Muscular System

There are three types of muscle in the pig:

 Involuntary or smooth muscle - Found in the digestive and genital systems and the blood
vessel walls.
 Cardiac muscle - The heart consists largely of this muscle. It is involuntary.
 Voluntary or skeletal muscle - This is the main muscle mass forming the muscular-
skeletal system. These muscles are attached to the surface membrane covering bones
called the periosteum. Inflammation of this covering is called periostitis.

Disease of the muscles in the pig are common and the symptoms seen depend upon which
muscle groups are involved. The failure of muscle development may also be due to nerve or
bone diseases. The common clinical signs include swelling, pain, wasting or trembling of the
muscles. In some diseases there is death of muscle cells. Porcine stress syndrome (PSS) is a
common heritable condition (recessive gene) associated with the sudden onset of prolonged
muscle spasms which causes failure of the normal metabolism and the development of acid
conditions throughout the body. It frequently ends in death.
Terminology
Asymmetric hind quarter syndrome - One hind leg muscle mass appears less than the other. It can arise
where poor quality iron injections are given or it may be a congenital condition. It may be part of the
porcine stress syndrome (PSS).
Back muscle necrosis - Sudden acute lameness and swellings of the lumber muscle often associated
with PSS.
Congenital muscle hypertrophy - A breeding defect with excessive muscle formations.
Dark firm dry muscle (DFDM) - Describes the appearance of abnormal muscle at slaughter. Considered
part of the PSS condition.
Mulberry heart disease (MHD) - Heart muscle failure associated with unavailability of vitamin E and or
selenium.
Muscle necrosis - Dead muscle tissue. This can arise due to loss of blood supply caused by bacterial
thrombosis (bacteria clogging up the blood vessels), physical damage or toxic damage. Iron toxicity,
vitamin E or selenium deficiency are further examples.
Myodegeneration - Loss of function of muscle due to muscle fibres degenerating. Common problems
are associated with deficiencies of vitamin E and or selenium.
Myopathy - This term describes any muscle disease.
Myositis - Inflammation of muscle often caused by trauma or infection.
Pale soft exudative muscle (PSE) - Describes the appearance of abnormal muscle at slaughter. Part of
the PSS condition.
Pietrain creeper syndrome - Progressive muscle weakness in pigs from 3-12 weeks old. Considered to
have a hereditary basis.
Porcine stress syndrome (PSS) - A heritable condition involving defective muscle metabolism that can
lead to sudden death.
Nervous System
The nervous system of the pig consists of four basic parts.
The brain - The nervous tissue enclosed by the skull. Part of the central nervous system (CNS). It is
covered completely by clear membranes called the meninges.

Spinal cord - The other part of the CNS. It extends from the brain as a narrowed bore tube, through the
spinal canal to the tail. Between each of the vertebra, which make up the spine itself, it sends branches
out to different parts of he body. The spinal cord is responsible for transmitting the electrical impulses
from the brain to these branches.
Peripheral nervous system - Nerves leave the brain and the spinal cord and transmit the electrical
impulses throughout the body. This system is the voluntary one that is under the pig's control.
Autonomic nervous system - This is the involuntary nervous system of the pig with separate nerves
controlling a wide range of involuntary functions. This system partly controls the heart beat, movement
of the muscular walls of the digestive system, the hormonal systems and the excretory systems.

Terminology
Cerebrospinal fluid - Fluid that circulates around within the brain and spinal cord. Samples of this fluid
can be obtained by needle and syringe for laboratory tests to diagnose nervous disease.
Congenital tremor - A condition in newborn piglets characterised by muscle tremors and shaking. (See
chapter 8).
Encephalitis - Inflammation of the brain.
Encephalomyelitis - Inflammation of the brain and spinal cord. Viruses multiplying in the central nervous
system primarily cause encephalitis and encephalomyelitis although they may cause meningitis as well.
Such viruses include aujeszky's (pseudorabies), rabies, teschen / talfan, haemagglutinating encephalitis
(vomiting and wasting disease), classical swine fever, African swine fever, blue eye disease in Mexico,
encephalomyocarditis in the US, Caribbean and some other countries, and Japanese B. encephalitis in
S.E. Asia.
Meninges - Clear membranes covering the surface of the brain.
Immune System
The various mechanisms that protect the pig from infectious agents can be considered in six
groups:

 Complement system - This is a non specific protective mechanism that acts on any
foreign cells or viruses that do not possess certain pig proteins on their surface. It consists
of a number of chemicals found in the plasma which act together as a cascade to remove
or destroy organisms.
 Chemical factors - These include non specific enzymes (such as lysozyme in saliva) and
acids which may be found in mucus, saliva and gastric juices. These immobilise or kill
pathogens.
 Mechanical factors - These include the skin, mucus, sweat, lining of the nose, mouth,
oesophagus, intestine, colon, vagina, flow of urine and the passage of faeces.
 Macrophage cells - These are found throughout the body in tissues and in the blood
stream where they are called monocytes. They engulf and digest bacteria. They also have
an important role in controlling viral and fungal diseases. The cells are of two types
called leucocytes and monocytes.
 Specific acquired immunity - This is of two types; that which is activated by cells and
called cell mediated immunity and antibodies present in the blood called humoral
immunity. Cell mediated immunity arises when T type lymphocytes come into contact
with antigens and they are stimulated to produce antibodies. It takes 7-14 days for these
to develop. Humoral immunity is produced from B lymphocytes which have met the
antigen previously and their response is immediate. Some lymphocytes also kill other
cells that contain antigens or they may act immediately against antigens.
 Immunoglobulins - Specific antibodies of which there are different types namely
immunoglobulins, IgG, IgM and IgA. They are found in blood, in milk and particularly in
colostrum. All internal surfaces of the body also contain them.
Certain infectious agents can suppress the immune system sufficiently to make the animal more
susceptible to other infections. Examples are Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, aujeszky's disease
virus, pasteurella bacteria, swine influenza and porcine reproductive respiratory syndrome virus
(PRRS) all of which cause pneumonia.

Endocrine System
Endocrines or hormones are the substances produced by various glands, which are carried by blood or
other body fluids to influence and control the pigs metabolism. There are nine main glands (In picture
below) in the pig which are responsible for controlling a variety of vital functions.

Generally the diseases associated with the failure of the endocrine glands are not important in the pig.
However when the regulatory and stimulatory mechanisms between the hypothalamus, the anterior
pituitary gland and the ovaries fail, anoestrus (not coming on heat) or reproductive malfunction result,
including cystic ovaries. In the male testicular function is affected. The hypothalamus stimulates the
anterior part of the pituitary gland to release the follicle stimulating and luteinising hormones (FSH and
LH). These in turn act upon the ovaries and the testes to regulate their function.

Terminology
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) - Produced by the anterior pituitary gland. It stimulates the
formation of follicles in the ovaries,
Growth hormone - Responsible for promoting growth of most tissues throughout the body. It is
produced by the pituitary gland in association with the hypothalamus.
Hypothalamus - An area in the brain responsible for providing both nervous and hormonal control over
most other hormone producing glands.
Luteinising hormone (LH) - Stimulates ovulation and is produced by the pituitary gland.
Oestrogen - The female hormone responsible for all the female sexual characteristics. It is produced by
the ovary.
Oxytocin - Produced by the pituitary gland. This stimulates uterine contractions during farrowing and
causes milk let down. It also aids in the movement of sperms and eggs.
Progesterone - The hormone that maintains pregnancy. It is produced by the corpus luteum in the
ovary.
Prolactin - This is produced by the pituitary gland and controls milk production.
Prostaglandins - These are produced by the uterus and the placenta and are associated with the
initiation of farrowing or abortion.
Testosterone - The male hormone responsible for all the male sexual characteristics. It also controls the
development of sperm.

Digestive System
The digestive tract can be considered as a tube that starts at the mouth and finishes at the rectum
(Pictured below). In some respect its contents can be considered as outside the body. The back of the
mouth opens into the pharynx which is the common area for the passage of both food and air. A valve
or flap of tissue called the soft palate automatically moves to protect the opening into the trachea or
windpipe when swallowing. The tonsils of the pig are situated on the surface of the soft palate. The
oesophagus is the tube that leads from the pharynx to the stomach, down which food is propelled.The
main infectious diseases of the mouth are the vesicular ones including foot-and-mouth disease and
swine vesicular disease, although occasionally lesions on the skin around the mouth may be seen in
aujeszky's disease and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome PRRS. Infection of both the gums
and bones are common following faulty teeth clipping.

The digestive system of the pig has the ability to convert vegetable and animal materials into highly
digestible nutrients. Its anatomy and physiology are similar to that of humans. In the stomach the major
disease problems are associated with inflammation of its lining called gastritis which may result in
vomiting. Vomiting also occurs in systemic disease where the organism has spread throughout the body
(in infections such as erysipelas), and from toxins produced by bacteria or during high fevers.
Gastric ulceration is common in growing pigs occurring in the area where the oesophagus enters the
stomach (oesophageal region).

The intestine has two distinctive parts, the small and the large intestine. Inflammation of the former is
called enteritis (although sometimes enteritis may mean inflammation of both parts) and the latter
colitis. Enteritis is very common and caused by specific viral, bacterial or parasitic infections. The small
intestine in cross section contains millions of finger like projections called villi. These increase the
absorptive area enormously and thus the efficiency of the digestive process. The large bowel or colon
commences with the caecum, the area of the intestinal tract responsible for the digestion of cellulose.
Circulatory System
First, study Fig.1-1, then read the following while still referring to the figure. The circulatory system
consists of the heart which is a four chamber suction and pressure pump that moves blood through two
separate systems, one to and from the lungs and the other around the body. The blood returns to the
heart from the body through a series of veins, which terminate in two large veins called the anterior and
posterior vena cava. Blood returns from the lungs through the pulmonary veins. The top two chambers
or auricles receive the blood from the veins and pass it into the strong muscular bottom chambers called
the ventricles. Oxygen depleted blood from the body enters the right auricle, where it is then pumped
into the right ventricle leaving by two pulmonary arteries that deliver the still un-oxygenated blood to
the lungs. Oxygenated blood from the lungs is then returned through the pulmonary veins to the left
auricle, where it is pumped to the left ventricle and finally out through the main artery, the aorta, to be
transported around the body. If the lungs are damaged by disease such as pneumonia, they cannot
oxygenate the blood efficiently, the tissues become starved of oxygen and cannot function
properly.When the pig walks or runs its skin may then become blue and it has difficulty breathing.
Chronic pneumonia may also hold back the blood supply causing congestion and heart problems.

Arteries are the muscular tubes that carry the blood away from the heart. These branch off into smaller
arteries like the branch of a tree eventually becoming very fine arterioles. The arterioles branch further
into microscopic tubes called capillaries which exchange fluid through their walls. This enables the cells
of the body to receive both oxygen and nutrients and eliminate carbon dioxide. The capillaries then
combine to form first small veins, which in turn lead to larger ones. The blood now contains carbon
dioxide and reduced levels of oxygen and returns to the heart via the anterior and posterior vena cava
to recommence its circulation around the lung.

There is an important subsidiary circulatory system called the hepatic (i.e. liver) portal system. You will
see in Fig.1-1 that two arteries provide oxygen to the stomach and intestines (and also the pancreas and
spleen). They keep branching until they form capillaries which then join together to form the portal vein
which carries the blood to the liver. There the portal vein breaks up into another capillary-type network,
where the blood comes into direct contact with the liver cells. The vessels then join together again to
form the hepatic veins which discharge the blood into the posterior vena cava. The blood from the
intestines carries nutrients from the food eaten and also sometimes harmful substances (toxins). The
liver cells are able to modify some of the nutrients for use elsewhere and also to store some. They also
detoxify harmful substances. The liver is supplied with oxygen via a separate artery, the hepatic artery.

The internal linings of the heart are covered by a smooth shiny tissue called the endocardium. The rate
of contraction is known as the pulse rate. This can be felt either at the base of the ear or under the tail
and varies from 200 beats per minute in the young piglet to 70 in the adult.

The blood consists of two main parts, a fluid called plasma and cells. Nutrients such as proteins, sugars
and fats are circulated throughout the body in the plasma and waste products are collected to be
detoxified in the liver and excreted via the kidneys. The plasma also carries hormones which are
produced in one part of the body and act on another. It also carries antibodies to combat infection. The
plasma also supports red blood cells (erythrocytes) which contain the substance haemoglobin whose
main function is to transport oxygen around the body and bring back carbon dioxide to be expelled from
the lungs. The next largest group in the plasma are the white cells (leucocytes) which are the first line of
defence against infectious agents. The third type of cells are blood platelets. These are really small
fragments of cells which are associated with the clotting mechanisms of blood. When blood clots the
liquid that remains outside the clot is serum and this contains the antibodies. Serum may be used to
inject into pigs to provide an immediate source of immunity.

Failure of blood to clot and subsequent loss of red cells into the tissues is not uncommon in pigs and
occurs in thrombocytopenic purpura - a clotting defect disease - and warfarin poisoning.
Respiratory System
The respiratory system of the pig commences at the nostrils which lead into two nasal passages. These
contain the dorsal and ventral turbinate bones. (see picture below). The ventral turbinates consist of
four thin main bones, two on each side separated by a cartilaginous septum. You can imagine these as
four hair curlers placed inside the nose. The respiratory tract is lined by a smooth membrane called a
mucous membrane because it is bathed in a sticky mucus. It is also covered with minute hair like
structures which are able to brush the mucous across the surface by their wavy motion. They move the
mucous in the nose, bronchial tree and trachea to the throat where it is swallowed. The air breathed in
through the nose is warmed by the turbinate bones which, because of their scroll-like shape, cause
turbulence. This throws out the larger of the small particles so that they stick to the mucus and are
swept to the throat. The many branches of the bronchi as they decrease in diameter have a similar
effect on more minute particles. The mucus elevator then carries them to the throat. Only the vary
smallest particles reach the alveoli where the alveolar macrophages engulf and remove them. Internally,
the nasal passages open into the pharynx (throat) which is a common passage for food and air. The food
is swallowed down the oesophagus and the air is sucked into the larynx at the back of the throat. The
larynx (voice box) controls inspiration and expiration. It opens into the trachea which passes down into
the chest where it divides into two bronchi. The bronchi branch into smaller bronchi and continue to
branch gradually reducing in size to become bronchioles which terminate in very tiny air sacs called
alveoli. Oxygen is passed from the alveoli into the blood stream and carbon dioxide is passed out. The
lungs are divided into seven lobes as shown in the picture below.
SKELETAL SYSTEM

A joint consists of the ends of two bones held together by ligaments and muscles, surrounded by a
strong membrane and covered with smooth cartilage which form what are known as the articular
surfaces. Cartilage is dense material that is shock absorbing. The two articular surfaces are surrounded
by a thin membrane called the joint capsule, the inner part of which is secretory and produces the joint
fluid (synovial fluid). The muscles and ligaments surrounding the joint are attached to the periosteum,
the membrane which covers bone. Beneath the periosteum is the layer of compact bone that provides
the strength of the structure. The centre is composed of a spongy mass containing marrow, from which
many of the cells circulating in the blood are produced. Near the ends of the bones are flattened areas
of cartilage running at right angles to the bone called the epiphyseal plates, which by increasing their
thickness cause bones to grow in length and width. The separation of bones at these plates is a common
occurrence in leg weakness or osteochondrosis, particularly in young growing animals.

Bone is continually being broken down and rebuilt even in adults who have stopped growing. Thus they
are able to repair fractures and respond to pressures. The main pressures are from muscle tone and
exercise. Pigs that are able to exercise are likely to have stronger bones and joints than those that can
not. Thus sows kept in total individual confinement have softer more brittle bones than sows kept in
pens, yards, or outdoors.

In contrast, the articular cartilage when damaged and eroded cannot repair itself and is replaced by less
effective fibrous tissue. This process can be progressive.
Urinary System
The kidneys are the organs in the body that filter out toxic and other waste materials from the
bloodstream and maintain the body's fluid balance (Fig.1-10). Blood passes from the aorta into the
kidney where it is filtered and returned back into the blood stream. The toxic products are then passed
with fluid into the ureters which lead down to the bladder. Urine leaves the bladder via the urethra to
the exterior.