 4.3
Optical Properties 4.4
Mechanical and Chemical Properties 4.6
Melles Griot Lens Materials 4.7
Five Schott Glass Types 4.8
Synthetic Fused Silica 4.11
Optical Crown Glass 4.14
Low-Expansion Borosilicate Glass 4.15
Sapphire 4.16
Material Properties
ZERODUR® 4.17
Calcium Fluoride 4.18

Optical Coatings
4.1 1
Material Properties Overview

Fundamental Optics
Index of
Material Usable Transmission Range Refraction Features
1.52 @ Excellent all-around lens material provides broad transmission with

BK7 BK7 0.55 mm excellent mechanical characteristics
1.86 @ High-refractive-index flint glass provides more power with less

LaSFN9 LaSFN9
0.55 mm curvature needed
SF11 1.79 @ High-refractive-index flint glass provides more power with less
SF11 0.55 mm curvature needed
1.62 @ Material represents a good compromise between higher index and

F2 F2 0.55 mm acceptable mechanical characteristics
BaK1 1.57 @ Excellent all-around lens material, but has weaker chemical
BaK1 0.55 mm characteristics than BK7
Optical-Quality
Synthetic 1.46 @ Material provides good UV transmission and superior mechanical
Fused Silica OQSFS 0.55 mm characteristics
(OQSFS)
UV-Grade
Synthetic UVGSFS 1.46 @ Material provides excellent UV transmission and superior mechanical
Fused Silica 0.55 mm characteristics
(UVGSFS)
Optical Crown OPTICAL CROWN 1.52 @ This lower tolerance glass can be used as a mirror substrate or in non-
Glass 0.55 mm critical applications
Low-expansion
LEBG 1.48 @ Excellent thermal stability, low cost, and homogeneity makes LEBG useful
borosilicate glass 0.55 mm for high-temperature windows, mirror substrates, and condenser lenses
LEBG
SAPPHIRE 1.77 @ Excellent mechanical and thermal characteristics make it a superior

Sapphire 0.55 mm window material
Material Properties
ZINC SELENIDE 2.40 @ Zinc selenide is most popular for transmissive IR optics, transmits
Zinc Selenide 10.6 mm visible and IR, and has low absorption in the red end of the spectrum
Calcium CALCIUM FLUORIDE 1.399 @ This popular UV excimer laser material is used for windows, lenses,
Fluoride 5 mm and mirror substrates
0.1 0.5 1.0 5.0 10.0

WAVELENGTHS IN mm
Optical Coatings

Introduction
Fundamental Optics
Glass manufacturers provide hundreds of different glass types Mechanical Characteristics
with differing optical transmissibility and mechanical strengths. The mechanical characteristics of a material are significant in
Melles Griot has simplified the task of selecting the right material many areas. They can affect how easy it is to fabricate the material
for an optical component by offering each of our standard com- into shape, which affects product cost. Scratch resistance is important
ponents in a single material, or in a small range of materials best if the component will require frequent cleaning. Shock and vibra-
suited to typical applications. tion resistance are important for military, aerospace, or certain
There are, however, two instances in which one might need to industrial applications. Ability to withstand high pressure differ-
know more about optical materials: one might need to determine

entials is important for windows used in vacuum chambers.
the performance of a catalog component in a particular application,
or one might need specific information to select a material for a Chemical Characteristics
custom component. The information given in this chapter is intended
The chemical characteristics of a material, such as acid or stain
to help those in such situations.
resistance, can also affect fabrication and durability. As with mechan-
The most important material properties to consider in regard to ical characteristics, chemical characteristics should be taken into
an optical element are as follows: account for optics used outdoors or in harsh conditions.
$ Transmission versus wavelength
$ Index of refraction Cost
$ Thermal characteristics Cost is almost always a factor to consider when specifying
$ Mechanical characteristics materials. Furthermore, the cost of some materials, such as UV-
grade synthetic fused silica, increases sharply with larger diameters
$ Chemical characteristics
because of the difficulty in obtaining large pieces of the material.
$ Cost.
Transmission versus Wavelength

A material must be transmissive at the wavelength of interest if
it is to be used for a transmissive component. A transmission curve
allows the optical designer to estimate the attenuation of light, at
various wavelengths, caused by internal material properties. For
mirror substrates, the attenuation may be of no consequence.
Index of Refraction
The index of refraction, as well as the rate of change of index with
wavelength (dispersion), might require consideration. High-index
materials allow the designer to achieve a given power with less
Material Properties
surface curvature, typically resulting in lower aberrations. On the

other hand, most high-index flint glasses have higher dispersions,
resulting in more chromatic aberration in polychromatic applications.
They also typically have poorer chemical characteristics than lower
index crown glasses.
Thermal Characteristics
The thermal expansion coefficient can be particularly important
in applications in which the part is subjected to high temperatures,
such as high-intensity projection systems. This is also of concern
when components must undergo large temperature cycles, such as
in optical systems used outdoors.
Optical Coatings

Optical Properties
Fundamental Optics
The most important optical properties of a material are its When it is necessary to find transmittance at wavelengths other
internal and external transmittances, surface reflectances, and than those for which Ti is tabulated, use linear interpolation.
refractive indices. The formulas that connect these variables in the The on-axis Te value is normally the most useful, but some
on-axis case are presented below. applications require that transmittance be known along other ray
paths, or that it be averaged over the entire lens surface. The method
TRANSMISSION outlined above is easily extended to encompass such cases. Values
External transmittance is the single-pass irradiance transmittance of t1 and t2 must be found from complete Fresnel formulas for arbi-
trary angles of incidence. The angles of incidence will be different
of an optical element. Internal transmittance is the single-pass irra-

diance transmittance in the absence of any surface reflection losses at the two surfaces; therefore, t1 and t2 will generally be unequal.
(i.e., transmittance of the material). External transmittance is of Distance tc, which becomes the surface-to-surface distance along
paramount importance when selecting optics for an image-forming a particular ray, must be determined by ray tracing. It is necessary
lens system because external transmittance neglects multiple to account separately for the s- and p-planes of polarization, and
reflections between lens surfaces. Transmittance measured with an it is usually sufficient to average results for both planes at the end
integrating sphere will be slightly higher. Let Te denote the desired of the calculation.
external irradiance transmittance (see equation 4.1), Ti the
corresponding internal transmittance, t1 the single-pass transmit-
tance of the first surface, and t2 the single-pass transmittance of REFRACTIVE INDEX AND DISPERSION
the second surface: The Schott Optical Glass catalog offers nearly 300 different
4mt c optical glasses. For lens designers, the most important difference
Te = t1 t 2 Ti = t1 t 2 e (4.1)
among these glasses is the index of refraction and dispersion (rate
where e is the base of the natural system of logarithms, m is the of change of index with wavelength). Typically, an optical glass is
absorption coefficient of the lens material, and tc is the lens center specified by its index of refraction at a wavelength in the middle of
thickness. This allows for the possibility that the lens surfaces might the visible spectrum, usually 587.56 nm (the helium d-line), and by
have unequal transmittances (for example, one is coated and the the Abbé v-value, defined to be vd = (nd41)/ (nF4nC). The desig-
other is not). Assuming that both surfaces are uncoated, nations F and C stand for 486.1 nm and 656.3 nm, respectively. Here,
vd shows how the index of refraction varies with wavelength. The
t1t 2 = 1 4 2r + r 2 (4.2)
smaller vd is, the faster the rate of change is. Glasses are roughly
divided into two categories: crowns and flints. Crown glasses are
where those with nd < 1.60 and vd > 55, or nd > 1.60 and vd > 50. The
2
 n 4 1 others are flint glasses.
r =   (4.3)
The refractive index of glass from 365 to 2300 nm can be
 n + 1
calculated by using the following formula:
is the single-surface single-pass irradiance reflectance at normal
1/2
incidence as given by the Fresnel formula. The refractive index n must  B1l2 B2l2 B3l2 
Material Properties
be known or calculated from the material dispersion formula n =  2 + 2 + 2 + 1 (4.6)

(equation 4.6). These results are monochromatic. Both m and n are  l 4 C1 l 4 C2 l 4 C3 
functions of wavelength. Here l, the wavelength, must be in micrometers, and the constants
To calculate either Ti or the Te for a lens at any wavelength of B1 through C3 are given by the glass manufacturer. Our tabula-
interest, first find the value of absorption coefficient m (equation 4.4). tion of these constants for the glasses used in our catalog
Typically, internal transmittance Ti is tabulated as a function of wave- components are presented on page 4.8. Values for other glasses
length for two distinct thicknesses Tc1 and Tc2, and m must be found can be obtained from the manufacturer’s literature. This equation
from these. Thus yields an index value that is accurate to better than 1!1045 over
1  1n Ti (t c1 ) 1n Ti (t c2 )  the entire transmission range, and even less in the visible spectrum.
m =4  +  (4.4)
2  t c1 t c2 
where the bar denotes averaging. In portions of the spectrum where OTHER OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS
absorption is strong, a value for Ti is typically given only for the lesser
Homogeneity within Melt
Optical Coatings
thickness. Then
Homogeneity within melt is the amount of refractive index
1 variation within the manufactured glass blank. Inhomogeneity of
m =4 1n Ti . (4.5)
tc refractive index can result in transmitted wavefront distortion. The

Fundamental Optics
maximum value for homogeneity within melt for all Schott optical
glasses used in Melles Griot catalog components is 1!1044. APPLICATION NOTE
Striae Grade
Fused-Silica Optics
Synthetic fused silica, described on page 4.11, is an
Striae are thread-like inclusions within an optical glass. Striae
ideal optical material for many laser applications.
grades are specified in U.S. military specification MIL-G 174B. All
It is transparent from as low as 180 nm to over
Melles Griot catalog components that utilize Schott optical glass
2.0 mm, has low coefficient of thermal expansion,

are specified to have striae that conform to MIL-G 174B grade A.
and is resistant to scratching and thermal shock.
Grade A means that no visible striae, streaks, or cords are present
For more information on some of the specific
in the glass.
components manufactured from fused silica, see the
following pages: Lenses, pages 6.22–6.29; Mirrors,
Stress Birefringence 9.12–9.17; Beamsplitters, 11.4–11.8.
Mechanical stress in optical glass leads to birefringence (anisotropy
in index of refraction) which can impair the optical performance of
a finished component. Optical glass is annealed (heated and cooled)
to remove any residual stress left over from the original manufactur-
ing process. Schott Glass defines fine annealed glass to have a
maximum of 12 nm/cm of residual stress birefringence for blanks
of up to 800 mm in diameter and 100 mm in thickness.
Material Properties
Optical Coatings

Mechanical and Chemical Properties

Fundamental Optics
Mechanical and chemical properties of glass are important to lens from 1 to 4, indicates the length of time that elapses before any
manufacturers. These properties can also be significant to the user, surface change occurs in the glass, and the second digit reveals the
especially when the component will be used in a harsh environment. extent of the change.
Different polishing techniques and special handling may be needed
depending on whether the glass is hard or soft, or whether it is
Microhardness
extremely sensitive to acid or alkali.
The most important mechanical property of glass is microhard-
To quantify the chemical properties of glasses, each glass is rated
ness. A precisely specified diamond scribe is placed on the glass
according to four categories: climatic resistance, stain resistance, acid
surface under a known force. The indentation is then measured.

resistance, and alkali and phosphate resistance.
The Knoop and the Vickers microhardness tests are used to measure
the hardness of a polished surface and a freshly fractured surface,
Climatic Resistance respectively.
Humidity can cause a cloudy film to appear on the surface of
some optical glass. Climatic resistance expresses the susceptibility
of a glass to this process. In this test, glass is placed in a water-
vapor-saturated environment and subjected to a temperature cycle
which alternately causes condensation and evaporation. The glass
is given a rating from 1 to 4 depending on the amount of surface
scattering induced by the test. A rating of 1 indicates little or no
change after seven days of exposure; a rating of 4 means a significant
change occurred in less than 30 hours.
Stain Resistance
Stain resistance expresses resistance to mildly acidic water
solutions, such as fingerprints or perspiration. In this test, a few
drops of a mild acid are placed on the glass. A colored stain, caused
by interference, will appear if the glass starts to decompose. A rating
from 1 to 5 is given to each glass, depending on how much time
elapses before stains occur. A rating of 1 indicates no observed stain
in 100 hours of exposure; a rating of 5 means that staining occurred
in less than 0.2 hours.
Acid Resistance APPLICATION NOTE

Material Properties
Acid resistance quantifies the resistance of a glass to stronger Glass Manufacturers

acidic solutions. Acid resistance can be particularly important to
The catalogs of optical glass manufacturers contain
lens manufacturers because acidic solutions are typically used to strip
products covering a very wide range of optical
coatings from glass or to separate cemented elements. A rating
characteristics. However, it should be kept in mind
from 1 to 4 indicates progressively less resistance to a pH 0.3 acid
that the glass types that exhibit the most desirable
solution, and values from 51 to 53 are used for glass with too little
properties in terms of index of refraction and
resistance to be tested with such a strong solution.
dispersion often have the least practical chemical and
mechanical characteristics. Furthermore, poor
Alkali and Phosphate Resistance chemical and mechanical attributes translate directly
Alkali resistance is also important to the lens manufacturer into increased component costs because working
since the polishing process usually takes place in an alkaline these sensitive materials increases fabrication time
solution. Phosphate resistance is becoming more significant as and lowers yield. Please contact us before specifying
users move away from cleaning methods that involve chloro- an exotic glass in an optical design so that we can
Optical Coatings
fluorocarbons (CFCs) to those that may be based on traditional advise you of the impact that that choice will have on
phosphate-containing detergents. In each case, a two-digit number part fabrication.
is used to designate alkali or phosphate resistance. The first number,

Melles Griot Lens Materials
Fundamental Optics
Melles Griot simple lenses are made of synthetic fused silica, Melles Griot Lens Materials
BK7 grade A fine annealed glass, and several other materials. The Materials Lens Product Numbers
following table identifies the materials used in Melles Griot lenses.
Synthetic Fused Silica, UV Grade 01 LQC 01 LQP
Some of these materials are also used in prisms, mirror substrates,
01 LQD 01 LQS
and other products.
Glass type designations and physical constants are the same as Synthetic Fused Silica, Optical Quality 01 LQB 01 LQT
those published by Schott Glass. Melles Griot occasionally uses 01 LQF
corresponding glasses made by other glass manufacturers but only Selected 01 CMP series

when this does not result in a significant change in optical properties. BK7, Grade A Fine Annealed 01 LCN 01 LMN
The quality of performance of optical lenses and prisms depends 01 LCP 01 LMP
on the quality of the material used. No amount of skill during 01 LDK 01 LPK
manufacture can eradicate striae, bubbles, inclusions, or variations 01 LDX 01 LPX
in index. Melles Griot takes considerable care in its material selection, 01 LFS
using only first-class optical materials from reputable glass manu- LaSF N9, Grade A Fine Annealed 01 LPX 401 01 LPX 411
facturers. The result is reliable, repeatable, consistent performance. 01 LPX 405 01 LPX 413
The following physical constant values are reasonable averages 01 LPX 407 06 LMS
based on historical experience. Individual material specimens may BaK1, Grade A Fine Annealed 01 LPX 415 01 LPX 423
deviate from these means. Materials having tolerances more 01 LPX 421
restrictive than those published in the rest of this chapter, or materials
Optical Crown 01 LAG
traceable to specific manufacturers, are available only on special
request. Low-Expansion Borosilicate Glass Selected 01 CMP series
(LEBG)
BK7 OPTICAL GLASS
SF11, Grade A Fine Annealed 06 LXP
A borosilicate crown glass, BK7, is the material used in many
SK11 and SF5, Grade A Fine Annealed 06 LAI
Melles Griot products. BK7 performs well in chemical tests so that
special treatment during polishing is not necessary. BK7, relatively Sapphire 01 LSX
hard glass, does not scratch easily and can be handled without spe- Zinc Selenide 12 LNZ 12 LPZ
cial precautions. The bubble and inclusion content of BK7 is very
Various Glass Combinations 01 LAL 04 EWR 001
low: the bubble and inclusion content cross-section totals less than
01 LAO 04 OAS
0.029 mm2 per 100 cm3. Another important characteristic of BK7
01 LAT 04 OAP
is its excellent transmittance, as low as 350 nm. Because of these prop-
01 LBX 06 DDL
erties, BK7 is used widely throughout the optics industry. A vari-
04 ECW 06 DBF
ant of BK7, designated UBK7, has transmission almost as low as
04 EHY 06 GLC
Material Properties
300 nm. This special glass is useful in applications requiring a high

04 EPP 06 GLR
index of refraction, the desirable chemical properties of BK7, and
04 ERA 001 09 LBM
transmission deeper into the ultraviolet range.
04 EWA 09 LCM
04 EWP 001 09 LSL
Optical Coatings
Melles Griot reserves the right to make material changes or substitutions on any optical components without prior notice.

Five Schott Glass Types

Fundamental Optics
The following tables list the most important optical and physical listed. It can be used to interpolate refractive index at other wave-
constants for Schott optical glass types BK7, SF11, LaSFN9, lengths within this range (to a precision of 1!1045 or better), but it
BaK1, and F2. These types are used in most Melles Griot simple should not be used to extrapolate to wavelengths beyond this range.
lens products and prisms. Index of refraction and transmission, as well Furthermore, the actual melt-to-melt tolerance on the index of refrac-
as the most commonly required chemical characteristics and mechan- tion typically is about ±0.001.
ical constants, are listed. Further numerical data and a more detailed The internal transmittance values shown are melt-to-melt exper-
discussion of the various testing processes can be found in the Schott imental means and may be affected by thermal history (coating,
Optical Glass catalog. annealing, or tempering operations) after manufacture.
The index of refraction data were obtained by using the constants

listed below together with the dispersion formula (equation 4.6).
The constants were determined through the index-of-refraction
measurements of a typical melt for each glass type. Note that the For more detailed information of these materials, please refer to
dispersion formula is valid only within the wavelength range the Schott Optical Glass catalog.
Physical Constants of Five Schott Glasses

Glass Type
BK7 SF11 LaSFN9 BaK1 F2
Melt-to-Melt Mean Index Tolerance ±0.001 ±0.001 ±0.002 ±0.001 ±0.001

Homogeneity within Melt ±1!1044 ±1!1044 ±1!1044 ±1!1044 ±1!1044

Striae Grade (MIL-G-174-A) A A A A A
Stress Birefringence, nm/cm, Yellow Light 10 10 10 10 10
Abbé Factor (vd ) 64.17 25.76 32.17 57.55 36.37
Constants of Dispersion Formula:
B1 1.03961212 1.73848403 1.97888194 1.12365662 1.34533359
B2 2.31792344!1041 3.11168974!1041 3.20435298!1041 3.09276848!1041 2.09073176!1041
B3 1.01046945 1.17490871 1.92900751 8.81511957!1041 9.37357162!1041
C1 6.00069867!1043 1.36068604!1042 1.18537266!1042 6.44742752!1043 9.97743871!1043
C2 2.00179144!1042 6.15960463!1042 5.27381770!1042 2.22284402!1042 4.70450767!1042
C3 1.03560653!102 1.21922711!102 1.66256540!102 1.07297751!102 1.11886764!102
Density (g /cm43) 2.51 4.74 4.44 3.19 3.61
Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion (a):
7.1!1046 6.1!1046 7.4!1046 7.6!1046 8.2!1046
Material Properties
430º to +70º (per ºC)

+20º to +300º (per ºC) 8.3!1046 6.8!1046 8.4!1046 8.6!1046 9.2!1046
Transformation Temperature 557ºC 505ºC 703ºC 592ºC 438ºC
Young’s Modulus (dynes/mm2) 8.20!10 9 6.60!10 9 1.09!10 10 7.30!10 9 5.70!10 9
Climate Resistance 2 1 2 2 1
Stain Resistance 0 0 0 1 0
Acid Resistance 1.0 1.0 2.0 3.3 1.0
Alkali Resistance 2.0 1.2 1.0 1.2 2.3
Phosphate Resistance 2.3 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.3
Knoop Hardness 610 450 630 530 420
Poisson’s Ratio 0.206 0.235 0.286 0.252 0.220
Optical Coatings

Fundamental Optics
Refractive Index of Five Schott Glass Types
Wavelength
l Refractive Index, n Fraunhofer
(nm) BK7 SF11 LaSFN9 BaK1 F2 Designation Source Spectral Region
351.1 1.53894 — — 1.60062 1.67359 Ar laser UV

363.8 1.53649 — — 1.59744 1.66682 Ar laser UV
404.7 1.53024 1.84208 1.89844 1.58941 1.65064 h Hg arc Violet

435.8 1.52668 1.82518 1.88467 1.58488 1.64202 g Hg arc Blue
441.6 1.52611 1.82259 1.88253 1.58415 1.64067 HeCd laser Blue
457.9 1.52461 1.81596 1.87700 1.58226 1.63718 Ar laser Blue

465.8 1.52395 1.81307 1.87458 1.58141 1.63564 Ar laser Blue
472.7 1.52339 1.81070 1.87259 1.58071 1.63437 Ar laser Blue
476.5 1.52309 1.80946 1.87153 1.58034 1.63370 Ar laser Blue
480.0 1.52283 1.80834 1.87059 1.58000 1.63310 F′ Cd arc Blue
486.1 1.52238 1.80645 1.86899 1.57943 1.63208 F H2 arc Blue

488.0 1.52224 1.80590 1.86852 1.57927 1.63178 Ar laser Blue
496.5 1.52165 1.80347 1.86645 1.57852 1.63046 Ar laser Green
501.7 1.52130 1.80205 1.86524 1.57809 1.62969 Ar laser Green
514.5 1.52049 1.79880 1.86245 1.57707 1.62790 Ar laser Green
532.0 1.51947 1.79479 1.85901 1.57580 1.62569 Nd laser Green
546.1 1.51872 1.79190 1.85651 1.57487 1.62408 e Hg arc Green
587.6 1.51680 1.78472 1.85025 1.57250 1.62004 d He arc Yellow
589.3 1.51673 1.78446 1.85002 1.57241 1.61989 D Na arc Yellow
632.8 1.51509 1.77862 1.84489 1.57041 1.61656 HeNe laser Red
643.8 1.51472 1.77734 1.84376 1.56997 1.61582 C′ Cd arc Red

656.3 1.51432 1.77599 1.84256 1.56949 1.61503 C H2 arc Red
694.3 1.51322 1.77231 1.83928 1.56816 1.61288 Ruby laser Red
786.0 1.51106 1.76558 1.83323 1.56564 1.60889 IR
821.0 1.51037 1.76359 1.83142 1.56485 1.60768 IR
830.0 1.51020 1.76311 1.83098 1.56466 1.60739 GaAlAs laser IR

852.1 1.50980 1.76200 1.82997 1.56421 1.60671 s Ce arc IR
Material Properties
904.0 1.50893 1.75970 1.82785 1.56325 1.60528 GaAs laser IR

1014.0 1.50731 1.75579 1.82420 1.56152 1.60279 t Hg arc IR
1060.0 1.50669 1.75445 1.82293 1.56088 1.60190 Nd laser IR
1300.0 1.50370 1.74901 1.81764 1.55796 1.59813 InGaAsP laser IR

1500.0 1.50127 1.74554 1.81412 1.55575 1.59550 IR
1550.0 1.50065 1.74474 1.81329 1.55520 1.59487 IR
1970.1 1.49495 1.73843 1.80657 1.55032 1.58958 Hg arc IR
2325.4 1.48921 1.73294 1.80055 1.54556 1.58465 Hg arc IR
Optical Coatings

Fundamental Optics
Internal Transmittance of Five Schott Glass Types

Internal Transmittance (%)
Wavelength BK7 SF11 LaSFN9 BaK1 F2

l Thickness (mm) Thickness (mm) Thickness (mm) Thickness (mm) Thickness (mm)
(nm) 5 25 5 25 5 25 5 25 5 25
300 0.26 — — — — — 0.64 0.11 — —

310 0.59 0.07 — — — — 0.81 0.34 — —
320 0.81 0.35 — — — — 0.89 0.56 — —

330 0.91 0.65 — — — — 0.94 0.73 — —
340 0.96 0.83 — — — — 0.97 0.84 0.81 0.42
350 0.986 0.93 — — — — 0.981 0.91 0.95 0.78

360 0.991 0.96 — — — — 0.990 0.95 0.973 0.87
370 0.995 0.974 — — 0.55 0.05 0.995 0.976 0.987 0.94
380 0.996 0.980 0.13 — 0.70 0.18 0.996 0.982 0.992 0.96
390 0.998 0.989 0.46 0.02 0.80 0.34 0.997 0.987 0.995 0.973
400 0.998 0.991 0.73 0.21 0.86 0.47 0.998 0.988 0.996 0.982
420 0.998 0.993 0.93 0.69 0.92 0.66 0.998 0.989 0.997 0.987
440 0.999 0.994 0.97 0.86 0.94 0.76 0.998 0.989 0.998 0.989
460 0.999 0.994 0.986 0.93 0.96 0.83 0.998 0.990 0.998 0.991
480 0.999 0.995 0.991 0.95 0.972 0.87 0.998 0.991 0.999 0.992
500 0.999 0.996 0.995 0.976 0.980 0.91 0.998 0.991 0.999 0.993
540 0.999 0.996 0.998 0.988 0.990 0.95 0.999 0.993 0.999 0.995
580 0.999 0.996 0.998 0.992 0.995 0.975 0.999 0.994 0.999 0.995
620 0.999 0.997 0.998 0.992 0.996 0.983 0.999 0.995 0.999 0.995
660 0.999 0.997 0.999 0.993 0.997 0.986 0.999 0.996 0.999 0.995
700 0.999 0.998 0.999 0.994 0.997 0.990 0.999 0.997 0.999 0.996
Material Properties
Optical Coatings

Synthetic Fused Silica
Fundamental Optics
Fused silica is an ideal optical material for many applications. It Glass transmittances are affected by thermal history after manu-
is transparent over a wide spectral range, has a low coefficient of facture, as well as during the manufacturing process. Depending on
thermal expansion, and is resistant to scratching and thermal shock. the manufacturer and subsequent thermal processing (coating,
annealing, or tempering), it is possible for any optical glass, including
Synthetic fused silica (amorphous silicon dioxide) is formed by
BK7, to show internal transmittance reductions of several percent
chemical combination of silicon and oxygen. It is not to be confused
across the entire spectrum with external transmittance correspond-
with fused quartz, which is made by crushing and melting natural
ingly affected. Transmittance of all glass is especially uncertain at
crystals, or by fusing silica sand, which results in a granular micro-
wavelengths approaching the water absorption band at 2.7 mm.

structure and bubble entrapment. Microstructure and impurities
lead to local index variations and contribute, along with bubbles and Synthetic fused silica also shows batch-to-batch transmittance
opaque particles, to reduced transmission throughout the spectrum. variations, especially in deep ultraviolet and infrared. These
Synthetic fused silica is far purer than fused quartz. This variations are related to manufacture and impurity content rather
increased purity ensures higher ultraviolet transmission and freedom than subsequent history. In the ultraviolet, these variations have
from striae or inclusions. The synthetic fused-silica materials used been attributed to uncontrollable fluctuations in metallic impurity
by Melles Griot are manufactured by flame hydrolysis to extremely content at the parts per billion level. Ultraviolet transmittance is the
high standards. The resultant material is colorless and non-crystalline, basis for the classifications UV grade and optical quality. A
and it has an impurity content of only about one part per million. specification of UV grade ensures that a specimen is represented by
Controlling the purity of reactants and the conditions of reaction the broadest curve. Transmittance curves for optical quality may fall
ensures the high quality of the synthetic fused silica from which our anywhere between the UVGSFS curve and the OQSFS curve shown
lenses are made. in figure 4.1.
Synthetic fused-silica lenses offer a number of advantages over Infrared batch-to-batch transmittance variations in synthetic
glass or fused quartz: fused silica are attributable to fluctuations in the OH chemical bond
content. These variations are most pronounced at wavelengths near
$ Greater ultraviolet and infrared transmission
and beyond the water absorption band at 2.7 mm and are normally
$ Low coefficient of thermal expansion, which provides stability uncontrolled because ultraviolet transmittance is generally regarded
and resistance to thermal shock over large temperature as more important. High infrared transmittance can be ensured by
excursions appropriate manufacturing controls, but only at the sacrifice of
ultraviolet transmittance.
$ Wider thermal operating range
Visible spectrum batch-to-batch transmittance variations in
$ Increased hardness and resistance to scratching
synthetic fused silica are insignificant. The high ultraviolet internal
$ Much higher resistance to radiation darkening from transmittance of UV-grade synthetic fused silica is correlated with
ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays, and neutrons. a visible internal transmittance that is so high it is beyond traditional
methods of measurement. It is necessary to measure optical signal
Optical-quality synthetic fused silica (OQSFS) lenses are ide-
attenuation in fibers drawn of the material.
Material Properties
ally suited for applications in energy-gathering and imaging systems

in the mid-ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared spectral regions. Figure 4.2 shows a semilogarithmic comparison of the internal
The low dispersion of fused silica reduces chromatic aberration. transmittances of UV-grade synthetic fused silica and BK7 glass.
It is evident from this graph that UV-grade synthetic fused silica
UV-grade synthetic fused silica (UVGSFS) is selected to offer
averages about two orders of magnitude less absorption loss than
the highest transmission (especially in the deep ultraviolet) and very
BK7 across the visible spectrum. In a sample thickness of 10 mm,
low fluorescence levels (approximately 0.1% that of fused natural
the internal transmittance of UV-grade synthetic fused silica differs
quartz excited at 254 nm). UV-grade synthetic fused silica does not
from unity only in the fifth decimal place. The high internal transmit-
fluoresce in response to wavelengths longer than 290 nm. In deep
tance of such a material can be exploited by maintaining the optic
ultraviolet applications, UV-grade synthetic fused silica is an ideal
at Brewster’s angle for the appropriate linear polarization, or with
choice. Its tight index tolerance ensures highly predictable lens
the assistance of high-efficiency antireflection coatings such as
specifications.
HEBBAR™ or one of the laser line V-coats. With these coatings it
The left-hand table on page 4.13 shows the refractive index of a is possible to achieve external transmittances of 98.5% and 99.5%,
typical UV-grade synthetic fused silica versus wavelength at 20ºC. respectively. Synthetic fused silica and HEBBAR are especially
Optical Coatings
To obtain the index for optical-quality synthetic fused silica, round well suited to each other in visible spectrum applications.
the values off to the fourth decimal place.

Fundamental Optics
a) LOWER LIMITS
100
90
80
PERCENT EXTERNAL TRANSMITTANCE
70
60
BK7
50
S
UVGSFS
OQSF
40
30
20
10
0
140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500
WAVELENGTH IN NANOMETERS
b) UPPER LIMITS
100
90 BK7
80
70
S
60
UVGSF
Material Properties
S
OQSF
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Optical Coatings
WAVELENGTH IN MICROMETERS
Figure 4.1 Comparison of uncoated external transmittances for UVGSFS, OQSFS, and BK7, all 10 mm in thickness

Fundamental Optics
SYNTHETIC FUSED-SILICA CONSTANTS
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Abbé Constant: 67.880.5
Change of Refractive Index with Temperature (0º to 700ºC):
99.997
1.28 ! 1045/ºC
99.995 Homogeneity (maximum index variation over 10-cm aperture):
99.993 2 ! 1045
Density (at 25ºC): 2.20 g/cc

Continuous Operating Temperature: Maximum 900ºC
99.991 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion: 5.5 ! 1047/ºC
Specific Heat (25ºC): 0.177 cal/gºC
Dispersion Formula1 at 20ºC (l in mm):
99.990
99.97 0.6961663l2 0.4079426l2
PERCENT INTERNAL TRANSMITTANCE
n2 4 1 = 2 2
+
99.95 l 4 (0.0684043) l 4 (0.1162414) 2
2
99.93 0.8974794l2
OH bond + . (4.7)
resonance l2 4 (9.896161) 2
99.91 Refractive Index of UV-Grade Synthetic Fused Silica*

Wavelength Index of Wavelength Index of
99.90 (nm) Refraction (nm) Refraction
99.7
180.0 1.58529 532.0 1.46071
99.5
190.0 1.56572 546.1 1.46008
99.3 200.0 1.55051 587.6 1.45846
213.9 1.53431 589.3 1.45840
226.7 1.52275 632.8 1.45702
UVGSFS
BK7
99.1
230.2 1.52008 643.8 1.45670
239.9 1.51337 656.3 1.45637
99.0 248.3 1.50840 694.3 1.45542
97 265.2 1.50003 706.5 1.45515
95 275.3 1.49591 786.0 1.45356
280.3 1.49404 820.0 1.45298
93 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 289.4 1.49099 830.0 1.45282
WAVELENGTH IN NANOMETERS 296.7 1.48873 852.1 1.45247
Material Properties
302.2 1.48719 904.0 1.45170

Figure 4.2 Semilogarithmic comparison of internal 330.3 1.48054 1014.0 1.45024
transmittances of UVGSFS and BK7
340.4 1.47858 1064.0 1.44963
351.1 1.47671 1100.0 1.44920
The internal transmittance of UV-grade synthetic fused silica 361.1 1.47513 1200.0 1.44805
shows a pronounced dip at 950 nm, while the data for BK7 give 365.0 1.47454 1300.0 1.44692
no hint of a corresponding feature. It should be understood that BK7 404.7 1.46962 1400.0 1.44578
and UVGSFS are manufactured by very different processes. One 435.8 1.46669 1500.0 1.44462
of the many differences in these materials is that UVGSFS has a 441.6 1.46622 1550.0 1.44402
much higher content of OH chemical bonds (hydroxyl content) 457.9 1.46498 1660.0 1.44267
than does BK7. The dip in UVGSFS transmittance corresponds to 476.5 1.46372 1700.0 1.44217
the OH bond resonance. 486.1 1.46313 1800.0 1.44087
488.0 1.46301 1900.0 1.43951
Optical Coatings
496.5 1.46252 2000.0 1.43809

1Malitson, I.H. “Interspecimen Comparison of the Refractive Index
514.5 1.46156 2100.0 1.43659
of Fused Silica,” Journal of the Optical Society of America 55, no. 10
(October 1965): 1205–1209. *Accuracy 83!1045.

Optical Crown Glass

Fundamental Optics
In optical crown glass, a low-index commercial-grade glass, the Refractive Index of Optical Crown Glass
index of refraction, transmittance, and homogeneity are not
Wavelength Refractive Fraunhofer Spectral
controlled as carefully as they are in optical-grade glasses such as
(nm) Index, n Designation Source Region
BK7. Optical crown is suitable for applications in which component
tolerances are fairly loose and as a substrate material for mirrors. 435.8 1.53394 g Hg arc Blue
Transmittance characteristics for optical crown are shown in 480.0 1.52960 F′ Cd arc Blue
figure 4.3. Relevant properties of optical crown are shown in the 486.1 1.52908 F H2 arc Blue
accompanying table. 546.1 1.52501 e Hg arc Green
587.6 1.52288 d He arc Yellow

OPTICAL CROWN GLASS CONSTANTS 589.0 1.52280 D Na arc Yellow
Glass Type Designation: B270 643.8 1.52059 C′ Cd arc Red
656.3 1.52015 C H2 arc Red
Abbé Constant:
vd = 58.5
Dispersion: (nF 4 nC ) = 0.0089
Transmission Values for 6-mm-thick Sample
Density: 2.55 g cm43 at 23°C
300 nm = 0.3% 360 nm = 87.2%
Young’s Modulus: 71.5 kN/mm2
310 nm = 7.5% 380 nm = 88.8%
Specific Heat: Cp (20º to 100°C) = 0.184 cal/g°C 320 nm = 30.7% 400 nm = 90.6%
Coefficient of Linear Expansion (20º to 300°C): 330 nm = 56.6% 450 nm = 90.9%
93.3 ! 1047/°C 340 nm = 73.6% 500 nm = 91.4%
Transformation Temperature: 521°C 350 nm = 83.1% 600 nm = 91.5%

Softening Point: 708°C Note: Transmission in visible region (including reflection loss) = 91.7% (t = 2 mm).
100
90
80
70
Material Properties
60
50
40
30
20
10
300 400 500 1000 2000 3000
Optical Coatings
Figure 4.3 External transmittance for 10-mm-thick uncoated optical crown glass

Low-Expansion Borosilicate Glass
Fundamental Optics
The most well-known low-expansion borosilicate glass (LEBG) Refractive Index of Low-Expansion Borosilicate Glass
is Pyrex® made by Corning. It is well suited for applications in
Wavelength Refractive Fraunhofer Spectral
which high temperature, thermal shock, or resistance to chemical
(nm) Index, n Designation Source Region
attack are primary considerations. On the other hand, LEBG is
typically less homogeneous and contains more striae and bubbles 486.1 1.479 F H2 arc Blue
than optical glasses such as BK7. This material is ideally suited 514.5 1.477 Ar laser Green
to such tasks as mirror substrates, condenser lenses for high-power 546.1 1.476 e Hg arc Green
illumination systems, or windows in high-temperature 587.6 1.474 d Na arc Yellow

environments. Because of its low cost and excellent thermal stability, 643.8 1.472 C′ Cd arc Red
it is the standard material used in test plates and optical flats. As
seen in figure 4.4, transmission of LEBG extends into the
ultraviolet and well into the infrared. The index of refraction in
this material varies considerably from batch to batch. Typical
values are shown in the accompanying table.
LOW-EXPANSION BOROSILICATE GLASS CONSTANTS
Abbé Constant: vd = 66
Density: 2.23 g cm43 at 25°C
Young’s Modulus: 5.98 !109 dynes/mm2
Poisson’s Ratio: 0.20
Specific Heat at 25ºC: 0.17 cal/g°C
Coefficient of Linear Expansion (0° to 300°C):
3.25!1046/°C
Softening Point: 820°C
Melting Point: 1250°C
Pyrex® is a registered trademark of Corning, Inc.
100
Material Properties
80
60
40
20
0
.2 .4 .6 .8 1 1.4 2 2.4 2.8
Optical Coatings
Figure 4.4 External transmittance for 8-mm-thick uncoated

low-expansion borosilicate glass

Sapphire
Fundamental Optics
Sapphire is a superior window material in many ways. Because

of its extreme surface hardness, sapphire can be scratched by only
100
a few substances (such as diamond or boron nitride) other than

itself. Chemically inert and insoluble in almost everything except at
highly elevated temperatures, sapphire can be cleaned with impunity. 80
For example, even hydrogen fluoride fails to attack sapphire at
temperatures below 300ºC. Sapphire exhibits high internal
transmittance all the way from 150 nm (vacuum ultraviolet) to 60
6000 nm (middle infrared). The external transmittance of sapphire

is shown in figure 4.5. Because of its great strength, sapphire windows
40
can safely be made much thinner than windows of other glass types,
and therefore are useful even at wavelengths that are very close to
their transmission limits. Because of the exceptionally high thermal 20
conductivity of sapphire, thin windows can be very effectively cooled
by forced air or other methods. Conversely, sapphire windows can
easily be heated to prevent condensation. 0
.1 .2 .3 .5 1 1.5 3 5 8
Sapphire is single-crystal aluminum oxide (Al2O3). Because of
its hexagonal crystalline structure, sapphire exhibits anisotropy in WAVELENGTH IN MICROMETERS
many optical and physical properties. The exact characteristics of an
optical component made from sapphire depend on the orientation
Figure 4.5 External transmittance for 1-mm-thick uncoated
of the optic axis or c-axis relative to the element surface. Sapphire
sapphire
exhibits birefringence, a difference in index of refraction in orthogonal

directions. The difference in index is 0.008 between light traveling
along the optic axis and light traveling perpendicular to it. Malitson1 SAPPHIRE CONSTANTS*
determined a dispersion relationship for the ordinary ray in sapphire. Density: 3.98 g cm43 at 25ºC
This formula, along with the appropriate constants is shown below
Young’s Modulus*: 3.7 ! 1010 dynes/mm2
(l in micrometers):
Poisson’s Ratio*: 40.02
A1l2 A 2 l2 A 3l2 Moh Hardness: 9 (by definition)
n2 4 1 = 4 2 + 2 + 2
l 4 l12 l 4 l22 l 4 l23 Specific Heat at 25ºC: 0.18 cal/gºC
where
Coefficient of Linear Expansion (0º to 500ºC):
A1 = 1.023798 7.7 ! 1046/ºC
A 2 = 1.058264 Softening Point: 1800ºC
A 3 = 5.280792
Material Properties
*Sapphire is anisotropic in many of its properties which require tensor

l12 = 0.00377588 description. These values are averages over many directions.
l22 = 0.0122544 (4.8)
Refractive Index of Sapphire
l23 = 321.3616.
Wavelength Refractive Index
The transmission of sapphire is limited primarily by losses caused (nm) n
by surface reflections. The high index of sapphire makes magnesium
265.2 1.8337
fluoride almost an ideal single-layer antireflection coating. When
351.1 1.7970
a single layer of magnesium fluoride is deposited on sapphire and
404.7 1.7858
optimized for 550 nm, total transmission of a sapphire component
488.0 1.7754
can be kept above 98% throughout the entire visible spectrum.
514.5 1.7731
532.0 1.7718
546.1 1.7708
Optical Coatings
1 Malitson, I.H. “Refraction and Dispersion of Synthetic Sapphire,”

632.8 1.7660
Journal of the Optical Society of America 525, no. 12 (Dec. 1967): 1377.
1550.0 1.7462
2000.0 1.7377

ZERODUR®
Fundamental Optics
Many optical applications require a substrate material with a Refractive Index of ZERODUR®
near-zero coefficient of thermal expansion and/or excellent thermal Wavelength Fraunhofer Refractive Index
shock resistance. ZERODUR® with its very small coefficient of (nm) Designation n
thermal expansion at room temperature is such a material.
656.3 C 1.5394
ZERODUR, which belongs to the glass-ceramic composite
643.8 C′ 1.5399
class of materials, has both an amorphous (vitreous) component and
587.6 d 1.5424
a crystalline component. This Schott glass is subjected to special
546.1 e 1.5447
thermal cycling during manufacture so that approximately 75% of

486.1 F 1.5491
the vitreous material is converted to the crystalline quartz form.
480.0 F′ 1.5497
The crystals are typically only 50 nm in diameter, and ZERODUR
435.8 g 1.5544
appears reasonably transparent to the eye because the refractive
indices of the two phases are almost identical. However, scattering
at the grain boundaries precludes the use of ZERODUR for
transmissive optics. .8
Typical of amorphous substances, the vitreous phase has a
THERMAL EXPANSION COEFFICIENT (X 10–6/ °K)
positive coefficient of thermal expansion. The crystalline phase has .6

a negative coefficient of expansion at room temperature. The over-
all linear thermal expansion coefficient of the combination is almost .4
zero at useful temperatures.
.2 –271
Figure 4.6 shows the variation of expansion coefficient with fused silica
temperature for a typical sample. The actual performance varies very
slightly, batch to batch, with the room temperature expansion 0
coefficient in the range of 80.15 ! 1046/ºC. By design, this material
exhibits a change in the sign of the coefficient near room temperature. –.2
A comparison of the thermal expansion coefficients of ZERODUR ZERODUR
and fused silica is shown in the figure. ZERODUR, is markedly –.4
superior over a large temperature range, makes ideal mirror
substrates for such stringent applications as multiple-exposure –.6
holography, holographic and general interferometry, manipulation
of moderately powerful laser beams, and space-borne imaging –.8
–250 –150 –50 0 50 150
systems.
TEMPERATURE IN DEGREES CENTIGRADE
ZERODUR® CONSTANTS Figure 4.6 Comparison of thermal expansion coefficients

Material Properties
Abbé Constant: vd = 66 of ZERODUR® and fused silica

Dispersion: (nf – nc) = 0.00967
Density: 2.53 g cm43 a 25ºC
Young’s Modulus: 9.1 ! 109 dynes/mm2
Poisson’s Ratio: 0.24
MIRROR SUBSTRATES
Specific Heat at 25ºC: 0.196 cal/gºC
Coefficient of Linear Expansion (20º to 300ºC) : ZERODUR is commonly
0.0580.10 ! 1046/ºC used as a substrate for
Maximum Temperature: 600ºC l/20 mirrors with
aluminum type coatings.
See Chapter 9, Mirrors,
for ZERODUR coated
Optical Coatings
mirrors.
Zerodur® is a registered trademark of Schott Glass Technologies.

Calcium Fluoride
Fundamental Optics
Calcium fluoride (CaF2), a cubic single-crystal material, has Refractive Index of Calcium Fluoride
widespread applications in the ultraviolet and infrared spectra.
Wavelength Refractive Index
CaF2 is an ideal material for use with excimer lasers. It can be
(mm) n
manufactured into windows, lenses, prisms, and mirror substrates.
0.193 1.501
CaF2 transmits over the spectral range of about 130 nm to 0.248 1.468
10 mm as shown in figure 4.7. Traditionally, it has been used primarily 0.257 1.465
in the infrared, rather than in the ultraviolet. CaF2 occurs natu- 0.266 1.462
rally and can be mined. It is also produced synthetically using the 0.308 1.453
Stockbarger method, which is a time- and energy-consuming process. 0.355 1.446
Unfortunately, achieving acceptable deep ultraviolet transmission 0.486 1.437
and damage resistance in CaF2 requires much greater material 0.587 1.433
purity than in the infrared, and it completely eliminates the possi- 0.65 1.432
bility of using mined material. 0.7 1.431
To meet the need for improved component lifetime and 1.0 1.428
transmission at 193 nm and below, manufacturers have introduced 1.5 1.426
a variety of inspection and processing methods to identify and 2.0 1.423
remove various impurities at all stages of the production process, 2.5 1.421
from incoming materials through crystallization. The needs for 3.0 1.417
improved material homogeneity and stress birefringence have also 4.0 1.409
caused producers to make alterations to the traditional Stockbarger 5.0 1.398
approach. These changes allow tighter temperature control during 6.0 1.385
crystal growth, as well as better regulation of vacuum and annealing 7.0 1.369
process parameters. 8.0 1.349
Excimer-grade CaF2 provides the combination of deep ultraviolet

transmission (for 193 nm and even 157 nm), high damage thresh-
old, resistance to color center formation, low fluorescence, high
homogeneity, and low stress birefringence characteristics required 100
for the most demanding deep ultraviolet applications.
PERCENT TRANSMITTANCE
80
CALCIUM FLUORIDE CONSTANTS
Density: 3.18 gm cm43 @ 25ºC 60
Poisson Ratio: 0.26
Material Properties
dN/dT: 410.6!1046/ºC 40
Young’s Modulus: 1.75!107 psi
Coefficient of Linear Expansion: 20
18.9!1046/ºC (from 20ºC to 60ºC)
Melting Point: 1360ºC 0
.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 2 4.0 10
Figure 4.7 External transmittance for calcium fluoride

Optical Coatings

Fundamental Optics
Optical Coatings

Optical Coatings 5.2
OEM and Special Coatings 5.3
The Reflection of Light 5.4
Single-Layer Antireflection Coatings 5.8
Multilayer Antireflection Coatings 5.12
Thin-Film Production 5.14
Single-Layer MgF2 Antireflection Coatings 5.17
HEBBAR™ Coatings 5.18
V-Coatings 5.23
High-Reflection Coatings 5.24

Material Properties
Metallic High-Reflection Coatings 5.25
Dielectric High-Reflection Coatings 5.29
MAXBRIte™ Coatings 5.33
Laser-Line MAX-R™ Coatings 5.35
Ultrafast Coating 5.37

Optical Coatings
5.1 1
Optical Coatings
Fundamental Optics
A comprehensive survey of all optical components currently in special or OEM order, please contact Melles Griot to discuss your
use would reveal that the vast majority are made of various types requirements with one of our qualified applications engineers.
of glass. This survey would also reveal that a majority of these Today, dielectric coatings are remarkably hard and durable.
optics are coated with thin layers of material(s) different from the With proper care and handling, they can have a long life. In fact,
substrate. The purpose of these coatings is to modify the reflection the surface of many high-index glasses that are prone to staining can
and transmission properties at the surface of the optical element. be protected with a durable antireflection coating. Several factors
Whenever light passes from one medium into a medium of influence coating durability. Coating designs should be optimized
different optical properties (most notably refractive index), part of for minimal overall thickness to reduce mechanical stress. The most
the light (between 0% and 100%) is reflected and part of the light resilient materials should be used. Great care should be taken in coat-
(between 100% and 0%) is transmitted. The intensity ratio of reflected ing fabrication to ensure high-quality, nongranular, even layers.
and transmitted components is primarily a function of the difference Although we cannot prevent accidental abuse of coated optics,
in refractive index and the angle of incidence. For many uncoated Melles Griot concentrates on these other factors to produce coat-
optical glasses, reflected light typically represents a few percent of ings that are as durable as possible.
incident radiation. For designs using more than a few components, Although the Melles Griot optical-coating departments have
losses in transmitted light level can accumulate rapidly. More many years of experience in designing and fabricating various types
important are corresponding losses in image contrast or modulation of dielectric and metallic coatings, the science of thin films is still
caused by weakly reflected ghost images superimposed on the desired developing rapidly. Melles Griot monitors and incorporates new
image. Such unwanted images are often defocused beyond recognition technology so that we are always able to offer the most advanced
so that contrast reduction (rather than image confusion) is their coatings available.
primary effect. The Melles Griot range of coatings currently includes anti-
Applications generally require that the reflected portion of reflection, metallic reflectors, all-dielectric reflectors, hybrid reflectors,
incident light approach 0% for transmitting optics (lenses) and partial reflectors (beamsplitters), and filters for monochromatic,
100% for reflective optics (mirrors), or is at some fixed intermedi- dichroic, or broadband applications. Many of the coatings can be
ate value for partial reflectors (beamsplitters). The only applications applied to the simple optics described in this catalog; some coat-
that do not require coated optics involve transmitting optics in ings can be applied only to a specific range of products; and some
which only a few surfaces are in the optical path, where transmis- of the coatings are supplied only as an integral part of a specific prod-
sion inefficiencies may be tolerable. uct (e.g., cube beamsplitters).
In principle, the surface of any optical element can be coated with
If you require a special coating not described in this catalog, please
thin layers of various materials (called thin films) in order to ensure
contact a Melles Griot applications engineer to discuss our special
the desired reflection/transmission ratio. Unfortunately, with the
coating design services.
exception of simple metallic coatings, this ratio depends on the
nature of the material from which the optic is fabricated, as well as
the wavelength and angle of incidence. There is also a polarization
dependence to this ratio when the angle of incidence is not 0 degrees.
Material Properties
A multilayer coating (sometimes more than 100 individual layers)

can optimize the reflection/transmission ratio for several sets of
conditions (wavelength and angle of incidence) or optimize it over
a particular range of conditions.
Melles Griot is the leading supplier of precision simple optics.
Because optics for most applications require a coating of some sort,
it would not have been possible to achieve this market-leading posi-
tion without our extensive knowledge of thin-film coatings. With
the state-of-the-art coating department located in Irvine, California,
as well as other coating facilities in Japan; Rochester, New York; and
the British Isles, Melles Griot is able not only to coat large volumes
of catalog and special optics, but also to develop and evaluate new
coatings for special customer requirements.
Optical Coatings
With new and expanded coating capabilities, Melles Griot now

offers the same high-quality coatings as a separate service to
customers wishing to supply their own substrates. As with any

OEM and Special Coatings
Fundamental Optics
Melles Griot maintains coating capabilities at each of its lens
fabrication facilities worldwide, including the Irvine, California,
Photonics Components facility.
In the last few years, Melles Griot has expanded and improved
this coating facility to take advantage of the latest developments in
thin-film technology. The resulting operation can provide high-
volume coatings at competitive prices to OEM customers, as well
as specialized, high-performance coatings for the most demanding

user.
The most important aspect of our coating capabilities is our
expert design and manufacturing staff. This group blends years of
practical experience with recent academic research knowledge.
With a thorough understanding of both design and production
issues, Melles Griot excels at producing repeatable, high-quality
coatings at competitive prices.
USER-SUPPLIED SUBSTRATES
Melles Griot not only coats catalog and custom optics with
standard and special coatings, but also applies these coatings to
user-supplied substrates. A significant portion of our coating
business involves applying standard or slightly modified catalog
coatings to special substrates.
HIGH VOLUME
The high-volume output capabilities of the Melles Griot coating

departments result in very competitive pricing for large-volume
special orders. Even the small-order customer benefits from this
large volume. Small quantities of special substrates can be coated
with popular catalog coatings during routine production runs at a
very modest cost.
CUSTOM DESIGNS
Material Properties
A large portion of the work carried out at Melles Griot coating

facilities is special coatings designed and manufactured to customer
specifications.
These designs cover a wide range of wavelengths, from infrared
to ultraviolet, and applications ranging from basic research through
the design and manufacture of industrial and medical products. The
most common special coating requests are for modified catalog
coatings, which usually involve a simple shift in the design wavelength.
TECHNICAL SUPPORT
Melles Griot applications engineers are available to discuss your

system requirements at any stage. This can make a significant
difference to overall coating cost. Often a simple modification to a
Optical Coatings
system design can enable catalog components or coatings to be

substituted for special designs at a reduced cost, without affecting
performance.

The Reflection of Light

Fundamental Optics
REFLECTIONS AT UNCOATED SURFACES The amount of reflected light is therefore larger when the
Whenever light is incident on the boundary between two media, disparity between the two refractive indices is greater. For an air/glass
some light is reflected and some is transmitted (undergoing interface with the glass having a refractive index of 1.5, the inten-
refraction) into the second medium. Several physical laws govern sity of the reflected light will be 4% of the incident light. For an
the direction, phase, and relative amplitude of the reflected light. optical system containing ten such surfaces, this shows that the
For our purposes, it is necessary to consider only polished optical transmitted beam will be attenuated to 66% of the incident beam
surfaces. Diffuse reflections from rough surfaces are not consid- from reflection losses alone.
ered here.
INCIDENCE ANGLE
The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence equals the
angle of reflection. This is illustrated in figure 5.1 which shows The intensity of reflected and transmitted beams is also a function
reflection of a light ray at a simple air/glass interface. The incident of the angle of incidence. Because of refraction effects, it is necessary
and reflected rays make an equal angle with the axis perpendicular to consider internal and external reflection separately at this point.
to the interface between the two media. External reflection is defined as reflection at an interface where the
incident beam originates in the material of lower refractive index
(i.e., air in the case of an air/glass or air/water interface). Internal
INTENSITY
reflection refers to the opposite case.
At a simple interface between two dielectric materials, the
amplitude of reflected light is a function of the ratio of the refractive EXTERNAL REFLECTION AT A DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY
index of the two materials, polarization of the incident light, and
Fresnel’s laws of reflection precisely describe amplitude and
the angle of incidence.
phase relationships between reflected and incident light at a
When a beam of light is incident on a plane surface at normal
boundary between two dielectric media. It is convenient to think

incidence, the relative amplitude of the reflected light, as a proportion of incident radiation as the superposition of two plane-polarized
of the incident light, is given by beams, one with its electric field parallel to the plane of incidence
(p-polarized) and the other with its electric field perpendicular
(1 4 p)
(5.1) to the plane of incidence (s-polarized). Fresnel’s laws can be
(1 + p)
summarized in the following two equations which give the reflectance
where p is the ratio of the refractive indices of the two materials of the s- and p-polarized components:
(n1/n2 ). Intensity is the square of this expression.
 sin(v1 4v 2 ) 
2
rs =   (5.2)
 sin(v1 + v 2 ) 
 tan(v1 4v 2 ) 
2
rp =   . (5.3)
 tan(v1 + v 2 ) 
incident reflected
ray ray
Material Properties
In the limit of normal incidence in air, Fresnel’s laws reduce to

vi = vr
vi vr the following simple equation:
2
 n 4 1
r =   . (5.4)
air n = 1.00  n + 1
glass n = 1.52 It can easily be seen that, for a refractive index of 1.52 (crown
glass), this gives a reflectance of 4%. This important result shows
vt that about 4% of all illumination incident normal to an air-glass
surface will be reflected. In a multielement lens systems, reflection
refracted losses would be very high if antireflection coatings were not used.
ray
The variation of reflectance with angle of incidence for both the
sinvt n s- and p-polarized components can be seen in figure 5.2. It can be
= air
sinvi nglass seen that the reflectance remains close to 4% over about 30 degrees
Optical Coatings
incidence, and that it rises rapidly to 100% at grazing incidence. In

Figure 5.1 Reflection and refraction at a simple air/glass addition, note that the p-component vanishes at 56º 39′. This angle,
interface called Brewster’s angle, is the angle at which the reflected light is

Fundamental Optics
100 p-polarized normal absent p-polarized
incident ray reflected ray
90
e1 v1
80 air or vacuum
index n1
70
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
isotropic dielectric solid refracted ray

60 index n2 dipole radiation
s-plane
is pattern: sin2v
ax v2
50 o le n
p-plane dip ectio
40 dir
p-polarized
30 refracted ray
20 Figure 5.3 Brewster’s angle (at this angle, the p-polarized

component is completely absent in the reflected ray)
10 vp
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 a
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE IN DEGREES
vc = critical angle b
Figure 5.2 External reflection at a glass surface (n = 1.52)
showing s- and p-polarized components
nair
c
completely polarized (see figure 5.3). This situation occurs when nglass
the reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other vc
(v1 + v2 = 90º ). This leads to the expression for Brewster’s angle, vB:
d d
v1 = vB = arctan (n2/n1).
c c
Under these conditions, electric dipole oscillations of the p- b b
component will be along the direction of propagation and therefore a a
cannot contribute to the reflected ray. At Brewster’s angle, reflectance
of the s-component is about 15%. Figure 5.4 Internal reflection at a glass surface (n = 1.52)
showing s- and p-polarized components
Material Properties
INTERNAL REFLECTION AT A DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY

For light incident from a higher to a lower refractive index
medium, we can apply the results of Fresnel’s laws in exactly the 100
same way. The angle in the high-index material at which polarization total reflection
90 Brewster
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
occurs is smaller by the ratio of the refractive indices in accordance 80 angle

with Snell’s law. The internal polarizing angle is 33º2l′ for 70 33°PRODUCT
21'
NUMBER A B
a refractive index of 1.52, corresponding to the Brewster angle 60 07 PHT 501/07 PHF 501 10 3
(56º 39′) in the external medium as shown in figure 5.4. 50 07 PHT 503/07 PHF 503 15 5
The angle at which the emerging refracted ray is at grazing inci- 40 07 PHT 505/07 PHF 505 20 5
30 07 PHT 507/07 PHF 507 30 5
dence is called the critical angle (see figure 5.5). For an external
20 07 PHT 509/07 PHFcritical
509 angle
40 5
medium of air or vacuum (n = 1), the critical angle is given by rs
10 07 PHT 511/07 PHF41°
5118' 50 5
rp
 1 
vc (l ) = arc sin   (5.5) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
 n(l )  ANGLE OF INCIDENCE IN DEGREES
Optical Coatings
and depends on the refractive index n(l), which is a function of

wavelength. For all angles of incidence higher than the critical angle, Figure 5.5 Critical angle (at this angle, the emerging ray is at
total internal reflection occurs. grazing incidence)

Fundamental Optics
PHASE CHANGES ON REFLECTION

There is another, more subtle difference between internal and constructive interference
external reflections. During external reflection, light waves undergo
a 180-degree phase shift. No such phase shift occurs for internal wave I
reflection (except in total internal reflection). This is one of the
important principles on which multilayer films operate.
wave II
AMPLITUDE
INTERFERENCE
Quantum theory shows us that light has wave/particle duality.
In most classical optics experiments, it is generally the wave properties
that are most important. With the exception of certain laser systems resultant
and electro-optic devices, the transmission properties of light through wave
an optical system can be well predicted and rationalized by wave
theory.
One consequence of the wave properties of light is that waves TIME
exhibit interference effects. Light waves that are in phase with each
destructive interference
other undergo constructive interference, (see figure 5.6). Light waves
that are exactly out of phase with each other (by 180 degrees or
wave I
p radians) undergo destructive interference, and their amplitudes
cancel. In intermediate cases, total amplitude is given by the vector

resultant, and intensity is given by the square of amplitude.
wave II
AMPLITUDE
Various experiments and instruments demonstrate light

interference phenomena. Some interference effects are possible
only with coherent sources (i.e., lasers), but many are produced by
incoherent light. Three of the best-known demonstrations of visible
light interference are Young’s slits experiment, Newton’s rings, and
zero amplitude
the Fabry-Perot interferometer. These are described in most ele- resultant
mentary optics and physics texts. wave
In all of these demonstrations, light from a source is split in

some way to produce two similar wavefronts. The wavefronts are TIME
recombined with a variable path difference between them. Whenever
the path difference is an integral number of half wavelengths (and Figure 5.6 A simple representation of constructive and
destructive wave interference
Material Properties
if the wavefronts are of equal intensity), they cancel by destructive

interference (i.e., an intensity minimum is produced). An intensity
minimum is still produced if the interfering wavefronts are of differing
amplitude; the result is just non-zero. When the path difference is
an integral number of wavelengths, their intensities sum by con-
structive interference, and an intensity maximum is produced.
THIN-FILM INTERFERENCE
Thin-film coatings also rely on the principles of interference.
Thin films are dielectric or metallic materials whose thickness is
comparable to, or less than, the wavelength of light.
When a beam of light is incident on a thin film, some of the
light will be reflected at the front surface, and some of light will be
Optical Coatings
reflected at the rear surface as shown in figure 5.7. The remainder

will be transmitted. At this stage, we shall ignore multiple reflections.
The two reflected wavefronts can interfere with each other. This

Fundamental Optics
will depend on the ratio of optical thickness of the material and The optical thickness is given by top = t ! n, where t is the
the wavelength of the incident light (see figure 5.8). The optical physical thickness, and n is the ratio of the speed of light in the
thickness of an element is defined as the equivalent vacuum thick- material to the speed of light in vacuum:
ness (i.e., the distance that light would travel in vacuum in the same
amount of time as it takes to traverse the optical element of interest). c (vacuum)
n = . (5.6)
In other words, the optical thickness of a piece of material is the v (medium)
thickness of that material corrected for the apparent change of To a very good approximation, n is the refractive index of the
wavelength passing through it.

material.
Returning to the thin film at normal incidence, the phase
difference between the reflected wavefronts is given by (top/l) !
dense
l 2p, where l is the wavelength of light, as usual, plus any phase
l medium n0
air n0~1.00 n0 n≈2.00 differences caused by reflections at the surfaces. Clearly, if the
wavelength of the incident light and the thickness of the film are
l such that a phase difference exists between reflections of p, then
n reflected wavefronts interfere destructively, and overall reflected
intensity is a minimum. If the two reflections are of equal amplitude,
then this amplitude (and hence intensity) minimum will be zero.
t = 1.5l/n = 0.75l t In the absence of absorption or scatter, the principle of
top = tn = 1.5l
conservation of energy indicates all “lost” reflected intensity will
top
optical thickness appear as enhanced intensity in the transmitted beam. The sum
of the reflected and transmitted beam intensities is always equal
to the incident intensity. This important fact has been confirmed
experimentally.
Conversely, when the total phase shift between two reflected
wavefronts is equal to zero (or multiples of 2p), then the reflected
intensity will be a maximum, and the transmitted beam will be
Figure 5.7 Front and back surface reflections for a thin reduced accordingly.
film at near-normal incidence
air n0
homogeneous
Material Properties
thin
film
front and back
surface reflections
transmitted light
refractive optical thickness

index = n of film, top = nt
t
physical
thickness
Optical Coatings
Figure 5.8 A schematic diagram showing the effects of

lower light velocity in a dense medium (in this example, the Spectrophotometer used to obtain a transmission and
velocity of light is halved in the dense medium n = n/n0, and the reflectance measurement from a optical coating
optical thickness of the medium is 2!the real thickness)

Single-Layer Antireflection Coatings

Fundamental Optics
The simple principles of single-layer antireflection coatings should REFRACTIVE INDEX

now be clear. The substrate (glass, quartz, etc.) is coated with a thin The intensity of a reflected beam from a single surface, at normal
layer of material so that reflections from the outer surface of the film incidence, is given by
and the outer surface of the substrate cancel each other by destructive
interference. The intensity of the transmitted beam is correspondingly [(1 4 p) / (1 + p)]2 ! the incident intensity (5.7)
increased so that, ignoring scattering and absorption, where p is the ratio of the refractive indices of the two materials at
incident energy = reflected energy + transmitted energy. the interface.
For the two reflected beams to be equal in intensity, it is necessary
Two requirements create an exact cancellation of reflected beams

that p, the refractive index ratio, be the same at both the interfaces
with a single-layer coating: The reflections are exactly 180 degrees
(p radians) out of phase, and they have the same intensity, n air n film
= (5.8)
n film n substrate
FILM THICKNESS (i.e., the three refractive indices must form a geometric progression).
The thickness of a single-layer antireflection film must be an odd Since the refractive index of air is 1.0, the thin antireflection
number of quarter wavelengths in order to achieve the correct phase film ideally should have a refractive index of √}}}}} }}}}}. Optical
nsubstrate
for cancellation. This requirement is shown in figure 5.9, which glasses typically have refractive indices of between 1.5 and 1.75.
explains the mechanism of a hypothetically perfect single-layer anti- Unfortunately, there is no ideal material that can be deposited in
reflection coating. There is a p/2 phase shift for reflections at both inter- durable thin layers with a low enough refractive index to satisfy
faces because they are low to high index medium interfaces. These this requirement exactly (n = 1.23 for an antireflection coating on
identical phase shifts cancel each other out. The net phase shift crown glass). However, magnesium fluoride (MgF2) is a good
between the two reflections is therefore determined solely by the compromise because it forms high-quality, stable films and has a
optical path difference 2t ! nc, where t is the physical thickness of reasonably low refractive index, 1.38 at a wavelength of 550 nm.
the coating layer and nc is the refractive index of the coating material. Magnesium fluoride is probably the most widely used thin-film
The phase shift is therefore 2tn/l. material for optical coatings. Although its performance is not
Single-layer antireflection coatings are generally deposited with outstanding, it represents a significant improvement over an uncoated
a thickness of l/4, where l is the desired wavelength for peak surface. Typical crown glass surfaces reflect from 4% to 5% of visible
performance. The phase shift is 180 degrees (p radians), and the light at normal incidence. A high-quality MgF2 coating can reduce
reflections are in a condition of exact destructive interference. this value to 1.5%. For many applications this improvement is suffi-
cient, and sophisticated multilayer coatings are not necessary.
Such coatings work extremely well over a wide range of wave-
If top, the optical lengths and angles of incidence, despite the fact that the theoretical
thin thickness (nt) = l/4,
air glass target of 0% reflectance is achieved by a film of quarter wavelength
film then reflections
n0 n = 1.52
n interfere destructively optical thickness only for normal incidence, and only if the refractive
index of the coating material is exactly the geometric mean of the
Material Properties
substrate and air. In fact, the single layer of quarter-wave-thickness

MgF2 coating designed for normal incidence makes its most
significant contribution to the transmission of steep surfaces, where
wavelength
most rays are incident at large angles (see figure 5.10).
=l
WAVELENGTH DEPENDENCE
As with any thin film, performance depends on the incident light

wavelength for two reasons. First, at other than the design wavelength,
resultant reflected
film thickness is no longer the ideal l/4. This is taken into account by
intensity = zero all thin-film design programs. A more subtle effect, which can be quite
important, is caused by the change in refractive index of the coating
t and substrate with wavelength (i.e., dispersion). Only the most up-
physical to-date computer design packages, such as those used by Melles Griot,
Optical Coatings
thickness include this higher level of sophistication for multilayer coatings. For
Figure 5.9 Schematic representation of a single-layer single-layer antireflection coatings, wavelength dependence of the
antireflection coating coating performance can be evaluated from analytical expressions.

Fundamental Optics
40
35
v = angle of incidence PERCENT REFLECTANCE
AT 550 NANOMETERS 30

v
25
20
15 uncoated glass
10 single-layer
MgF2
glass 5
MgF2
1/4 wavelength optical thickness 0 20 40 60 80
at 550 nm (n = 1.38) ANGLE OF INCIDENCE IN AIR (IN DEGREES)
6
subscripts: Rs = reflectance for s-polarization
subscripts: Rav = reflectance for average polarization
subscripts: Rp = reflectance for p-polarization
5
Rs = (normal incidence coating at 45°)
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
4
(at 45° incidence)
Rs = (45° incidence coating)
3
Material Properties
Rav = (normal incidence coating at 45°)
2
Rav = (45° incidence coating)
Rp = (normal incidence coating at 45°)

1
Rp = (45° incidence coating)
400 500 600 700

Optical Coatings
Figure 5.10 Performance of a normal incidence coating design for 550 nm working at 45 degrees compared with a 45
degrees incidence coating working at 45 degrees.

Fundamental Optics
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE packing density of 100%. Real films, however, tend to be slightly
The irradiance reflectance of any thin-film coating varies with porous. The refractive index of a real magnesium fluoride film is usu-
the angle of incidence. Two main effects lead to a complicated ally slightly lower than 1.38 because the packing density is rarely
dependence of reflectance (hence transmission) on the angle of 100% in practice. Because it is a complex function of the manu-
incidence. First, the path difference of the front and rear surface facturing process, packing density varies slightly from batch to
reflection from any layer is a function of angle. As the angle of inci- batch. Air and water vapor can also settle in the film and affect its
dence increases from zero (normal incidence), the optical path dif- refractive index. For Melles Griot magnesium fluoride coatings,
this will usually correspond to an effective refractive index between
ference is decreased. The change in path difference results in a

change of phase difference between the two interfering reflections 97% and 100% of the 1.38 theoretical value.
in an identical manner to the phase change resulting from tilting a
Fabry-Perot interferometer.
COATED SURFACE
The reflectance of any optical interface varies according to the REFLECTANCE AT NORMAL INCIDENCE
angle of incidence as shown in figure 5.10. Thin-film performance
Suppose that the coating is of quarterwave optical thickness for
evaluation at arbitrary angles of incidence is therefore quite complex,
some wavelength l. Let na denote the refractive index of the external
even for a simple one-layer antireflection coating. In short, the
medium at this wavelength (1.0 for air or vacuum), and let nf and ns,
phase difference between the two pertinent reflections changes
respectively, denote the film and substrate indices. For normal incidence
together with their relative amplitude.
at this wavelength (as shown in figure 5.11), the single-pass irradiance
reflectance of the coated surface can be shown to be
COATING FORMULAS (SINGLE LAYER)
2
 n n 4 n 2f 
Because of the practical importance and wide usage of single- R =  a s 2

(5.12)
layer coatings, especially at oblique incidence, it is valuable to have  na n s + n f 
formulas from which coating reflectance curves, as functions of
wavelength, angle of incidence, and polarization, can be calculated. regardless of the polarization state of the incident radiation. This
function is shown in figure 5.12
COATING DISPERSION FORMULA

The first step in evaluating performance of a single-layer anti-
air or vacuum MgF2 substrate
reflection coating is to calculate the refractive index of the film and index na antireflection index ns
substrate at the wavelength of interest. For optical purposes, a thin coating
film may be considered to be perfectly homogeneous. The refractive index nf
index of MgF2, whether amorphous or crystalline, is connected to
density with the Lorentz-Lorenz formula. The crystalline ordinary
and extraordinary indices of refraction may be averaged for the
Material Properties
amorphous phase.
The formulas for crystalline MgF2 are, respectively, wavelength l
(3.5821) (1043 ) Figure 5.11 Reflectance at normal incidence

n o = 1.36957 + (5.9)
(l 4 0.14925)
and
(3.7415) (1043 ) COATED SURFACE
n e = 1.381 + (5.10)
(l 4 0.14947) REFLECTANCE AT OBLIQUE INCIDENCE
At oblique incidence, the situation is more complex. Let n1, n2, and
for the ordinary and extraordinary rays, where l is the wavelength
n3, respectively, represent the wavelength-dependent refractive indices
in microns.
of the external medium (air or vacuum), coating film, and substrate
For the average of the ordinary and extraordinary indices of as shown in figure 5.13. Assume that the coating exhibits a reflectance
refraction, extremum of the first order for some wavelength ld and angle of
1 incidence v1d in the external medium. The coating is completely
n = n(l ) = (n o + n e ).
Optical Coatings
(5.11) specified when v1d and ld are known. One may then identify n2 with
2
the film index nf (1.38 for MgF2 at 550 nm). The extremum is a
The value 1.38 is the universally accepted amorphous film index minimum if n2 is less than n3 and a maximum if n2 exceeds n3. The
for MgF2 at a wavelength of 550 nanometers, which assumes a same formulas apply in either case.

Fundamental Optics
Corresponding to the arbitrary angle of incidence v1 and
arbitrary wavelength l1 are angles of refraction in the coating and
2.0 substrate, given by
fused silica
PERCENT REFLECTANCE PER SURFACE
1.8
1.6 BK7  n1 (l1 ) sin v1 
v 2 = arcsin   (5.15)
1.4  n 2 (l1 ) 
1.2 and

 n1 (l1 ) sin v1 
1.0 v 3 = arcsin   (5.16)
LaSFN9  n 3 (l1 )  .
.8
.6
SF11 Following are formulas for the single-interface amplitude
.4 reflectances for both the p- and s-polarizations:
.2
n 2 cos v1 4 n1 cos v 2
r12p = (5.17)
1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 n 2 cos v1 + n1 cos v 2
REFRACTIVE INDEX (ng)
n 3 cos v 2 4 n 2 cos v 3
r23p = (5.18)
n 3 cos v 2 + n 2 cos v 3
Figure 5.12 Reflectance at surface of substrate with n1 cos v1 4 n 2 cos v 2
r12s = (5.19)
index ng when coated with a quarter wavelength of
n1 cos v1 + n 2 cos v 2
magnesium fluoride (index n=1.38)
n 2 cos v 2 4 n 3 cos v 3
r23s = . (5.20)
air or vacuum index n1 optical path difference = 2n2b–n1a
n 2 cos v 2 + n 3 cos v 3
wa
vel
en The subscript “12p,” for example, means that the formula gives the
gth
l1 v1 amplitude reflectance for the p-polarization at the interface between
a
the first and second media.
The corresponding irradiance reflectances for the coated surface,
accounting for both interferences and the phase differences between
MgF2 antireflection b h
b v2 the reflected waves, are given by
coating index n2
glass or silica substrate 2

r12p 2
+ r23p + 2r12pr23p cos (2b )
v3 (5.21)
index n3 Rp =
Material Properties
2 2
1 + r12p r23p + 2r12pr23p cos (2b )
and
2 2
r12s + r23s + 2r12sr23s cos (2b )
Rs = (5.22)
Figure 5.13 Reflectance at oblique incidence 2 2
1 + r12s r23s + 2r12sr23s cos (2b )
Corresponding to the angle of incidence v1d is an angle of

refraction in the film: where b is the phase difference (in the external medium) between
waves reflected from the first and second surfaces of the coating.
 sin v1d 
v 2d = arcsin  . (5.13)
 n 2 (l d )  2p
b = n 2 (l1 ) h cos v 2 . (5.23)
As v1 is reduced from v1d to zero, the reflectance extremum shifts l1
in wavelength from ld to ln, where the subscript n denotes normal
The cosines must be in radians. The average reflectance is given by
incidence.
This wavelength is given by the equation 1
Optical Coatings
R = (R p + R s ) . (5.24)
2
 n 2 (l n )   l d 
ln =  With these formulas, reflectance curves can be calculated as functions
  . (5.14)
 n 2 (l d )   cos v 2d  of either wavelength l1 or angle of incidence v1.

Multilayer Antireflection Coatings

Fundamental Optics
Previously, we discussed basic principles of thin-film design and If the substrate is crown glass with a refractive index of 1.52 and
operation for a simple antireflection coating of magnesium fluoride. if the first layer is the lowest possible refractive index, 1.38 (MgF2),
It is useful to discuss to also discuss layer antireflection coatings in the refractive index of the high-index layer needs to be 1.70. Either
order to understand the operation of multilayer coatings. It is beyond beryllium oxide or magnesium oxide could be used for the inner layer,
the scope of this chapter to cover all aspects of modern thin-film but both are soft materials and will not produce very durable coat-
design and operation; however, it is hoped that this section will pro- ings. Although it allows some freedom in the choice of coating
vide the reader with insight into thin films that will be useful when materials and can give very low reflectance, the quarter/quarter
considering system designs and specifying cost-effective coatings. coating is very restrictive in its design. In principle, it is possible to
Two basic types of antireflection coating have been developed deposit two materials simultaneously to achieve layers of almost any
that are worth examining in detail: the quarter/quarter coating and required refractive index, but such coatings are not very practical.
the multilayer broadband coating. As a consequence, thin-film engineers have developed multilayer
antireflection coatings and two-layer coating designs to allow the
THE QUARTER/QUARTER COATING refractive index of each layer to be chosen.
This coating is used as an alternative to the single-layer
antireflection coating. It was developed because of the lack of suit-
able materials available to improve the performance of single-layer
quarter/quarter antireflection coating
coatings. The basic problem of a single-layer antireflection coat-
A B
ing is that the refractive index of the coating material is too high, C
resulting in too strong a reflection from the first surface which can-
not be completely canceled by interference of the weaker reflection
from the substrate surface. In a two-layer coating, the first reflec-
tion is canceled by interference with two weaker reflections.

air (n0 = 1.0)
A quarter/quarter coating consists of two layers, both of which low-index layer (n1 = 1.38)
have an optical thickness of a quarter wave at the wavelength of inter- high-index layer (n2 = 1.70)
est. The outer layer is made of a low-refractive-index material, and the substrate (n3 = 1.52)
inner layer is made of a high-refractive-index material (compared to
the substrate). As figure 5.14 shows, the second and third reflections
are both exactly 180 degrees out of phase with the first reflection.
As with any multilayer coating, performance and design are
calculated in terms of relative amplitudes and phases which are
then summed to give the overall (net) amplitude of the reflected wavefront A
beam. The overall amplitude is then squared to give the intensity.
How does one calculate the required refractive index of the inner
Material Properties
layer? Several methodologies have been developed over the last 40

to 50 years to calculate thin-film coating properties and converge
on optimum designs. The whole field has been revolutionized in wavefront B
AMPLITUDE
recent years with the availability of powerful microcomputers.

Among the most sophisticated and effective programs are those
developed by Professor H. A. Macleod, which are used by
Melles Griot.
wavefront C
With a two-layer quarter/quarter coating optimized for one
wavelength at normal incidence, the required refractive indices
can easily be calculated by hand. The formula for exact zero
reflectance for such a coating is resultant
wave
n12 n3
= n0 (5.25)
n 22
Optical Coatings
TIME
where n0 is the refractive index of air (approximated as 1.0), n3 is
the refractive index of the substrate material, and n1 and n2 are the Figure 5.14 Interference in a typical quarter/quarter
refractive indices of the two film materials, as indicated in figure 5.14. coating

Fundamental Optics
Two-Layer Coatings of Arbitrary Thickness and the wavelength of light changes with wavelength. Also, dispersion
Interference is often thought of in terms of constructive or of the coating material causes optical thickness to change with
destructive interference, where the phase shift between interfering wavelength.
wavefronts is either 0 or 180 degrees. For two wavefronts to
Multilayer Broadband Antireflection Coatings
completely cancel, as in a single-layer antireflection coating, a phase
shift of exactly 180 degrees is required. Where three or more reflect- The complex, computer-design techniques used by Melles Griot
ing surfaces are involved, complete cancellation can be achieved for multilayer antireflection coatings are based on the simple prin-

by carefully choosing arbitrary phase and relative intensities. This ciples of interference and phase shifts described in the preceding text.
is the basis of a two-layer antireflection coating, where the layers are All methods consider the combined effect of various film elements.
adjusted to suit the refractive index of available materials, instead Because of the extensive properties of coherent interference, it is
of vice versa. For a given combination of materials, there are usually meaningless to consider individual layers in a multilayer coating.
two combinations of layer thicknesses that will give zero reflectance Each layer is influenced by the optical properties of the layer next
at the design wavelength. These two combinations are of different to it. The properties of that layer are influenced by its environment.
overall thickness. For any type of thin-film coating, the thinnest Clearly, this represents at least a complex series of matrix multi-
possible overall coating is used since it will have better mechanical plications, where each matrix corresponds to a single layer.
properties (less stress). In this case, the thinner combination is also An important aspect that is often overlooked in simple theory
less wavelength sensitive. is that there are multiple “reflections” in the coatings. In the previous
Two-layer antireflection coatings are the simplest of the so- discussions, only first-order reflections have been considered. This
called V-coatings. The term V-coating arises from the shape of the oversimplified approach is unable to predict correctly the behavior
reflectance curve as a function of wavelength, which is a skewed of multilayer coatings. Second, third, and higher order terms must
be considered if real behavior is to be modeled accurately. The exact
V shape with a reflectance minimum at the design wavelength (see
figure 5.15). V-coatings are very popular, economical coatings for behavior of an antireflection coating is clearly dependent on the
near monochromatic applications, such as optical systems using refractive index of the substrate to which it is applied. In order to
nontunable laser radiation (e.g., helium neon lasers at 632.8 nm). simplify the task of choosing and ordering coatings for optics of dif-
ferent glass types, Melles Griot has listed the coatings in this catalog
according to performance. Actual coatings applied by Melles Griot
BROADBAND ANTIREFLECTION COATINGS are adjusted for different glass types in order to achieve the speci-
Many optical systems (particularly imaging systems) use fied performance.
polychromatic (more than one wavelength) light. In order for the
system to have a flat spectral response, transmitting optics are coated
with a broadband or dichroic antireflection coating. The main
technique used in designing antireflection coatings that are highly
efficient at more than one wavelength is to use absentee layers within
the coating. There are two additional techniques that can be used
Material Properties
for shaping performance curves of high-reflectance coatings and

wavelength-selective filters, but these are not applicable to antire-
flection coatings.
REFLECTANCE
Absentee Layers
An absentee layer is a film of dielectric material that does not
change the performance of the overall coating at one particular
wavelength, usually the wavelength for which the coating is being
principally optimized. This results from the fact that the coating has
an optical thickness of a half wave at that wavelength. The effects
of the “extra” reflections cancel out at the two interfaces since no
additional phase shifts are introduced. In theory, the performance l0
of the coating is the same at that wavelength whether the absentee
Optical Coatings
WAVELENGTH
layer is present or not.
At other wavelengths, the absentee layer starts to have an effect, Figure 5.15 Characteristic performance curve of
for two reasons. The ratio between physical thickness of the layer a V-coating

Thin-Film Production
Fundamental Optics
VACUUM DEPOSITION boat. A high current (10–100 A) is passed through the boat, which
Melles Griot manufactures thin films by a process known as vac- undergoes resistive heating. The coating material is then vaporized
uum deposition. Uncoated substrates are placed in a large vacuum thermally. Because the chamber is at a greatly reduced pressure,
chamber capable of achieving a vacuum of at least 1046 torr. At there is a very long mean free path for the free atoms or molecules,
the bottom of the chamber is a source of the film material to be and the heavy vapor is able to reach the moving substrates at the
vaporized, as shown in figure 5.16. The substrates are mounted on top of the chamber. Here it condenses back to the solid state, form-
a series of rotating carousels, arranged so that each substrate sweeps ing a thin, uniform film.
in planetary style through the same time-averaged volume in the Several problems are associated with thermal evaporation. Some
chamber. useful substances can react with the hot boat, which can cause
impurities to be deposited with the layers, changing optical
THERMAL EVAPORATION properties. In addition, many materials, particularly metal oxides,
cannot be vaporized this way, because the material of the boat
The source of vaporized material is usually one of two types.
(tungsten, tantalum, or molybdenum) melts at a lower tempera-
The simpler, older type relies on resistive heating of a thin folded
ture. Instead of a layer of zirconium oxide, a layer of tungsten would
strip (boat) of tungsten, tantalum, or molybdenum by a high direct
be deposited on the substrate.
current. Small amounts of the coating material are loaded into the
For the more volatile materials, thermal evaporation is still often
the method of choice. Coatings of excellent quality can be produced
if they are deposited on a hot substrate.
rotation motor
SOFT FILMS
Until the advent of electron bombardment as a superior

alternative, only materials that melted at moderate temperatures
(2000ºC) could be incorporated into thin-film coatings. Unfortu-
nately, the more volatile materials also happen to be the softer
materials, which produce less resilient films. Consequently, early
multilayer coatings deteriorated fairly quickly and required undue
monitoring
substrates plate substrates amounts of care during cleaning. More important, sophisticated
vacuum designs with performance specifications at several wavelengths
thermocouple system
could not be easily produced since these designs required many
individual layers, and the softness of the layers made some of these
quartz lamp quartz lamp films impractical.
(heating)
Material Properties
shutter ELECTRON BOMBARDMENT

Electron bombardment has become the accepted method of
vapor
choice for optical thin-film fabrication. This method is capable of
E-beam gun
vaporizing even highly involatile materials, such as titanium oxide and
baseplate zirconium oxide. Using large cooled crucibles precludes reaction of
filter the heated material with the metal of the boat or crucible.
chopper
light source A high-flux electron gun (1 A at 10 kV) is aimed at the film
power water power material contained in a large, water-cooled, copper crucible. Intense
supply detector cooling supply local heating melts and vaporizes some of the coating material in
reflection signal the center of the crucible without causing undue heating of the
optical monitor crucible itself. For particularly involatile materials, the electron gun
can be focused to intensify its effects.
Careful control of temperature and vacuum conditions ensures
Optical Coatings
that most of the vapor is in the form of atoms or molecules, as

Figure 5.16 Schematic view of a typical vacuum deposi- opposed to clusters. This produces a more even coating with better
tion chamber optical characteristics and improved longevity.

Fundamental Optics
ION-ASSISTED BOMBARDMENT The most notable examples of applications where scattering is
Ion-assisted bombardment is a coating technique that can offer critical are intracavity mirrors for low-gain lasers, such as certain
unique benefits under certain circumstances. Ion assist during helium neon laser lines and continuous-wave dye lasers.
coating leads to a higher atomic or molecular packing density in the
TEMPERATURE AND STRESS
thin-film layers. This results in a higher refractive index and, most
important, superior mechanical characteristics. A major problem with thin films is caused by inherent mechanical
stresses. Even with careful control of the vacuum, source
Specifically, the lack of voids in the more efficiently packed
temperature, and optimized positioning of the optics being coated,

film means that it is far less susceptible to water-vapor absorption.
many thin-film materials do not deposit well on cold substrates.
Water absorption by an optical coating can change the index of
This is particularly true of involatile materials. Raising the substrate
refraction of layers and, hence, the optical properties. Water absorp-
temperature a few hundred degrees improves the quality of these
tion can also cause mechanical changes that can ultimately lead to
films, often making the difference between usable and useless film.
failure.
The elevated temperature seems to allow freshly condensed atoms
Ion-assisted coating can also be used for cold processing. (or molecules) to undergo limited surface diffusion.
Eliminating the need to heat parts allows cemented parts, such as Optics that have been given a multilayer thin-film coating at an
achromats, to be safely coated. elevated temperature require very slow cooling to room temperature.
Thermal expansion coefficients of substrate and film materials are
likely to be somewhat different. As cooling occurs, the coating
MONITORING AND CONTROLLING LAYER THICKNESS
contracts and produces stress in the layers. Many pairs of coating
A chamber set up for multilayer deposition has several sources materials do not adhere particularly well to each other owing to
that are preloaded with various coating materials. The entire different chemical properties and bulk packing characteristics.
multilayer coating is deposited without opening the chamber. Temperature-induced stress and poor interlayer adhesion are
A source is heated, or the electron gun is turned on, until the the most common thickness limitations for optical thin films. Until
source is stable. The shutter above the source is opened to expose new technologies, such as ion-assisted deposition, are developed
the chamber to the vaporized material. When a particular layer is into true production tools, stress must be reduced by minimizing
deposited to the correct thickness, the shutter is closed and the source overall coating thickness and by carefully controlling the produc-
is turned off. This process is repeated for the other sources. tion process.
The most common method of monitoring the deposition process
is optical monitoring. A monitor beam of light passes through the
chamber and is incident on a blank monitor substrate. Reflected
light is detected using photomultiplier and phase-sensitive detection. incident light
As each layer is deposited onto the reference blank, the intensity
of reflected light from it oscillates in a pseudo sine wave (rectified).
The turning points represent quarter- and half-wave thicknesses at
Material Properties
the monitor wavelength, with intermediate thicknesses between.

Deposition is automatically stopped as the reflectance of the reference
surface passes through the appropriate point.
SCATTERING
Reflectance and transmittance are usually the most important
optical properties specified for a thin film, closely followed by
absorption. However, the degree of scattering caused by a coating
is often the limiting factor in the ability of coated optics to perform
in certain applications. Scattering is quite complex. The overall
degree of scattering is determined by imperfections in layer interfaces
and interference between photons of light scattered by these
imperfections as shown in figure 5.17. It is also a function of the
Optical Coatings
granularity of the layers. This is difficult to control as it is an inherent

characteristic of the materials used. Careful modification of depo- Figure 5.17 Interface imperfections scattering light in a
sition conditions can make a considerable difference to this effect. multilayer coating

Fundamental Optics
INTRINSIC STRESS
Even in the absence of thermal-contraction-induced stress, the
layers often are not mechanically stable because of intrinsic stress
from interatomic forces. The homogeneous thin film is not the
preferred phase for most coating materials. In the lowest energy,
natural form of the material, molecules are aligned in a crystalline
symmetric fashion. This is the form in which intermolecular forces
are more nearly in equilibrium.

In addition to intrinsic molecular forces, intrinsic stress results
from poor packing. If packing density is considerably less than
100%, the intermolecular binding may be sufficiently weakened to
make the layer totally unstable.
PRODUCTION CONTROL
Two major factors are involved in producing a coating to perform
to a particular set of specifications. First, sound design techniques
must be used. If design procedures cannot accurately predict the
behavior of a coating, there is little chance that satisfactory coatings
will be produced. Second, if the manufacturing phase is not care-
fully controlled, the thin-film coatings produced may perform quite
differently from the computer simulation.

Melles Griot uses the latest computer design programs with
exhaustive iterations to ensure that the final design is optimized.
Manufacturing high-quality thin films is not trivial. At Melles Griot,
more effort is expended on monitoring thin-film manufacture than
on any other single manufacturing procedure. Without such care-
ful monitoring, the tedious design and optimization phase would
be wasted.
Great care is taken in coating production at every level. Not only
are all obvious precautions taken, such as thorough precleaning and
controlled cool down, but even the smallest details of the manu-
facturing process are carefully controlled. Our thoroughness and
attention to detail ensures that the customer will always be supplied
with the best design, manufactured to the highest standards.
Material Properties
QUALITY CONTROL
All batches of Melles Griot coatings are rigorously and thoroughly
tested for quality. Even with the most careful production control,
this is necessary to ensure that only the highest quality parts are
shipped.
Our inspection system meets the stringent demands of
MIL-I-45208A and our spectrophotometers are calibrated to
standards traceable to the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST). Upon request, we can provide complete
environmental and photometric testing to MIL-C-675 and
MIL-M-13508. All are firm assurances of dependability and
accuracy.
Optical Coatings

Single-Layer MgF2 Antireflection Coatings
Fundamental Optics
Magnesium fluoride (MgF2) is commonly used for single-layer typical reflectance curves
antireflection coatings because of its almost ideal refractive index 5
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
(1.38 at 550 nm) and high durability. These coatings are optimized
4
for 550 nm (Melles Griot coating suffix /066) and 670 nm (/067) for normal and 45° incidence
normal incidence, but as can be seen from the reflectance curves, in 3
figures 5.18 and 5.19, they are extremely insensitive to wavelength 45°
2
and incidence angle. Many standard lenses in stock are coated with 0°
MgF2. Our precision optimized achromats (01 LAO series) are 1

supplied standard with the /066 coating.
Should you wish to specify a different wavelength and incidence 400 500 600 700
angle, it is no problem to shift the coating design. Please bear in WAVELENGTH IN NANOMETERS
mind, however, that additional delivery time is needed for special
coatings, and that care should be taken in selecting the quantity of Figure 5.18 Single-layer MgF2 coating /066
items coated to maximize the efficiency of the coating run. Partially
$ The most popular and versatile antireflection coating
filled chambers result in higher unit prices.
for visible wavelengths
Single-layer antireflection coatings are routinely available for $ Highly durable and most economical
almost any angle of incidence and any wavelength between 200 nm $ Optimized for 550 nm, normal incidence
in the ultraviolet and 1.6 mm in the infrared. To obtain such coatings, $ Relatively insensitive to changes in incidence angle
simply specify (for each surface of each part) the precise wavelength $ Damage threshold: 13.2 J/cm2 810%, 10-nsec pulse
and angle of incidence for which reflectance is to be minimized. As (1050 MW/cm2) at 532 nm
the 1.6-mm wavelength is approached, the angle-of-incidence range
becomes restricted to near-normal incidence. This is because of
practical limitations on physical coating thickness. It is usually 5 typical reflectance curve
inadvisable to request a MgF2 coating for any wavelength greater

PERCENT REFLECTANCE
than 1.6 mm. Thicker MgF2 coatings are possible, but they tend to 4
exhibit crazing, poor adhesion, and significantly increased scattering.
3
Single-layer antireflection coatings for use on very steeply curved normal incidence
or short-radius surfaces should be specified for an angle of incidence 2
approximately half as large as the largest angle of incidence
1
encountered by the surface. Depending on the specific application,
determination of the best wavelength for use in a coating specification
may require ray and energy tracing of the optical system in its 500 600 700 800
anticipated environment.
Material Properties
The effectiveness of MgF2 as an antireflection coating is increased Figure 5.19 /067 Single-layer MgF2, visible/IR
dramatically with increasing refractive index of the component
$ Optimized for 670 nm, normal incidence
material. This means that, for use on high-index materials, there is
$ Useful for most visible and near-infrared diode wavelengths
often little point in using more complex coatings. The reflectance
$ Highly durable and insensitive to angle
curves shown are for MgF2 on BK7 optical glass.
$ Damage threshold: see /066 (similar specifications)
SINGLE VERSUS MULTILAYER COATINGS
While MgF2 does not offer the same performance as multilayer
coatings, such as HEBBAR™ (described on the following page), it Single-Layer MgF2 Antireflection Coating
Normal Incidence
is preferred in some circumstances. Specifically, on lenses with very
steep surfaces, such as our 01 LAG series aspherics, MgF2 will Wavelength Maximum Reflectance
actually perform better than HEBBAR near the edge of the lens Range On BK7 On Fused Silica COATING
because the performance of a coating shifts with the angle of (nm) (%) (%) SUFFIX
incidence. The shifted MgF2 will never be worse than an uncoated
Optical Coatings
400–700 2.0 2.25 /066

lens, but, at very high angles, HEBBAR can actually be shifted to
520–820 2.0 2.25 /067
a region where its performance is worse than if there were no coating
Note: To order this coating, append coating suffix to product number and specify which
at all. surfaces are to be coated.

HEBBAR™ Coatings
Fundamental Optics
Our HEBBAR™ (high-efficiency broadband antireflection) HEBBAR™ Coatings

coatings provide a very low reflectance over a broad spectral
Wavelength Maximum Angle of
bandwidth. These multilayer films, comprising alternate layers of
Range Reflectance Incidence COATING
various index materials, are combined to reduce overall reflectance
(nm) (%) (degrees) SUFFIX
to an extremely low level for the broad spectral range covered.
These coatings exhibit a characteristic, double-minimum reflec- 440–660 0.6 Abs 0–15
tance curve covering a range of some 300 nm in wavelength. The 415–685 0.4 Avg 0–15
reflectance does not exceed 1.0% and is more typically below 0.6% 415–700 1.0 Abs 0–15
/078
over this entire range. Within a more limited spectral range on 415–680 1.0 Abs 0–30
either side of the central peak, reflectance can be held well below 632.8 0.3 Abs 0–15
0.4%. HEBBAR coatings are somewhat insensitive to angle of 632.8 0.4 Abs 0–30
incidence. The effect of increasing the angle of incidence, however, 425–670 0.6 Avg 45
is to shift the curve to slightly shorter wavelengths and to increase 425–670 1.0 Abs 45
/079
the long wavelength reflectance slightly. These coatings are extremely 440–670 0.4 Abs 30–45
useful for high-numerical-aperture (low f-number) lenses or steeply 440–670 1.0 Abs 45–50
curved surfaces. In these cases, incidence angle varies significantly 750–1100 0.6 Abs 0–15
over aperture. 700–1100 0.4 Avg 0–15
Six versions of HEBBAR coatings are offered (see figures 5.20 /077
700–1150 1.0 Abs 0–15
through 5.25). Many of our components are carried in stock with 700–1100 1.0 Abs 0–30
a HEBBAR coating. The /078 covers most of the visible spectrum
650–850 0.6 Avg 0–15
(415–700 nm) and is optimized for normal incidence. A 45-degree- /075
650–850 1.0 Abs 0–15

incidence version of this coating (/079) is available. The infrared-
shifted /077 covers the range from 700 nm to 1100 nm. Two 780–850 0.25 Abs 0–15
HEBBAR coatings, the /075 and the /076, are specifically optimized 780–850 0.40 Abs 0–30 /076
for diode laser wavelengths. The /074 is a modified HEBBAR 725–875 1.0 Abs 0–30
coating intended for use in the range from 300 nm to 500 nm. Over 300–500 1.0 Abs 0–15
/074
this range, the reflectance is less than 1% and typically does not 300–500 0.5 Avg 0–15
exceed 0.5%. Due to the special nature of the /074 coating, it is Note: To order, append coating suffix to product number and specify which surfaces are
to be coated.
designed to be used only at an angle of incidence of 0±15 degrees,
and it is not suitable for use on lenses with steeply curved surfaces.
For these coatings, reflectance values apply to indices 1.47–1.55
only. Other indices, while having their own designs, will have
reflectance values approximately 20% higher for incidence angles
from 0 to 15 degrees and 25% higher for incidence angles of 30
Material Properties
degrees. The typical reflectance curves shown for the HEBBAR

coatings are for BK7 substrates, except for /074 which is for fused
silica.
Optical Coatings

Fundamental Optics
typical reflectance curves typical reflectance curves
5 5
4 4
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
normal incidence normal incidence
3 45° incidence 3 45° incidence

2 2
1 1
400 500 600 700 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
WAVELENGTH IN NANOMETERS WAVELENGTH IN NANOMETERS
Figure 5.20 HEBBAR™ coating for visible /078 Figure 5.22 HEBBAR™ coating for near-infrared /077
$ Industry-standard multilayer, AR coating for 415 to 700 nm $ Covers popular Ti:sapphire and diode laser wavelengths:
$ Excellent performance with HeNe and visible diode lasers 750 to 1100 nm
$ Optimized for normal incidence $ Ravg < 0.4%, Rabs < 0.6%
$ Ravg < 0.4%, Rabs < 1.0% $ Damage threshold: 6.5 J/cm2810%,
$ Damage threshold: 3.8 J/cm2 810%, 20-nsec pulse (260 MW/cm2) at 1064 nm
10-nsec pulse (230 MW/cm2) at 532 nm
typical reflectance curve typical reflectance curves

5 5
4 4
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
45° incidence
3 3 normal incidence
45° incidence
2 2
Material Properties
1 1
400 500 600 700 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900
Figure 5.21 HEBBAR™ coating for visible /079 Figure 5.23 HEBBAR™ coating for near-infrared and diode
wavelengths /075
$ Optimized for 425–670 nm at 45-degree incidence
$ Perfect for plate beamsplitting applications $ Optimized for performance from 660 to 835 nm
$ Ravg < 0.6%, Rabs < 1.0% $ Versatile for use with most diode lasers from visible
$ Damage threshold: see /078 (similar specifications) to near-infrared wavelengths
$ Ravg < 0.5%, Rabs < 1.0%
Optical Coatings

Fundamental Optics

5 5
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
4 4
normal incidence
45° incidence
3 3
normal incidence
45° incidence
2 2
1 1
500 600 700 800 900 1000 300 350 400 450 500
Figure 5.24 HEBBAR™ coating for diode lasers /076 Figure 5.25 HEBBAR™ coating for ultraviolet /074
$ Optimized for diode laser wavelengths, from 780 to 850 nm $ Excellent broadband coverage for 300 to 500 nm
$ Ravg < 0.25%, Rabs < 0.4% $ Covers HeCd and argon laser lines
$ Damage threshold: see /077 (similar specifications) $ Rabs < 1.0%
$ Damage threshold: 3.2 J/cm2 810%,
10-nsec pulse (260 MW/cm2) at 355 nm, on silica substrate
LASER-INDUCED DAMAGE
Melles Griot conducts laser-induced damage testing of our optics at Big Sky Laser Technologies, Inc., in Bozeman, MT.
Although the damage thresholds listed in this chapter do not constitute a performance guarantee, they are
representative of the damage resistance of our coatings. Occasionally, in the damage threshold specifications, a
reference is made to another coating because a suitable high-power laser is not available to test the coating within its
design wavelength range. The damage threshold of the referenced coating should be an accurate representation of
the coating in question.
For each damage threshold specification, the information given is the peak fluence (energy per square centimeter),
pulse width, peak irradiance (power per square centimeter), and test wavelength. The peak fluence is the total energy
per pulse, the pulse width is the full width at half maximum (FWHM), and the test wavelength is the wavelength of the
Material Properties
laser used to incur the damage. The peak irradiance is the energy of each pulse divided by the effective pulse length,
which is from 12.5% to 25% longer than the pulse FWHM. All tests are performed at a repetition rate of 20 Hz for
10 seconds at each test point. This is important because longer durations can cause damage at lower fluence levels,
even at the same repetition rate.
The damage resistance of any coating depends on substrate, wavelength, and pulse duration. Improper handling and
cleaning can also reduce the damage resistance of a coating, as can the environment in which the optic is used. These
damage threshold values are presented as guidelines and no warranty is implied. (See Chapter 14, High Energy Laser
Optics for details on our guaranteed high-energy laser coatings.)
When choosing a coating for its power-handling capabilities, some simple guidelines can make the decision process
easier. First, the substrate material is very important. Higher damage thresholds can be achieved using fused silica
instead of BK7. Second, consider the coating. Metal coatings have the lowest damage thresholds. Broadband dielectric
coatings, such as the HEBBAR™ and MAXBRIte™ are better, but single-wavelength or laser-line coatings, such as the
V and the MAX-R™ coatings, are better still. If even higher thresholds are needed, then high-energy laser (HEL) coatings
Optical Coatings
are required, such as those listed in Chapter 14. If you have any questions or concerns regarding the damage levels
involved in your applications, please contact a Melles Griot applications engineer.

Fundamental Optics
EXTENDED-RANGE HEBBAR™ ANTIREFLECTION COATINGS Extended Broadband Coating
Many optical systems require transmission of several, quite disparate This very broad coating, designated /073 and shown in figure
wavelengths or transmission over a very broad continuum of wave- 5.28, offers good performance over the entire visible and near-
lengths. Examples include systems involving two types of lasers, a laser infrared spectral range. It is effective with broadband infrared
system producing fundamental and harmonic wavelengths, a multiple- sources, such as infrared LEDs, as well as systems using several,
wave mixing experiment, stimulated Raman experiments, or a system widely separated discrete laser lines.
using one laser for action and another for alignment.
UV Broadband Coating

In these situations, normal broadband coatings will not suffice.
For such cases, Melles Griot makes available extended-range antire- The ultraviolet broadband antireflection coating, designated
flection coatings. These coatings offer either a single, extended /072 and shown in figure 5.29, is designed for use on fused-silica
performance band or two separate high-performance regions. In the substrates and provides less than 1% reflectance from 245 nm to
latter case, one of the low-reflectance regions can be quite narrow, 440 nm. It is particularly useful with most popular excimer laser
since many of the applications often involve at least one laser beam. lines, as well as other ultraviolet sources, such as mercury lamps.
Melles Griot manufactures many such coatings for a variety of cus- The broad response of this coating allows it to perform well even
tomer specifications. The following special coatings are offered as with poorly collimated light, which can be especially advantageous
standard catalog items. The typical reflectance curves shown for when dealing with excimer laser sources.
the extended-range HEBBAR coatings are for BK7 substrates,
except for /072 which is for fused silica.
Visible/1064 nm Coating HIGH-ENERGY-LASER COATED OPTICS

This coating, designated /083 and shown in figure 5.26 is Optics and coatings specifically designed and
designed for broadband antireflectance in the visible, as well as at manufactured to withstand laser-induced damage
1064 nm, the wavelength of Nd-YAG lasers. With less than 1% are recommended for high-power lasers, particularly
reflectance between 450 and 680 nm, and less than 0.25% pulsed lasers.
reflectance at 1064 nm, this coating will find many uses in any
See Chapter 14, High Energy Laser Optics, for an
system using a visible source in conjunction with low to moderate
extensive listing of these products, together with a
power Nd:YAG laser fundamental radiation. Its high perfor-
brief discussion of laser-induced damage.
mance is guaranteed for incidence angles up to 15 degrees. Optics
with this coating are therefore best used at normal incidence and
can be used for both converging and diverging beams.
Diode Laser Coating
This coating, designated /084 and shown in figure 5.27, is
designed to operate at two popular diode laser wavelengths. It is a
modified broadband coating which works well through the near-
Material Properties
infrared spectrum with reflection minima between 780 nm and

830 nm and also at 1300 nm.
Performance is guaranteed for incidence angles up to 15 degrees.
This coating can therefore be used even without complete collimation
of the diode radiation.
Extended-Range HEBBAR™ Antireflection Coatings

Wavelength Range Maximum Reflectance Average Reflectance Angle of Incidence COATING
Coating (nm) (%) (%) (degrees) SUFFIX
Visible / 1064 nm 450–700 1.25 <1.0 0–15 /083
1064 0.25
Diode Laser 780–830 0.5 <0.4 0–15 /084
Optical Coatings
1300 0.5
Extended Broadband 420–1100 1.75 <1.0 0–15 /073
UV Broadband 245–440 1.0 <0.5 0–15 /072

Fundamental Optics
typical reflectance curve typical reflectance curve

5 5
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
4
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
4
normal incidence
normal incidence
3 3
2 2
1 1
400 600 800 1000 1100 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Figure 5.26 HEBBAR™ coating for visible and Nd:YAG Figure 5.28 HEBBAR™ coating for visible and near-IR /073
wavelengths /083
$ Extended antireflection coating for 420 to 1100 nm
$ Extremely versatile extended antireflection coating from
$ Excellent broadband coating, covering the visible and
450 to 700 nm and 1064 nm
near-infrared regions
$ Ideal for Nd:YAG laser fundamental and second harmonic
$ Ravg <1.0%, Rabs <1.75%
$ Also performs well across the visible, including HeNe and

$ Damage threshold: 4.5 J/cm2810%,
visible diode laser lines
10-nsec pulse (358 MW/cm2) at 532 nm;
$ Performance guaranteed from 0º–15º on BK7 substrate
6.5 J/cm2810%, 20-nsec pulse (260 MW/cm2) at 1064 nm
$ Rabs < 1.25% @ 450–700 nm, Rabs < 0.25% @ 1064 nm
5.4 J/cm2810%, 20-nsec pulse (220 MW/cm2) at 1064 nm on 5
typical reflectance curve
silica substrate
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
4
normal incidence
5
3
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
4
Material Properties
2
normal incidence
3
1
2
200 300 400 500
1
Figure 5.29 HEBBAR™ coating for UV /072

750 900 1150 1350 1500 $ Extended antireflection coating for 245 to 440 nm
$ Covers popular excimer and mercury lines
$ Ravg < 0.5%, Rabs < 1.0%
Figure 5.27 HEBBAR™ coating for IR diode lasers /084
$ Extended antireflection coating: 780 to 830 nm and 1300 nm 10-nsec pulse (280 MW/cm2) at 355 nm on silica substrate
Optical Coatings
$ Can be used with relatively uncollimated diode laser beams

$ Rabs < 0.5% @ 780 nm to 830 and 1300 nm
$ Damage threshold: see /083 (similar specifications at 1064 nm)

V-Coatings
Fundamental Optics
V-coatings are multilayer antireflection coatings that reduce the The typical reflectance curve illustrated in figure 5.30 is for a
reflectance of a component to near-zero for one very specific wave- V-coating on BK7 optical glass. Clearly the performance of such a
length. Our V-coatings are intended for use at normal incidence, for coating is highly dependent on the refractive index of the compo-
maximum reflectances of not more than 0.25% at their design wave- nent material. However, we specify all coatings by performance
length. figures and not by design. This means that we will change the design
They are extremely sensitive to both wavelength and angle of to suit the material being coated. This makes ordering coatings
incidence. For example, a V-coating intended for the helium neon simple: select the specification you want to achieve, tell us what to
wavelength (632.8 nm) when used at 30-degree incidence will reflect put it on, and we do the rest. This means that your reflectance curve

about 0.8%. At 45-degree incidence, the same coating will reflect over may vary from the one shown on this page, but the coating will
2.5%. If your application involves other than normal angles of meet your requirements. In addition to the standard coatings listed
incidence or high-numerical-aperture (low f-number) optics, it may here, Melles Griot can supply V-coatings at any center wavelength
be better to use a HEBBAR™ coating. from 193 nm to 2000 nm.
Experience shows that the maximum reflectance typically These coatings are not intended for use with high-energy lasers
achieved by these coatings is often closer to 0.1% than the 0.25% although the Nd:YAG coatings are suitable for many medium-
we specify. Using V-coatings on fused-silica optics can therefore power applications including diagnostics.
provide exceptionally high external transmittances.
V-Coating, Normal Incidence

Maximum 5
Wavelength Reflectance COATING
(nm) Laser Type (%) SUFFIX
4
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
193 ArF 0.5 /101

248 ArF 0.25 /102
266 YAG 3rd harm. 0.25 /103 3
308 XeCl 0.25 /104
normal incidence
351 Ar ion 0.25 /105
2
364 Ar ion 0.25 /107
442 HeCd 0.25 /111
458 Ar ion 0.25 /112 1
466 Ar ion 0.25 /113
473 Ar ion 0.25 /114
476 Ar ion 0.25 /115
550 600 650 700
488 Ar ion 0.25 /116
Material Properties
496 Ar ion 0.25 /117
502 Ar ion 0.25 /118 Figure 5.30 Example of a V-coating for 632.8 nm /123
514 Ar ion 0.25 /119
$ Near-zero reflectance at one specific wavelength
532 YAG 2nd harm. 0.25 /122
and incidence angle
543 HeNe 0.25 /121
$ Maximum reflectance often less than 0.1%
633 HeNe 0.25 /123
$ Standard coatings available for most laser lines
670 GaAlAs 0.25 /128
694 Ruby 0.25 /124
$ Custom center wavelengths at specific angles of incidence
available per request
780 GaAlAs 0.25 /163
830 GaAlAs 0.25 /166
10-nsec pulse (361 MW/cm2) at 532 nm for /122 on silica
850 GaAlAs 0.25 /167
substrate; 10.6 J/cm2810%, 20-nsec pulse (480 MW/cm2)
904 GaAs 0.25 /125
at 1064 nm for /126 on BK7 substrate
1064 Nd:YAG 0.25 /126
Optical Coatings
1300 InGaAsP 0.25 /168

1523 HeNe 0.25 /169
1550 InGaAsP 0.25 /169

High-Reflection Coatings
Fundamental Optics
Melles Griot offers a wide variety of high-reflection coatings performance curve are to use two or more stacks centered at slightly
for mirrors, beamsplitters, polarizing beamsplitters, dichroic mirrors, shifted design wavelengths, or to slightly perturb the layer thickness
bandpass filters, and rejection filters. Some of these coatings are within a stack.
applied to optics as requested; others are offered only as an integral Reflectance of such films can easily be made to exceed the highest
part of specialized optical elements. metallic reflectances over limited wavelength intervals. Such films
High-reflection coatings are ordered in the same way as anti- are effective for both s- and p-polarization components and over
reflection coatings, namely by appending the three-digit coating a wide angle-of-incidence range. At oblique incidence, reflectance
suffix to the catalog number of the part being ordered. is markedly reduced.
High-reflection coatings may be applied to the outside of a Because of the materials chosen for the multilayer, durability
component, such as a flat piece of glass, to produce a first-surface and abrasion resistance of such films are normally superior to those
mirror. Alternately, they may be applied to an internal surface to of metallic films.
produce a second-surface mirror, such as a prism.
High-reflection coatings can be categorized as either metallic or
dielectric coatings.
METALLIC COATINGS air
Metallic coatings are used primarily for mirrors and are not
classified as thin films in the strictest sense. They do not rely on
principles of interference, but rather on the optical properties of
the coating material. However, metallic coatings are often over-
coated with thin dielectric films to increase reflectance over a desired

range of wavelengths or angles of incidence. In these cases, the
metallic coating is said to be “enhanced.”
Overcoating metallic coatings with a hard, single, dielectric layer
of half-wave optical thickness improves abrasion and tarnish resist-
ance but only marginally affects optical properties. Depending on substrate
the dielectric used, such overcoated metals are referred to as durable,
protected, or hard coated. quarter-wave thickness of high-index material
The main advantages of metallic coatings are broadband spectral
performance, insensitivity to angle of incidence and polarization, quarter-wave thickness of low-index material
and low cost. Their primary disadvantages are lower durability,
lower reflectance, and lower damage threshold.
Figure 5.31 A simple quarter-wave stack
Material Properties
DIELECTRIC COATINGS
High-reflectance dielectric layers work on the same principles
as dielectric antireflection coatings. Quarter-wave thicknesses of
alternately high- and low-refractive index materials are applied to
the substrate to form a dielectric multilayer as shown in figure 5.31.
By choosing materials of appropriate refractive indices, the various
reflected wavefronts can be made to interfere constructively in order
to produce a highly efficient reflector.
The peak reflectance value is dependent upon the ratio of
refractive indices of the two materials, as well as the number of
layer pairs. Increasing either increases the reflectance.
The width of the reflectance curve (versus wavelength) is also
determined by the film index ratio. The larger the ratio, the wider
Optical Coatings
the high-reflectance region. In contrast to antireflection coatings,

the inherent shape of a high-reflection coating can be modified in
several different ways. The two most effective ways of modifying the

Metallic High-Reflection Coatings
Fundamental Optics
We offer eight forms of standard metallic high-reflection coatings PROTECTED ALUMINUM (/011)
formed by vacuum deposition. These coatings, which can be used
at any angle of incidence, can be applied to most optical components. $ The best general-purpose metallic reflector for visible to
Simply append the coating suffix number to the component product near-infrared
number (see figures 5.32 through 5.39). $ Protective overcoat extends life of mirror and protects surface
Metallic reflective coatings are delicate and require care during $ Ravg > 87% from 400 to 800 nm
cleaning. Dielectric overcoats substantially improve abrasion resis- $ Damage threshold: 0.3 J/cm2810%,
tance, but they are not impervious to abrasive cleaning techniques. 10-nsec pulse (21 MW/cm2) at 532 nm;

Clean, dry pressurized gas can be used to blow off loose particles, 0.5 J/cm2810%, 20-nsec pulse (22 MW/cm2) at 1064 nm
then clean, deionized water, a mild detergent, and alcohol can be
used. Gentle cleaning with a swab is recommended.
Protected aluminum is the very best general-purpose, metallic
coating for use as an external reflector in the visible and near-
ALUMINUM (/016) infrared spectra. Unless we specify otherwise or you specifically
request a different coating, our mirrors are coated with protected
$ The most widely used metallic mirror coating aluminum. Protected aluminum is coated with a dielectric film of
$ Provides consistently high reflectance throughout the disilicon trioxide (Si2O3) of half-wavelength optical thickness at
near-ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared regions 550 nm. The protective film arrests oxidation and helps maintain
$ Ravg > 90% from 400 to 1200 nm high reflectance. It is durable enough to protect the aluminum coat-
ing from minor abrasions.
0.3 J/cm2810%, 20-nsec pulse (14 MW/cm2) at 1064 nm
typical reflectance curves
100
Aluminum, the most widely used metal for reflecting films, offers
consistently high reflectance throughout the visible, near-infrared,
95
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
and near-ultraviolet regions of the spectrum. While silver exhibits

slightly higher reflectance than aluminum through most of the vis-
90
ible spectrum, the advantage is temporary because of oxidation
tarnishing. Aluminum also oxidizes, though more slowly, and its
oxide is tough and corrosion resistant. Oxidation significantly 85
reduces aluminum reflectance in the ultraviolet and causes slight scat-
normal incidence
tering throughout the spectrum. 80 45° incidence
s-plane
p-plane
typical reflectance curve 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
Material Properties
100
normal incidence
95 Figure 5.33 Protected aluminum coating /011
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
90
85
80
400 600 800 1000

Optical Coatings
Figure 5.32 Aluminum coating /016

Fundamental Optics
ENHANCED ALUMINUM (/023) ULTRAVIOLET-ENHANCED ALUMINUM (/028)
$ Enhanced performance in the mid-visible region $ Maintains reflectance in the ultraviolet region
$ Durability of protected aluminum $ Dielectric overcoat prevents oxidation and increases abrasion
$ Ravg > 93% from 450 to 750 nm resistance
$ Damage threshold: 0.4 J/cm2810%, $ Ravg > 86% from 250 to 400 nm
10-nsec pulse (33 MW/cm2) at 532 nm, $ Ravg > 85% from 400 to 700 nm
0.3 J/cm2810%, 20-nsec pulse (12 MW/cm2) at 1064 nm $ Damage threshold: 0.07 J/cm2810%,
10-nsec pulse (5.7 MW/cm2) at 355 nm

By coating the aluminum with a multilayer dielectric film,
reflectance is increased over a wide range of wavelengths. The By applying a film of an ultraviolet-transmitting dielectric (usually
durable enhancing multilayer produces a peak reflectance MgF2), the reflectance of pure, bare aluminum can be preserved in
of 95% with an average across the visible spectrum of 93%. the ultraviolet. The dielectric layer prevents oxidation of the aluminum
This coating is well suited for applications requiring the durability surface and provides abrasion resistance. While the resulting surface
and reliability of protected aluminum, but with higher reflectance is not as abrasion resistant as our protected aluminum, this coating
in the mid-visible regions. The reflectance of enhanced aluminum may be cleaned with care. Reflectance averages over 86% from 250
peaks between 530 nm and 580 nm and is high from 400 nm to to 400 nm and over 86% throughout the visible spectrum. This
800 nm. coating can be applied to all Melles Griot mirrors.
typical reflectance curves typical reflectance curve

100
100
90
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
95
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
90 80
normal incidence
85 70
normal incidence
45° incidence
80 s-plane 60
p-plane
400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 200 250 300 350 400
Material Properties
Figure 5.34 Enhanced aluminum coating /023 Figure 5.35 Ultraviolet-enhanced aluminum coating /028
Optical Coatings

Fundamental Optics
INTERNAL SILVER (/036) PROTECTED SILVER (/038)
$ For internal reflection (second-surface) mirrors and prisms only $ Extremely versatile mirror coating
$ Preferred for visible to near-infrared region $ Excellent performance for the visible to infrared region
$ Less polarization effects than aluminum $ Ravg > 95% from 400 nm to 20 mm
$ Ravg > 98% from 400 nm to 1200 nm $ Can be used for ultrafast Ti:Sapphire laser applications
$ Damage threshold: see /038 (similar specifications) $ Damage threshold: 0.9 J/cm2810%,
10-nsec pulse (75 MW/cm2) at 532 nm,

Through most of the visible and near-infrared spectra, silver has 1.6 J/cm2810%, 20-nsec pulse (73 MW/cm2) at 1064 nm
higher reflectance than aluminum, at least for a short time following
deposition. Rapid oxidation quickly causes unprotected silver coatings Melles Griot uses a proprietary coating and edge-sealing
to deteriorate. In the internal silver coating, oxidation and tarnish are technology to offer a first-surface external protected silver coating.
prevented by coating the external surface with an additional layer of In recent tests, the protected silver coating has shown no broad-
either Inconel® or copper. The Inconel or copper layers are subse- ening effect on a 52-femtosecond pulse. This information is presented
quently painted to increase abrasion resistance. In this way, the high as a guideline for femtosecond applications and no warranty is
initial reflectance of silver is indefinitely preserved. implied. Protected silver offers extremely broad performance, from
Silver is frequently used in the near-infrared (the interval 400 nm to well into the infrared, with excellent durability.
containing neodymium and gallium arsenide laser lines) because Due to the specialized tooling required to produce the protected
it avoids the small dip in reflectance exhibited by aluminum in this silver coating, it is offered only on a limited range of substrates.
interval. In the near ultraviolet, silver has very low reflectance, and
aluminum is a preferable choice. From the visible into the middle-
infrared, silver offers the highest internal reflectance available from typical reflectance curve
100
a metallic coating. Silver has less effect than aluminum on the
polarization state in these regions of the spectrum.
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
80
normal incidence
60
100
40
95
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
20
90
normal incidence 0
400 500 600 700 800 900
85
Material Properties
80
Figure 5.37 Protected silver coating /038
400 450 500 550 600 650 700

Figure 5.36 Internal silver coating /036

Optical Coatings
Inconel® is a registered trademark of EM Industries, Inc.

Fundamental Optics
BARE GOLD (/045) PROTECTED GOLD (/055)
$ Widely used in the near, middle, and far infrared $ The performance of the durability of dielectrics
$ Effectively controls thermal radiation $ Protective overcoat extends coating life
$ Ravg > 99% from 700 nm to 20 mm $ Ravg > 98% from 650 nm to 16 mm
$ Damage threshold: 1.1 J/cm2810% , $ Damage threshold: 0.4 J/cm2810%,
20-nsec pulse (48 MW/cm2) at 1064 nm 20-nsec pulse (17 MW/cm2) at 1064 nm
Because it combines good tarnish resistance with consistently The Melles Griot proprietary protected gold mirror coating
high reflectance throughout the near, middle, and far infrared, gold combines the natural spectral performance of gold with the
is widely used in these regions. While it is possible to construct mul- durability of hard dielectrics. Protected gold provides over 96%
tilayer films that may surpass the reflectance of gold at specific average reflectance from 650 to 1700 nm, and over 98% average
wavelengths, the useful range of gold is unequaled. Gold is especially reflectance from 2 to 16 mm. As well as the damage threshold listed
effective in controlling thermal radiation. Because bare gold is soft above, the /055 coating was tested for laser-induced damage and was
and scratches easily, bare-gold mirrors should be cleaned only by found to withstand up to 18±2 J/cm2 with a 260-µs pulse
flow-washing with solvents and clean water or by blowing the sur- (0.4 MW/cm2) at a wavelength of 3 µm. These mirrors can be cleaned
face clean with a low-pressure stream of dry air. regularly using standard organic solvents, such as alcohol or acetone.
typical reflectance curve typical reflectance curve

100 100
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
80 80
60 60
normal incidence normal incidence
40 40
20 20
0 0
400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
Figure 5.38 Bare gold coating /045 Figure 5.39 Protected gold coating /055
Material Properties
Metallic High-Reflection Coatings

Wavelength Range Average Reflectance
Coating Type (nm) (%) COATING SUFFIX
Aluminum 400–1200 90 /016
Protected Aluminum 400–800 87 /011
Enhanced Aluminum 450–750 93 /023
UV-Enhanced Aluminum 250–400 86 /028
Internal Silver 400–1200 98 /036
Protected Silver 400–20,000 95 /038
Bare Gold 700–20,000 99 /045
Optical Coatings
Protected Gold 650–16,000 98 /055

To order, append coating suffix to product number.

Dielectric High-Reflection Coatings
Fundamental Optics
QUARTER-WAVE STACK
The basic building block for any coating involving high levels of 100
reflection is the quarter-wave stack— a stack of alternate layers of
high- and low-refractive-index material. Each layer in the stack 80
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
ideally has an optical thickness of a quarter wave at the design
wavelength. Alternate reflections are phase shifted by 180 degrees 60
because they occur at low- to high-index interfaces (external

reflections). These phase shifts are exactly canceled by the
40
180-degree phase shifts caused by the path difference between
alternate reflecting surfaces. All reflected wavefronts are therefore
exactly in phase and undergo only constructive interference. 20
If the difference in the refractive index of the materials is large,
then a quarter-wave stack containing only a few layers will have a
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
very high reflectance.
RELATIVE WAVELENGTH
PERFORMANCE CURVE
The reflection versus wavelength performance curve of a single Figure 5.40 Typical reflectance curve of an unmodified
dielectric stack has a characteristic flat top inverted V shape as quarter-wave stack
shown in figure 5.40. Clearly, reflectance is a maximum at the wave-
length for which both the high- and low-index layers of the multi-
layer are exactly one-quarter-wave thick.
BROADBAND COATINGS
Outside the fairly narrow region of high reflectance, the
reflectance slowly reduces toward zero in an oscillatory fashion. In contrast to antireflection coatings, the inherent shape of a
Width and height (i.e., peak reflectance) of the high-reflectance high-reflectance coating can be modified in several different ways.
region are functions of the refractive-index ratio of the two materials The two most effective ways of modifying a performance curve are
used, together with the number of layers actually included in the to use two or more stacks centered at slightly shifted design wave-
stack. The peak reflectance can be increased by adding more layers, lengths, or to perturb the layer thicknesses within a stack.
or by using materials with a higher refractive index ratio. Amplitude There is a subtle difference between multilayer antireflection
reflectivity at a single interface is given by coatings and multilayer high-reflection coatings, which allows the
(14p) performance curves of the latter to be modified by using layer thick-
(1+ p) nesses designed for different wavelengths within a single coating.
Consider a multilayer consisting of pairs, or stacks of layers, which
where
N41 are designed for different wavelengths. At any given wavelength,
 nH  n H2
×
Material Properties
p =   (5.26) providing at least one of the layers is highly reflective for that wave-
 nL  nS , length, the overall coating will be highly reflective at that wavelength.
nS is the index of the substrate, and nH and nL are the indices of the high- Whether the other components transmit or are partially reflective
and low-index layers. N is the total number of layers in the stack. at that wavelength is immaterial. Transmission of light of that wave-
length will be blocked by reflection of a single component.
The width of the high-reflectance part of the curve (versus wave-
length) is also determined by the film index ratio. The higher the On the other hand, in an antireflection coating, even if one of
ratio, the wider is the high-reflectance region. the stacks is exactly antireflective at a certain wavelength, the over-
all coating may still be quite reflective because of reflections by the
SCATTERING other components (see figure 5.41).
The main parameters used to describe the performance of a This can be summarized by an empirical rule. At any wavelength,
thin film are reflectance and transmittance (plus absorptance, where the reflection of a multilayer coating consisting of several discrete
applicable). Another less well-defined parameter is scattering. This components will be at least that of the most reflective component.
is hard to define because of the inherent granular properties of the Exceptions to this rule are coatings that have been designed to
materials used in the films. Granularity causes some of the incident produce interference effects not just involving the surfaces within
Optical Coatings
light to be “lost” by specular reflection. Often, it is scattering, not the two-layer or multilayer component stack, but also between the
mechanical stress and weakness in the coating, that limits the stacks themselves. Obvious examples are narrowband interference
maximum practical thickness of an optical coating. filters which are described in detail later and in Chapter 13, Filters.

Fundamental Optics
BROADBAND REFLECTION COATINGS

effective broadband high-reflection coating
The design procedure for a broadband reflection coating should
now be apparent. Two design techniques are used. The most obvious
incident
approach is to use two quarter-wave stacks with their maximum
wavelength l0
reflectance wavelengths separated on either side of the design wave-
length. This type of coating, however, tends to be too thick and
often has poor scattering characteristics. The basic design is very
useful for dichroic high reflectors, where the peak reflectances of

two stacks are at different wavelengths.
A more elegant approach to broadband dielectric coatings is
to use a single modified quarter-wave stack. In this modified stack,
NOTE: If at least one component is totally
the layers are not all of the same optical thickness. They are graded reflective, the coating will not transmit
light at that wavelength.
between the quarter-wave thickness for two wavelengths at either
end of the intended broadband performance region. The optical
thicknesses of the individual layers are usually chosen to follow a noneffective broadband antireflection coating
simple arithmetic or geometric progression. Using designs of this incident
type, multilayer, broadband, high-reflectance coatings are possible wavelength l0
with reflectances in excess of 99% over several hundred nanome-
ters. The greatest impact of improved broadband reflector design
and manufacturing technology has almost certainly been on dye laser
design and applications. In many of these scanning systems, high

reflectance over a large wavelength region is absolutely essential. In
many non-laser instruments, all-dielectric coatings are favored over
metallic coatings because of their high reflectance. Multilayer
NOTE: Unless every component is totally
broadband coatings are available with high-reflectance regions nonreflective, some reflection losses will occur.
spanning almost the entire visible spectrum. Such films are effective
for both s- and p-polarization components, and over a wide range totally reflective component for l0
of incidence angles. At oblique incidence, reflectance is markedly partially reflective component for l0
reduced. totally nonreflective component for l0
Because of the materials chosen for the multilayer, durability
and abrasion resistance of such films are superior to those of metallic Figure 5.41 Schematic multicomponent coatings with
films. Although the reflectance of dielectric coatings can easily be only one component exactly matched to the incident
made to exceed the highest metallic reflectances over very large wavelength, l . (the high-reflection coating is successful; the
antireflection coating is not).
wavelength intervals, metallic coatings are still superior in terms of
Material Properties
usable ranges of incidence angles and wavelengths for a single coating.

At certain wavelengths, a multilayer dielectric coating shows a
POLARIZATION EFFECTS remarkable difference in its reflectance of the s- and p-polarization
When light is incident on any optical surface at angles other components (see figure 5.42).
than normal incidence, there is always a difference in the reflection/ The basis for the effect is the difference in effective refractive
transmission behavior of s- and p-polarization components. In index of the layers of film for s- and p-components of the incident
some instances, this difference can be made extremely small. On beam, as the angle of incidence is increased from zero. This should
the other hand, it is sometimes advantageous to design a thin-film not be confused with the phenomenon of birefringence in certain
coating that maximizes this effect (e.g., thin-film polarizers). crystalline materials, most notably calcite. Unlike birefringence, it
Polarization effects are not normally considered for antireflection does not require the symmetric properties of a truly crystalline
coatings since these are nearly always used at normal incidence phase. It arises from the difference in magnetic and electric field
where the two polarization components are equivalent. asymmetries for s- and p-components of an electromagnetic wave
High-reflectance or partially reflecting coatings are frequently at oblique incidence.
Optical Coatings
used away from normal incidence, particularly at 45 degrees, for The resultant difference in reflectance of the two polarization
beam steering or beam splitting. Polarization effects can therefore components is always in the same sense. Maximum s-polarization
be quite important for these types of coating. reflectance is always greater than the maximum p-polarization

Fundamental Optics
This type of filter is used in high-power image-projection systems
100 where the light source often generates intense amounts of heat
s-plane (infrared and near-infrared radiation). Thin-film filters designed
p-plane to separate visible and infrared radiation are known as hot or cold
80
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
mirrors, depending on which wavelength region is rejected (reflected)

60 and which is transmitted. Melles Griot offers both hot and cold
mirrors as catalog items (see Chapter 13, Filters).

40
INTERFERENCE FILTERS
20
In many applications, particularly those in the field of resonance
atomic or molecular spectroscopy, a filtering system is required
that transmits only a very narrow range of wavelengths of
0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 incident light. For particularly high-resolution applications, mono-
RELATIVE WAVELENGTH chromators may be used, but these have very poor throughputs. In
instances where moderate resolution is required and where the
Figure 5.42 The s-polarization reflectance curve is always desired region(s) is fixed, interference filters should be used.
broader and higher than the p-polarization reflectance Interference filters are produced by applying a complex multi-
curve layer coating to a colored glass blank. The complex coating consists
of a series of broadband quarter-wave stacks which act as a very-
thin multiple-cavity Fabry-Perot interferometer. The colored glass
reflectance at oblique incidence. If the reflectance is plotted as a absorbs light that would be transmitted by higher order interferences.
function of wavelength for some arbitrary incidence angle, the Figure 5.43 shows the transmission curve of a typical
s-polarization high-reflectance peak always extends over a broader Melles Griot interference filter, the 550-nm filter from the visible-
wavelength region than the p-polarization peak. 40 filter set (03 IFS 008). Notice the square shape of the transmission
Many dielectric coatings are used at peak reflectance wavelengths curve which dies away very quickly outside the high-transmission
where polarization differences can be made negligible. In some (low-reflectance) region.
cases, the polarization differences can be be put to good use. The More information concerning the design and operation of such
“edge” region of the reflectance curve is a wavelength region in filters can be found together with product listings in Chapter 13,
which the s-polarization reflectance is much higher than the Filters.
p-polarization reflectance. This can be maximized in a design to
produce a very efficient thin-film polarizer.
typical transmittance curve
100
EDGE FILTERS AND HOT OR COLD MIRRORS
PERCENT TRANSMITTANCE
90
In many optical systems, it is necessary to have a wavelength 80
Material Properties
filtering system that transmits all light of wavelengths longer than 70

a reference wavelength or transmits light at shorter wavelengths 60
50
than a reference wavelength. These types of filters are often called
40
short-wavelength or long-wavelength cutoff filters. 30
Traditionally, such filters were made from colored glasses. 20
Melles Griot offers a range of these economical and useful filters in 10
Chapter 13, Filters. Although they are adequate for many applica- 450 550 650 750
tions, they have two drawbacks: they function by absorbing unwanted WAVELENGTH IN NANOMETERS
wavelengths, which may be a problem in such high-power situations
as projection optics, and the edge of the transmission curve may not Figure 5.43 Spectral performance of an interference filter
be as sharp as necessary for some applications.
Thin films acting as edge filters are now routinely manufactured
using a modified quarter-wave stack as the basic building block.
Optical Coatings
Melles Griot produces many edge filters specially designed to meet

customers’ specifications. A selection suitable for various laser
applications is offered as standard catalog items.

Fundamental Optics
PARTIALLY TRANSMITTING COATINGS

In many applications, it is desirable to split a beam of light into
two components with an arbitrary intensity ratio. This is performed
by inserting an optical surface at some oblique angle (usually 45
degrees) to produce a separate reflected and transmitted component.
In most cases, a multilayer coating is applied to the surface in order
to modify intensity and polarization ratios of the two beams.
An alternative to the outdated metallic beamsplitter is a broad-

band (or narrowband) multilayer dielectric stack with a limited
number of pairs of layers, which transmits a fixed amount of the inci-
dent light. Just as in the case of metallic beamsplitter coatings, the
ratio of reflected and transmitted beams depends on the angle of
incidence. Since the angle of incidence is normally fixed at 45 degrees,
this does not present a significant problem. Unlike a metallic coat-
ing, a high-quality film will introduce negligible losses by either
absorption or scattering. There are, however, two drawbacks to
dielectric beamsplitters. The performance of these coatings is more
wavelength sensitive than that of metallics, and the ratio of trans-
mitted and reflected intensities may be quite different for the s- and
p-polarization components of the incident beam. In polarizers, this
can be used to advantage. The difference in partial polarization of

the reflected and transmitted beams is not important, particularly
where polarized lasers are used. In beamsplitters, this is usually a
drawback. A hybrid metal-dielectric coating is often the best
compromise.
Melles Griot produces coated beamsplitters with designs ranging
from broadband performance without polarization compensation,
to broadband with some compensation for polarization, to a
completely new range of cube beamsplitters that are virtually non-
polarizing at certain laser wavelengths. These nonpolarizing
beamsplitters offer unparalleled performance with the reflected
s- and p-components matched to better than 5%.
Material Properties
Optical Coatings

MAXBRIte™ Coatings
Fundamental Optics
MAXBRIte™ (multilayer all-dielectric xerophilous broadband
reflecting interference) coatings are, without a doubt, the best broad- 100
band mirror coatings commercially available. The /001 coating cov-
ers the visible spectrum from 480 nm to 700 nm, the /003 is useful 99
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
for diode laser applications from 630 nm to 850 nm, and the /009
coating offers enhanced blue response. They all reflect well over 98
98% of incident laser radiation within their respective wavelength
ranges.

97
These coatings exhibit exceptionally high reflectances for both
s- and p-polarizations. In each case, at the most important laser
96
wavelengths and for angles of incidence as high as 45 degrees, the normal incidence
average of s- and p-reflectances exceeds 99%. For most applications, 45° incidence
they are superior to metallic or enhanced metallic coatings. 500 600 700 800
The /001 MAXBRIte coating (figure 5.44) is suitable for
instrumental and external laser-beam manipulation tasks. It is the
ideal choice for use with tunable dye and parametric oscillator
Figure 5.44 MAXBRIte™ /001 coating
systems. The structural design of this coating is such that flatness
specifications as tight as l/10 can be maintained using low-expansion $ Exceptional reflectance for s- and p- polarization
substrate materials. $ Excellent performance for common visible lines
The /003 MAXBRIte coating (figure 5.45) covers all the $ Suitable for external laser-beam manipulation and many
important diode laser wavelengths from 630 to 850 nm; therefore, instrument applications
it can be used with both visible and near-infrared diode lasers. This $ Ravg > 98% from 480 to 700 nm
broadband coating is ideal for applications employing nontem- $ Damage threshold: 0.92 J/cm2810%,
perature- stabilized diode lasers where wavelength drift is likely to
occur. The /003 also makes it possible to use a HeNe laser to align
diode systems.
The /007 ultraviolet MAXBRIte coating (figure 5.46) offers
superior performance for ultraviolet applications. It is ideal for use 100
with many of the excimer lasers, as well as the third and fourth har-
monics of most solid-state lasers. It is also particularly useful with 99
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
broadband ultraviolet light sources, such as mercury and xenon

lamps. Due to mechanical stresses within this intricate coating, it 98
is limited to substrates of l/4 figure or less.
The /009 extended MAXBRIte coating (figure 5.47) offers superior
97
Material Properties
response below 500 nm, and it is particularly useful for helium

cadmium lasers at 442 nm, or the blue lines of argon-ion lasers. Like
96
the /007, mechanical stresses in this complex coating limit its use to normal incidence
substrates of l/4 figure or less. 45° incidence
Because of the many applications for these superior coatings we 600 700 800 900
stock a number of precoated substrates.
MAXBRIte™ Coatings
Figure 5.45 MAXBRIte™ /003 coating
Wavelength Average Angle of
$ Useful with visible, near-infrared diode, and HeNe lasers
Range Reflectance Incidence COATING
$ Easily accommodates diode wavelength drift
(nm) (%) (degrees) SUFFIX
$ Ideal for pointing and alignment applications
480–700 98 0±45 /001
$ Ravg > 98% from 630 to 850 nm
630–850 98 0±45 /003
Optical Coatings
245–390 98 0±45 /007

420–700 98 0±45 /009
Note: To order, append coating suffix to product number.

Fundamental Optics

100 100
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
80 99
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
60 98
normal incidence
45° incidence
40 97
20 96 normal incidence
45° incidence
0
250 300 350 400 400 500 600 700
Figure 5.46 MAXBRIte™ /007 coating Figure 5.47 MAXBRIte™ /009 coating
$ Excellent performance for excimer and YAG third- and $ Wavelength range extended even farther than /001
fourth-harmonic lines, as well as broadband ultraviolet MAXBRIte™
sources $ Outstanding performance from 0 to 45 degrees incidence
$ Superior reflectance from 0 to 45 degrees incidence for $ Ravg > 98% from 420 to 700 nm
s- and p-polarizations $ Damage threshold: 0.4 J/cm2810%,

$ Ravg > 98% from 245 to 390 nm 10-nsec pulse (35 MW/cm2) at 532 nm on silica substrate
OPTICS GLASS CLEANING

Melles Griot removes all contamination from our substrates prior to coating with a high-volume, five-stage Interlab
semi-aqueous glass cleaner.
Material Properties
Optical Coatings

Laser-Line MAX-R™ Coatings
Fundamental Optics
These multilayer coatings achieve the highest possible reflectances typical reflectance curve
100
at specific laser wavelengths and at particular angles of incidence. At
these wavelengths and angles, laser-line MAX-R™ coatings out-
80
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
perform MAXBRIte™. We offer coatings for angles of incidence at
0 degrees (see figure 5.48) and 45 degrees (see figure 5.49). Because normal incidence
the layer thicknesses differ for these two angles, the coatings cannot 60
be used interchangeably. Laser-line MAX-R coatings are intended
for external beam-manipulation applications. Specified coating 40

reflectances apply to p-polarization (except at normal incidence,
where the p- and s-polarization states are indistinguishable). 20
Reflectances for s-polarization generally exceed those for p-
polarization. Other coatings can be supplied at any center wavelength
from 193 nm to 1.6 mm. 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
RELATIVE WAVELENGTH, g = l0 /l
Figure 5.48 MAX-R™ coating, normal incidence

100
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
80
45° incidence
60 s-polarization
p-polarization
40
20
APPLICATION NOTE 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2

RELATIVE WAVELENGTH, g = l0 /l
LASER-INDUCED DAMAGE
Figure 5.49 MAX-R™ coating, 45-degree incidence
The following laser damage threshold statistics do
not constitute a performance guarantee but should $ Highest possible reflectance achieved at specific laser
Material Properties
be representative for MAX-R coatings. wavelengths and angles of incidence

$ Standard MAX-R coatings available for popular
/205 2.4 J/cm2810%,
10-nsec pulse (195 MW/cm2) at 355 nm laser wavelengths at both 0 degrees and 45 degrees
$ Custom designs easily produced
/255 13.3 J/cm2810%, $ Coatings available from 193 nm to 1550 nm
/225 12.6 J/cm2810%,

PLEASE NOTE FOR THE ABOVE CURVES:
/275 13.6 J/cm2810%,
For g = l0/l, l0 is the design wavelength and l is
arbitrary. For example, l = l0/g = 1064 nm/0.9 =
/241 2.4 J/cm2810%, 1182 nm, if one looks at g = 0.9 for the /291 coating.
For values of g below 0.8 and above 1.2, the
Optical Coatings
/291 17.7 J/cm2810%, reflectance curves oscillate sinusoidally, in a manner

20-nsec pulse (800 MW/cm2) at 1064 nm that varies from coating to coating and run to run.

Fundamental Optics
Laser-Line MAX-R™ Coatings, Normal Incidence Laser-Line MAX-R™ Coatings, 45-Degree Incidence
Minimum Minimum
Reflectance Rp (%) Reflectance Rp (%)
Wavelength 0º 0º±15° COATING Wavelength 45º 45º±10° COATING

(nm) Laser Type Incidence Incidence SUFFIX (nm) Laser Type Incidence Incidence SUFFIX
193 ArF 97.0 94.0 /201 193 ArF 97.0 94.0 /251
248 KrF 98.0 95.0 /202 248 KrF 98.0 95.0 /252
266 Nd:YAG 4th harm. 98.0 95.0 /203 266 Nd:YAG 4th harm. 98.0 95.0 /253
308 XeCl 99.0 96.0 /204 308 XeCl 98.0 95.0 /254
351 Ar ion 99.0 96.0 /205 351 Ar ion 98.0 96.0 /255
364 Ar ion 99.0 96.0 /207 364 Ar ion 98.0 96.0 /257
442 HeCd 99.3 99.0 /209 442 HeCd 99.0 98.0 /259
458 Ar ion 99.5 99.3 /211 458 Ar ion 99.3 98.0 /261
466 Ar ion 99.5 99.3 /213 466 Ar ion 99.3 98.5 /263
473 Ar ion 99.5 99.3 /215 473 Ar ion 99.3 98.5 /265
476 Ar ion 99.5 99.3 /217 476 Ar ion 99.3 98.5 /267
488 Ar ion 99.5 99.3 /219 488 Ar ion 99.3 98.5 /269
496 Ar ion 99.5 99.3 /221 496 Ar ion 99.5 98.5 /271
502 Ar ion 99.5 99.3 /222 502 Ar ion 99.5 98.5 /272
514 Ar ion 99.5 99.3 /223 514 Ar ion 99.5 98.5 /273
532 Nd:YAG 2nd harm. 99.5 99.3 /225 532 Nd: YAG 2nd harm. 99.5 98.5 /275
543 HeNe 99.5 99.3 /226 543 HeNe 99.5 98.5 /276
633 HeNe 99.5 99.3 /229 633 HeNe 99.5 98.5 /279
670 GaAlAs 99.5 99.3 /228 670 GaAlAs 99.0 98.5 /278
694 Ruby 99.3 99.0 /231 694 Ruby 99.0 98.5 /281
780 GaAlAs 99.3 99.0 /233 780 GaAlAs 99.0 98.5 /283
830 GaAlAs 99.3 99.0 /237 830 GaAlAs 99.0 98.5 /287
850 GaAlAs 99.3 99.0 /238 850 GaAlAs 99.0 98.5 /288
904 GaAs 99.3 99.0 /239 904 GaAs 99.0 98.5 /289
1064 Nd:YAG 99.2 99.0 /241 1064 Nd:YAG 99.0 98.0 /291
1300 InGaAsP 99.2 99.0 /245 1300 InGaAsP 99.0 98.5 /295
1523 HeNe 99.2 99.0 /247 1523 HeNe 99.0 98.5 /297
Material Properties
1550 InGaAsP 99.2 99.0 /247 1550 InGaAsP 99.0 98.5 /297
Note: To order, append coating suffix to product number. Note: To order, append coating suffix to product number.
SPHERICAL AND CYLINDRICAL MIRRORS

Virtually any of our mirror coatings can be applied to standard optical components. Common examples include using
plano-concave lenses to make spherical concave mirrors or coating plano-convex lenses to make secondary mirrors for
Optical Coatings
Cassegrain beam expanders or telescopes. The radius of curvature of any of our simple lenses can be calculated using
the data given in the product tables together with the formulas presented at the end of Chapter 1, Fundamental
Optics.

Ultrafast Coating
Fundamental Optics
Melles Griot has developed a new coating which is designed for
ultrafast laser systems in the near-infrared. The ultrafast coating
(/091, shown in figure 5.50), an all-dielectric coating, centered at
800 nm, minimizes pulse broadening for ultrafast applications. The
coating also offers exceptionally high reflectance for both
s- and p-polarizations in the range from 750 nm to 870 nm.
The ultrafast coating is ideal for high-power Ti:sapphire laser

applications. This coating is superior to protected and enhanced
metallic coatings because of its ability to handle higher powers. For
lower power light sources, the protected silver /038 coating is strongly
recommended for ultrafast applications because of its low pulse-
broadening effect.
Melles Griot offers the /091 coating standard on both a 12.5-mm-
and a 25.0-mm-diameter ultraviolet synthetic fused-silica substrate.

100
80
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
60
40
p-plane
s-plane
20 APPLICATION NOTE
Dispersion Curve
700 800 900 1000
typical dispersion curves
Figure 5.50 Ultrafast coating /091 protected silver (53.5 fsec)
all dielectric (62 fsec)
$ Rp > 99% from 770 mm to 830 nm, Rs >99% from 750 nm no mirrors (52 fsec)
to 870 nm
NORMALIZED INTENSITY
Material Properties
$ High laser-damage threshold

$ Low pulse broadening
Ultrafast Coating (/091)

Wavelength Minimum Angle of Pulse
Range Reflectance Incidence Broadening COATING
(nm) Rp(%) (deg) (%) SUFFIX
770–830 99.0 45 <18.0 /091

-300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300
TIME (fsec)
Dispersion effects (pulsed broadening) measured

Optical Coatings
using an autocorrelation of laser pulses with a four-

mirror test line

Fundamental Optics
SALT-FOG AND HUMIDITY COATING CAPABILITIES

TESTING FOR OPTICAL COATINGS
Melles Griot uses a state-of-the-art, Eddy Company,
Melles Griot has tested several standard optical SYS/48B ion-assisted coating chamber for our high-
coatings to ensure spectral performance under precision reflective and antireflection coatings.
non-laboratory environmental conditions. The This fully automatic system produces multilayer
following list identifies optical coatings that passed dielectric coatings with excellent thin film quality,
environmental testing for salt- fog and humidity. high damage thresholds, and low loss. In addition,
The humidity testing was done per MIL-C-14806A the automatic coating process allows us to produce
paragraph 4.4.6. The salt-fog test was done per coatings with higher precision, better uniformity,
MIL-C-14806 paragraph 4.4.8 and MIL-STD-810C and greater batch-to-batch repeatability. This benefits
reference 1.3, method 509.1, procedure I. not only our research customers but also our OEM
Humidity testing was done at 120ºF and the relative customers. To meet your specific needs Melles Griot
humidity was at 95-100% for 24 hours. Salt-fog can produce custom coatings in high volume or in
testing was done at a temperature of 95ºF, pH prototype quantities. Contact your local Melles Griot
solution of 6.5, collection rate of 1.18 ml/hr, and sales office for more information.
specific gravity of 1.034.
Our coating chamber is located in a Class-10,000
Optical Coatings Passing Environmental Test clean room to ensure coatings of the highest quality.
for Salt-Fog and Humidity If required, we can also inspect coated optics in a
clean room and then package them in special clean-

Antireflection
room packaging so that the parts can be shipped
Single layer MgF2 /066
Single layer MgF2 /067
direct to and opened in a clean room environment.
HEBBAR™ /072
HEBBAR™ /073
HEBBAR™ /074
HEBBAR™ /075
HEBBAR™ /076
HEBBAR™ /077
HEBBAR™ /078
HEBBAR™ /079
HEBBAR™ /083
HEBBAR™ /084
V-coating at 248 nm
Material Properties
V-coating at 532 nm
V-coating at 904 nm
V-coating at 1300 nm
V-coating at 1523–1550 nm
Reflective
MAXBRite™ /001
MAXBRite™ /003
MAXBRite™ /009
MAX-R at 351 nm
MAX-R at 633 nm
MAX-R at 1064 nm
Filter/Beamsplitter
Hot Mirror
Cold Mirror
UV plate beamsplitter
Optical Coatings
03 BTF at 550 nm
03 BTF at 850 nm
03 BDS 001 beamsplitter State-of-the art Eddy SYS/48B coating chamber

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Chpt. 1 Final a 7/30/99 2:39 PM Page 1.

Gaussian Beam Optics

Imaging Properties of Lens Systems 1.6

Lens Combination Formulas 1.8

Performance Factors 1.11

Lens Shape 1.17

Lens Combinations 1.18

Diffraction Effects 1.20

Lens Selection 1.23

Spot Size 1.26

Aberration Balancing 1.27

Definition of Terms 1.29

Paraxial Lens Formulas 1.32

Principal-Point Locations 1.36

Even though several thousand different optical components

as magnification, focal length(s), clear aperture (diameter), and

Second, actual components are chosen based on these paraxial

System parameters may therefore require modification.

Because some of the terms used in this chapter may not be

Finally, it should be noted that the discussion in this chapter

experienced applications engineers at each of our

1.2 1 Visit Us OnLine! www.mellesgriot.com

For lenses: (refer to figure 1.1) For mirrors:

Gaussian Beam Optics

s″ is 5 for image to left of H″ s″ is 5 for image to right of H″

m is 1 for an inverted image s″ is 1 for image to left of H″

m is 5 for an upright image m is 1 for an inverted image

f = lens diameter s = object distance, positive for object (whether real

Figure 1.1 Sign conventions

Visit Us Online! www.mellesgriot.com 1 1.3

Typically, the first step in optical problem solving is to select a

where (s + s″) is the approximate object-to-image distance.

With a real lens of finite thickness, the image distance, object

thin-lens approximation, can speed up calculation when dealing object

Example 1: Object outside Focal Point

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Gaussian Beam Optics

Figure 1.5 F-number and numerical aperture

F-NUMBER AND NUMERICAL APERTURE

To visualize the f-number, consider a lens with a positive focal

Visit Us Online! www.mellesgriot.com 1 1.5

Imaging Properties of Lens Systems

THE OPTICAL INVARIANT Example: System with Fixed Input NA

2s ′′ they both have a fixed entrance pupil (image) size.

NA to determine that the focal length is 9.1 mm. To determine the

The magnification of the system is therefore equal to the ratio s (m + 1) = s + s ′′,

magnification and numerical aperture, there can be a theoretical limit 0.25 =

Making some simple calculations has reduced our choice of

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Gaussian Beam Optics

Figure 1.6 Numerical aperture and magnification

Visit Us Online! www.mellesgriot.com 1 1.7

Lens Combination Formulas

PARAXIAL LENS COMBINATION FORMULAS COMBINATION EXAMPLES

EFFECTIVE FOCAL LENGTH

whether lens separation distances are large or small and whether f1

f1 f 2 (1.16) d = distance from secondary principal point of

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1st element 2nd element

Gaussian Beam Optics

n-1 elements nth element to be added to complete the system

SUBSYSTEM subsystem secondary principal plane

n-1 elements nth element to be added to complete the system