Chapter 10
Surface water - hydrology deals with the movement of
water along the earth's surface as a result of
precipitation and snow melt
Surface water flow - is highly important to such fields
as municipal and industrial water supply, flood
control, stream flow forecasting, reservoir design,
navigation, irrigation, drainage, water quality control,
water-based recreation, and flsh and wildlife
management
Runoff - occurs when precipitation or snowmelt
moves across the land surface
Catchment - the land area over which rain falls
Watershed - the land area that contributes surface
runoff to any point of interest
drainage basin -the tract of land (both surface and
subsurfaced) rained by a river and its tributaries
sheet flow - surface runoff from tracts of land begins
its journey as overland flow
divides - the lines separating the land surface into
watershed
partial area - hydrology watershed areas are divided
by one of several methods into contributing (active)
and noncontributing (passive) subarea
Boughton - developed a quantitative method of
determining the proportion of a watershed that
contributes surface runoff in different storms, and at
different times during the same storm. by analyzing
rainfall and runoff records
Dendritic - is characterized by numerous small
tributaries joining at right angles in to higher-order
streams, eventually forming the major rivers in the
region
Trellis patterns - are characterized by lo ng main
streams intercepted by numerous shorter right-angle
tributaries
Multi-basin patterns - also called deranged systems,
occur in low gradient swampy areas with numerous
surface depressions and normally have only a few
tributaries
Radial patterns - are typically found in foothill areas or
mountain areas with more advanced soil development
Streams - are rarely straight except on steep slopes in
homogeneous materials.
Braided streams - are characterized by numerous
interconnected channels flowing around and over
islands and bars, inundating most during high flows.
Lithologic effects - are associated with the
composition, texture, and sequence of the rocks,
whereas structural effects relate mainly to
discontinuities such as faults and folds.
A fault - is a fracture that results in the relative
displacement of rock that was previously continuous.
Folds - are geologic strata that are contorted or bent.
Young streams - are highly active and usually flow
rapidly so that they are continually cutting their
channel
Mature streams - are those in which the channel slope
has been reduced to the point where flow velocities
are just able to transport incoming sediment and
where the channel depth is no longer being modified
by erosion
Old stream - the flow velocities of old streams are low
due to gentle slopes that prevail
-Wide meander belts, broad flood plains, and
delta formation are also characteristic of old streams.
drainage density - defined as the ratio of total channel
segment lengths cumulated for all stream orders
within a basin to the basin area.
The stream frequency - is defined as the summation
of all segments in a drainage basin (total number of
segments of all orders) divided by the drainage area.
Hydrologists - estimates stream flows
Two approaches are employed.
 Physical processes - approach in which runoff
is computed on the basis of observed or
expected precipitation.
 Founded on statistical analyses of runoff -
records without resort to precipitation data
Frequency analyses - are usually directed toward
studies of miximum (flood) and minimum (drought)
flows
Time-series analyses - are particularly pertinent to the
problem of estimating trends, cycles, and fluctuations
in hydrologic data
Recurrence interval (R.I.) - is defined as the average
interval over a long period of years during which a
corresponding magnitude of some hydrologic variable
is at least met
Surface water hydrology - is basic to the design of
many engineering works and important in water
quality management schemes
Chapter 11
Hydrograph analysis - is the most widely used method
of analyzing surface runoff.
streamflow hydrograph - provides the rate of flow at
all points in time during and after a storm or
snowmelt event
A hydrograph as four component elements
(1) direct surface runoff,
(2) interflow,
(3) groundwater or base flow, and
(4) channel precipitation.
Concentration curve - the rising portion of a
hydrograph
Crest segment - the region in the vicinity of the peak
the falling portion - is the recession
Rainfall - is also intercepted by trees, plants, 4nd roof
surfaces and at the same time is evaporated
base flow hydrograph - hydrograph of a permanent
stream during a period between precipitation events
interflow - is the part of the subsurface flow that
moves at shallow depths and reaches the surface
channels in a relatively short period of time
The field capacity - is the amount of water held in the
soil after excess gravitational water has drained
Channel precipitation - begins with inception of
rainfall and ends with the storm
Wave travel time - is defined as the time required for
direct runoff originating at the most remote point in
the channel to reach the outlet
time base of a hydrograph - is considered to be the
time from which the concentration curve begins until
the direct runoff component reaches zero
Watershed lag time - is defined as the time from the
center of mass of effective rainfall to the center of
mass of direct runoff
excess-rainfall release time - is defined as the time
required for the last, most remote drop of excess rain
that fell on the watershed to pass the outlet, signaling
the cessation of direct runoff.
Concentration time - is the time required, with
uniform rain, for 100 percent of a tract of land to
contribute to the direct runoff at the outlet
Basin lag time
-Two of these are
(1) the time interval from the maximum rainfall rate
to the peak rate of runoff and
(2) the time from the center of mass of effective
rainfall to the peak rate of flow.
Time lag - is characterized by the ratio of a flow length
to a mean velocity of flow and is thus a property that
is influenced by the shape of the drainage area, the
slope of the main channel, channel roughness and
geometry, and the storm pattern.
Chapter 12
The concept of a unit hydrograph was first introduced
by Sherman
a unit hydrograph - is the hydrograph of direct runoff
(excludes base flow) for any storm that produces
exactly 1.0 inch of net rain (the total runoff after
abstractions)
method of "lagging" - is based on the assumption that
linear response of the watershed is not influenced by
previous storms
S-hydrograph method - overcomes restrictions
imposed by the lagging method and allows
construction of any duration unit hydrograph
e unit-hydrograph - method of estimating a runoff
hydrograph can be used for storms of extremely short
duration
Snyder's Method -It allows computation of lag time,
time base, unit hydrograph duration, peak discharge
and hydrograph time widths at 50 and 75 percent of
peak flor.
- developed by Snyder and
expanded by Taylor and schwartz
 Time to Peak
 Time Base
 Duration
 Peak Discharge
 Hydrograph Construction
SCS Method - A method developed by the Soil
Conservation Service for constructing synthetic unit
hydrographs is based on a dimensionless hydrograph
Gray's Method - method of generating synthetic unit
hydrographs has been developed by Gray
Clark's IUH Time-Area Method - It has been widely
used, is often called the time-area method, and has
appeared in several computer programs for
hydrograph analysis
Chapter 13
Routing - is used to predict the temporal and spatial
variations of a flood wave as it traverses a river reach
or reservoir.
Routing techniques may be classified into two
categories
Hydrologic routing - employs the equation of
continuity with either a linear or curvilinear relation
between storage and discharge within a river or
reservoir.
Hydraulic routing - uses both the equation of
continuity and the equation of motion, customarily
the momentum equation.
HYDROLOGIC RIVER ROUTING - was based on the use
of wave velocity and a rating curve of stage versus
discharge.
Three of the most popular hydrologic river
routing techniques
 MUSKINGUM METHOD
 SCS CONVEX METHOD
 MUSKINGUM-CUNGE METHOD
Cunge - blended the accuracy of the diffusion wave
method with the simplicity of the Muskingum
method, resulting in one of the most recommended
techniques for general use.
Storage indication - method of routing a hydrograph
through a reservoir is also called modified Puls
method.
A flood wave - passing through a storage reservoir is
both delayed and attenuated as it enters and spreads
over the pool surface.
Principal – water stored in the reservoir is gradually
released as pipe flow through turbines or outlet works
in extreme floods, over an emergency spillway.
HYDRAULIC RIVER ROUTING - employs both the
equation of continuity and as the equation of motion
Hydraulic routing techniques - are helpful in solving
river routing problems, over land flow, or sheet flow.
Spatically varied unsteady flow equations – are the
general forms of the combination for rivers .
The three types of analysis of unsteady flow routing in
open channels are classified as
 kinematic,
 diffusion (also called nininertia),
 dynamic wave analyses
Steady flow - is defined as flow that does not change
with time, and uniform flow is flow with a water
surface paralleling the bed slope.
Chapter 14
Snowmelt - usually begins in the spring
Streamflow forecasting - is highly dependent on
adequate knowledge of the extent and characteristics
of snow fields within the watershed
Snow measurements - are obtained through the use
of standard and recording rain gauges, seasonal
storage precipitation gauges, snow boards, and snow
stakes.
Rain gauges - are usually equipped with shields to
reduce the effect of wind.
Snow stakes - are calibrated wooden posts driven into
the ground for periodic observation of the snow depth
or inserted into the snowpack to determine its depth.
Snowmelt process - converts ice content into water
within the snowpack.
 Energy Sources for Snowmelt
 Energy Budget Considerations
 Turbulent Exchange
 Convection
 Condensation
 Radiation Melt
 Rainfall
 Conduction
Snowmelt runoff estimates - are extremely important
for many regions of the United State
(1) forecasting seasonal water yields for a diversity of
water supply purposes,
(2) regulating rivers and storage works,
(3) implementing flood control programs, and
(4) selecting design floods for particular watersheds. localize data and are not valid when
extrapolated to other regions.
Hydrologic indexes - are made up of hydrologic or
meteorologic variables to describe their functioning. Rational method - is used in the design of urban storm
drainage systems serving areas up to six hundred
The atmospheric temperature - is an extremely useful
acres in size.
parameter in snowmelt determination.
Rational formula - is a simple model to express a
Degree day - is defined as a deviation of 1of rom a
complex hydrologic system.
given datum temperature consistently over a 24-hr
period. SCS TP-149 METHOD - Developed to allow estimation
of peak flow rates from small (5-2000 acres)
Water budget - can be used to estimate the snowmelt
agricultural watershed
runoff from a watershed.
U.S geological survey index flood method - is a
Altitude - is an exceedingly pertinent factor in the
graphical regional correlation of the recurrence
hydrology of tracts subjected to snowfall.
interval with peak discharge rates.
S-hydrograph method - has considerable utility since it
The principal affects of land-use change have been
allows adjustments to the derived unit, hydrograph
classified by Leopold :
for nonuniform generation rates
 Changes in peak flow characteristics
CHAPTER 15
 Changes in total runoff
METHODS USED IN ESTIMATING QUANTITIES OF  Changes in water quality
STORM WATER RUNOFF:  Changes in hydrological ameneties

 THE RULE OF THUMB APPROACH

 THE EMPIRICAL LUMPED-PARAMETER
APPROACH
o Consideration of the entire drainage
area as a single unit.
o Estimation of flow at only the most
downstream point.
o The assumption that rainfall in
uniformly distributed over the
drainage area.
 ANALYTICAL APPROACH / PHYSICAL PROCESS
APPROACH
o is characterized by an attempt to
quantify all pertinent physical
phenomena from the input (rainfall)
and output (runoff).

Numerous methods - are available for estimating the

peak rates of runoff required for design applications in
small urban and rural watersheds.

TWO RELATIVELY MAJOR DIFFICULTIES

• Rainfall runoff formulas - which estimates of

coefficients required by these formulas are
subjective and have received considerable
criticism.

• Empiric and correlative methods - are limited

in application because they are derived from