INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

A Narrative Report Presented to the Faculty

of the College of Accountancy, Business, Economics
and International Hospitality Management – Graduate School
Batangas State University
Batangas City

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirement for the Subject
PA 607 Special Issues on the Administration of Social and Political
Development

Submitted to:
DR. NOEL BAUTISTA

By:
EnP MARY ANN E. ANTENOR, MPA

September 2019
 INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

NARRATIVE REPORT

By:
EnP MARY ANN E. ANTENOR, MPA
Doctor of Public Administration, Student

INTRODUCTION
Political development is an important but complex topic. Sometimes,
various events or people in our lives impact our development. It is also considered
a more elusive concept than economic development. They devote less attention
to systematic statement of conditions which give rise to and maintain political
development and are more concerned with specifying ends and justification for
having such political development.
Nations exist in a very similar way. In general, we refer to the building and
growth of a nation's institutions and systems as its political development. The goal
of any nation is to develop into a strong, healthy country and to continue
developing throughout time; but political development can occur or be
influenced in a variety of ways. Studying the politics and development of the Third
World is important and rewarding - but demanding. To begin with one must know
the problems of development and the role of politics. For political scientists, this
implies broadening one's competence to include interdisciplinary co-operation
and knowledge of how different factors interrelate in processes of development.
Thereafter, there is a need for empirical studies which despite their solid empirical
character do not lose track of comparative and theoretical perspectives. For most
of us, this implies time-consuming searching for necessary information in the field,
in addition to reading relevant literature. Finally, one must be able to position the
study in a comparative perspective and open up for generalizations; and this, of
course, implies knowledge of other theories, contexts and cases as well.

KARL MARX AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

Marx first sophisticated theory of political development. He advocated

breakdown and transformation of societies based on conflict generated by social
classes over ownership and control of means of production (equipment that
created the material world). Conflict between each society's tools of production
(means of production) and the class relations for controlling or owning that
equipment led to class revolutions, as new social classes emerged to challenge
the ruling class.

Marx Stages of Political Development:

⪢ Primitive communism- Men performed the same economic function –

hunter gathering. They worked together in order to survive. There was no
private property and there were no classes. Eventually the most successful
hunter gatherers gained power and control over the others.

⪢ Imperialism/Slavery- The strong man ruled. He began by owning all the land
but when threatened by outsiders, he would grant land to others in return
for military services. A new land-owning aristocracy was therefore created.

⪢ Feudalism- Land was owned by the aristocracy who exploited the

peasantry who worked it. There was a surplus of food which the aristocracy
sold to others – creating a class of merchants and capitalists who wanted
to share political power.

⪢ Capitalism- The wealthy merchants and factory owners obtained political

power and exploited the workers. As the proletariat became politically
aware they would rise up and overthrow the bourgeois government.

⪢ Socialism- There would be a dictatorship of the proletariat as workers’

organizations re-distributed food, goods and services fairly according to
need, and profits were shared by all. The middle classes would come to
understand that equality was superior to private ownership.

⪢ Communism- Everyone would join together for the common good. Money
and government would no longer be needed and society would be class-
less. As all countries reached this stage the world would become state-less
and competition and wars would cease.

Marx placed class and conflict among social classes at the centre of social
science explanations for large scale social and political change.

HUNTINGTON’S MODERNIZATION AND KARL DEUTSCH SOCIAL MOBILIZATION

Huntington’s Modernization

This is a major challenge to Marxism according to Max Weber. Huntington identifies

two characteristics of political development. The first is that development is
synonymous with modernization, thus political development can be defined as
political modernization. Modernization have the following characteristics:

* difference among societies is level of "modernization" and nature of

"authority relations", not classes or class struggle
 * modernization result of specialization, professionalization, secularization,
bureaucratization and efficiency

* ideal society was capitalist society, with efficient bureaucracy, “legal-

rational authority relations,” supportive of democracy

* society moved from "traditional" to "charismatic," to modern "legal-rational”

authority relations

* all societies contain both “modern” and “traditional” components or

qualities and can be placed on a continuum running from “traditional” to
“modern.”

Social Mobilization: Karl Deutsch

⪢ Developed ways of measuring traditional versus modern societies.

⪢ Called political modernization, "social mobilization," with people moving

from traditional to modern areas of society.

⪢ shown by urbanization, higher literacy, new ideas emerge through

communications channels, breakdown of traditional social groups.

Four theory of Political Development:

1. Linear Path of Political Development?

* political systems, like economic ones, go through stages of growth and

development.

* "development"--increasing government efficiency in mobilizing human

and material resources by the state towards national political and
economic ends. Political scientists argued that democratic systems was
highest form of political development.

2. Huntington's Five Goals of Development

* equality, economic growth, state autonomy, democracy, stability

* in 1950s all goals seen to be compatible, attainable at same time,

just as in Western Europe and North America

3. Incompatibility Theories:

* new states often collapsed under pressures of rapid economic

growth or inequality. Why?

* high rates of economic growth and social mobilization are politically

destabilizing (because they generate inequality)
4. Political decay

* state institutions cannot manage economic and political demands

of society

* led to participation crisis, “political decay” and collapse of regimes,

rise of military and non-democratic system.

PART I. DEFINITION AND ORIGIN OF THE STATE:

1. Exit, Voice and Loyalty

⪢ Choice a key objective of government policy - assumed to deliver benefits
to the consumer
⪢ Choice and voice assumed to be complementary –(Social Market
Foundation, Choice: The Evidence, 2004)
⪢ Exit, Voice and Loyalty (1970)
⪢ The author is motivated by the observation that “under any economic,
social, or political system, individuals, business firms, and organizations in
general are subject to lapses from efficient, rational, law-abiding, virtuous,
or otherwise functional behavior”. It is beneficial to the whole society if
these lapses could be reverted and efficiency restored.
⪢ Broadly speaking, there are three possible responses - the citizen can EXIT,
use VOICE, or demonstrate LOYALTY.
⪢ Choosing to EXIT means that she accepts the deleterious change in her
environment and she alters her behavior to optimize in the new situation.
For example, if the citizen does not like the fact that her state has
introduced a handgun ban, she could accept the situation and simply
move to another state where handguns are allowed.
⪢ Choosing to use VOICE means complaining, protesting, lobbying, or taking
other forms of direct action to try and change the environment back to its
original condition.
⪢ For example, if the state increases the citizen’s tax rate, she might join an
anti-tax protest to pressure the state to reverse its tax hike
⪢ Choosing to demonstrate LOYALTY means that she accepts the deleterious
change in her environment but makes no other change to her behavior.
For example, if the state rules that prayer in public schools is
unconstitutional, she could accept the situation and keep her children in
the public school system.
⪢ As we noted earlier, behavior is political whenever individuals or groups
attempt to influence, or escape the influence of, others. It is easy to see
that the use of voice is inherently political because you are trying to change
the behavior of others. For example, a citizen might participate in a tax
revolt because she wants to change the state’s tax policy. Indeed,
Hirschman (1970), refers to voice as “political action par excellence.”
 However, behavior is also political whenever individuals or groups simply
think about using voice even if they do not actually choose to use it in the
end. This is because the decision to use (or not use) voice is intrinsically a
decision about whether to exit or remain loyal as well. Human interactions
are considered political whenever actors cannot accomplish their goals
without considering the behavior of other actors. Under such
circumstances, the attempt to influence - or to avoid the influence of -
others becomes relevant. It is here that power can, and will, be exercised.
Attempts to influence, or break free of the influence of others, involve the
very nature of state power and the principles of states.

2. State: Definition and Origin

What are the Origins of the State?

Shiveley: modernization, growth of capitalism, commerce,
technology, creates needs for laws, uniform rules, and rise of state.
Tilly: states developed as threat of war forced monarchy to control
resources, taxes, penetrate society, increased bureaucracy and increase
state capacity.
THE STATE is a central concept in the study and practice of politics
State (Webster’s Dictionary: a form or mode of being, a condition).
From Latin status (literally: standing)
The political term “the state” conveys the idea of “an impersonal
and sovereign political order” in society

Society and the State

- Human society predate the state. History knows societies without states,
but no state without a society. Reminder: the state arises at a stage in social
evolution when human society becomes bigger, more complex, and more
productive; more divided by private property – and when the very
existence of society begins to require a special mechanism for coordination
and use of social power.

--The state is created as a set of institutions possessing the power (authority)

to make and carry out decisions binding upon society

--The state is an association formed by members of society, but this

association is distinct among all other associations in that its decisions have
supreme authority. The state thus rules over society.
--Laws are established to regulate the use of this authority. And government
is organized as a mechanism to use it.
 State Strength, Capacity, and Legitimacy

Strength of modern state based on:

a. capacity - ability to enforce laws,
implement policies, deliver goods and
services
b. autonomy- Evans: Autonomous state
organizations are not controlled by narrow
social interests
* fulfils functions such as taxation (extraction), promotion of economic
development,
* can mobilize social forces for economic growth
* If state is too strong, it is isolated from society; it cannot control
society.
* How would I know a “strong” state from a “weak” one?
c. legitimacy- legitimate state gains compliance easily; people follow rules
because they should listen to the state.
* Results from:
a. good governance or ability of state to deliver welfare benefits;
b. people's habits to follow law;
c. religious or ethnic identity with the state;
d. war of independence or revolution makes people loyal to the regime

Three definitive features of the state: (See Max Weber, Politics as a Vocation):

Monopoly on force- has the right and ability to use violence, in legally
defined instances, against members of society, or against other states

Legitimacy- its power is recognized by members of society and by other

states as based on law and some form of justice.

Territoriality- the state exists in a defined territory (which includes land, water
and air) and exercises authority over the population of that territory

So, at some point in history, one form of political organization, the state, emerged
to establish its supremacy over all others…

What factors contributed to this:

--War (defensive or offensive)

--Strengthening and expansion of territorial control

--Social differentiation

--The rise of private property as a key social institution

--The growth of the power of political rulers and their servants

3. Analyzing the state: 3 main traditions

--Where does the power of the state come from? Or, what is the source of
sovereignty?
--How much power should the state have over society?
--How can society control the state to make sure that the state always
serves society’s interests?
--How should the state be organized?

Three (3) main approaches:

1. Statist- The oldest ideas about the state. Value order above freedom. --
View the state as an organism which possesses its own life, largely
autonomous of the individual wishes of the members of society; Policies
of the state are motivated, above all, by the interests of the state, which
are considered the same as the interests of society. Stress social unity;
Reflect the experience of ancient and medieval empires, absolute
monarchies of the Modern Age, right-wing and left-wing dictatorships
of the last century.
2. Pluralist- Dominant today; serve as the basis for the theory and practice
of liberal democracy. Value freedom above order. View the state as a
product of a contract between members of society. Government is
elected by citizens and is accountable to them; View the state as a
political market - a neutral arena for constant competition between
different societal interest groups (farmers, businesses, unions, women,
minorities, retirees, taxpayers, etc.). Policies of the state reflect, above
all, the results of this competition. In real practices of states, pluralism
coexists and interacts with statism.
3. Marxist- provided ideological fuel for socialist movements. Value social
justice and equality above order and freedom. View the state as the
tool used by the dominant class to maintain its domination. Policies of
the state reflect, above all, the interests of the dominant class, rooted in
private ownership of the means of production. Advocate the creation
of a classless society in which the state will “wither away” as no longer
needed. Marxist ideas were used in the creation of communist states in
Eastern Europe and Asia. Communism did bring about rapid
modernization of societies, but resulted in the rise of new forms of
extreme statism and unrestrained, inefficient bureaucratic rule

Each of the three approaches contains important insights into the nature
of the state. The different theories overlap, interact, influence each other. They
continue to evolve, as people search for new answers to the problems they face,
Depending on the course of history, some become more influential than others,
Some work better in the practice of government ; Others work better as sources
of the politics of protest and change.

4. Failed states

⪢ One definition of a state:

○ An authoritative political institution sovereign over a recognized
territory
⪢ What is sovereignty?
○ Internal Sovereignty
○ External Sovereignty
⪢ Thus, there could be two separate sources of “failure”
○ Internal Failure- The state is unable to meet the needs of its citizens.
Internal disintegration of a state. Unable to provide basic, social,
economic, legal, political services and safe-guards to the public at
large. Government lost minimal capacity and therefore right to rule

○ External Failure- The state is unable to meet its obligations as a

member of the system of states. Disintegrated or collapsed state.
Incapable of sustaining itself as a member of the international
community

Roots of State Failure

⪢ Proliferation of states following World War II
○ Especially the Decolonization Movement in the 1960s
○ Principle of self-determination
⪢ The Cold War
○ Preserved some newly independent and other Third World states
○ States propped up by the US
○ States propped up by the USSR

Causes of State Failure

⪢ Corruption of state leaders?
○ Barre in Somalia
○ Eyadéma in Togo
○ Mobutu in Zaire
○ Mugabe in Zimbabwe
⪢ Historical root of the problem
○ Legacy of colonialism
⪢ Influences of the international
○ Natural resources
○ Neighboring civil wars
○ Neighboring instability
○ Neighbor’s refugees

Characteristics of Failure
 ⪢ What does state failure look like when we do not avoid it?
○ Civil strife
○ Political corruption
○ Economic collapse
○ Societal degradation
○ Domestic chaos
○ Human rights abuse
○ Crumbling state infrastructure

Citing the human rights, for instance, there is a growing consensus that
human rights are (or should be) an international concern. There are widespread
violation of human rights seen as a de facto threat to peace and this leads to the
development of international humanitarian law. Example is in the problems with
implementation

Examples of Failed States:

⪢ Somalia:
○ Ruled by warlords
○ Divided into autonomous zones
⪢ Liberia and Sierra Leone:
○ Small-scale conflicts
○ Unable to hold territory together during civil war
⪢ Rwanda:
○ Massacres and genocide
○ Failure of social contract
⪢ Cambodia:
○ Twenty-year conflict between warring parties
⪢ Lebanon:
○ Civil wars in 1980s
○ Continued sectarian politics
○ Continued meddling by states in internal government business
⪢ Congo:
○ Essentially ungovernable since independence in 1960
○ Resource rich
○ Rain forest separates east from west
○ East and West are separate ethnicities

In saving failed states, there are two (2) models that have been used in the past.

○ Top-Down or the Establishment of Most Powerful

○ Bottom-Up or People build from ground up

PART II. DEMOCRACY

1. Meaning of Democracy

We live in a world that generally agrees on the importance and desirability of

democracy. But it hasn’t always been like that. The ancient Greeks were some of
the first to start thinking about the merits of different forms of regime.

Democracy is the Greek word “Demokratia” meaning ‘rule by the demos.’

Although the Greek word demos often gets translated as ‘the people,’ it refers
more specifically to the ‘common people’ – those people with little or no
economic independence who are politically uneducated. Many believed that
the demos would pursue their own interests at the expense of the commonwealth.

Plato did not see democracy as government by the people. Instead, he saw it as
government by the poor and uneducated against the rich and educated.
Plato believed that political decisions should be based on expertise and that
allowing all people to rule would lead to mass rule and class warfare.

Characteristics of democracy:

- Democracy was not associated with elections. Democracy was viewed as

obsolete.
- People had talked about representative government, not democracy.
- But ‘democracy’ and ‘aristocracy’ came to designate the main lines of
cleavage in the Age of Revolution. Until the 18th century, democracy was seen as
a regime in which offices were distributed by lot.

Democracy meant direct legislation, not representative government. Things

began to change in the Age of Revolution (1775-1848).

2. Conceptualizing and Measuring Democracy

● Democracy is an abstract theoretical concept. A substantive view of

democracy classifies political regimes in regard to the outcomes that they
produce.

● A minimalist or procedural view of democracy classifies political regimes in

regard to their institutions and procedures. The central notion underlying
our contemporary concept of democracy is that the ‘people’ rather than
some subset of the people should rule.

● Robert Dahl proposed two dimensions of minimalist view of democracy.

1. Contestation captures the extent to which citizens are free to

organize themselves into competing blocs in order to press for the policies
and outcomes they desire.

2. Inclusion has to do with who gets to participate in the democratic

process.

There are also three measures of measuring democracy and dictatorship. It

includes:

1. Democracy-Dictatorship (DD) Measure- measure treats regime type as

a dichotomy.
2. Polity IV Measure- provides annual measures of democracy and
autocracy.
3. Freedom House Measure- classifies countries as free, partly free and not
free.

Example: The amount of freedom on the political rights dimension is measured by

10 questions, each worth between 0 and 4 points.

A country is classified as a democracy only if all of the following conditions apply:

1. The chief executive is elected.

2. The legislature is elected.
3. There is more than one party competing in the elections.
4. An alternation in power under identical electoral rules has taken place.
3. Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy

● Capitalism and Democracy are not inherently linked because Capitalism

also linked to non-democratic regimes (e.g. China).

● Socialism and Democracy are not also mutually exclusive because most
European Countries are “social” democracies not to mention that the
United States has many elements of social democracy.

● Capitalism= Economic system based on private property and free markets.

Traditional Capitalism also known as: “Free Market” or “laissez-faire”

● Capitalism and has five components:

1. Private ownership of property,

2. No legal limit on accumulation of property.
3. Free Market-no government intervention in the economy,
4. Profit motive as driving force.
5. Profit as measure of efficiency

● Capitalists argue that democracy requires capitalism because of freedom

to accumulate. Private property is highest value (economic freedom).
Economic freedom exists when government and monopolies are checked

Critics on Democratic Capitalism

⪢ Focus on extremes of poverty and wealth.

⪢ And, Influence of wealth on political process
⪢ And, Power differentials between employers and employees.
⪢ They say: capitalism produces inequality of wealth and power.

Social Democracy is characterized as follows:

⪢ much property held by the public through democratically elected

government, including major industries, utilities, and transportation systems;
⪢ a limit on the accumulation of private property;
⪢ government regulation of the economy;
⪢ extensive publicly financed assistance and pension programs;
⪢ social costs added to financial considerations as measure of efficiency.

There are also some assumptions on Social Democracy. It includes: 1) Citizens

ought to control political and economic life.

(2) Should be democratic accountability. (3) If people control economic system

then more equality and less poverty will follow. (4) Limited Private Property.
Socialists are not against private property, but are in favor of government
regulation.

- Democratic Socialist would demand a political system that incorporates the

democratic liberties

-In Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, Schumpeter considers two

interpretations of democracy:

1. Popular sovereignty, that is, that the government should enact the will of
the people

2. Competitive leadership, that is, the leader is determined by competition

for the free vote of the population.

3. Schumpeter rejects the first of these. He makes several criticisms. The one
that bites is: the “general will,” if it exists at all, might be best enacted by an
autocrat.
4. The formation of government by political competition does at least
explain the importance and function of democratic liberty.

Critics on Democratic Socialism

- Problem of bureaucracy

- High cost

- Corruption

- Interference with free market through government ownership and control puts
too much power in the hands of government destruction of freedom and
democracy but the electoral process is still there.

Policy Issues

Deregulation: an act of removing restrictions and regulations

- Relinquishing government oversight of the economy. Core idea: over regulation

has forced inefficiencies on the economy correction is needed.

- Problems:

1) lowering of health and safety standards for workers;

2) Savings and Loan disaster;

3) product quality

4. Theory of Democracy
Who Governs? Who has power and influence over public policy and the decision
making at the local, state, and national levels of government?

1. Traditional Democratic Theory: the people have the majority of power and
control the government by electing officials and representatives (Majoritarian)

2. Pluralist Theory: Interest groups compete for influence over government, each
promoting its own policy preferences and agenda. Conflict among groups may
result, requiring negotiation, bargaining, and compromise, nobody dominates
(Robert Dahl)

3. Elite Theory: A small number of powerful elite (corporate leaders, top military
officers, government leaders) form an upper class, which rules in it’s own interest
(C. Wright Mills)

4. Bureaucratic Theory: The hierarchical structure and standardized procedures of

modern governments allow bureaucrats, who carry out the day-to-day functions
and workings of the government, to hold the real power over public policy (Max
Weber)

5. Hyper-pluralism theory: Democracy is a system of many groups having so much

strength that government is often “pulled” in numerous directions at the same
time, causing gridlock and ineffectiveness (negative view, government is
weakened)

5. Participation and Opposition

Robert Dahl's purpose of Polyarchy is to determine conditions favor or impede a

transformation into a political regime in which opponents of the government can
openly and legally organize into political parties in order to oppose the
government in free and fair elections.

Dahl assumes that a key characteristic of democracy is the continuing

responsiveness of the government to demands from its citizens. Since it is almost
impossible for a government to be responsive to all of its citizens, Dahl calls our
everyday conception of democracy "Polyarchy."

Dahl’s Requirement for Democracy

Formulate preferences

1. Freedom to form and join organizations

2. Freedom of expression

3. Right to vote
 4. Right of political leaders to compete for support

5. Alternative sources of information

Signify preferences

1. Freedom to form and join organizations

2. Freedom of expression

3. Right to vote

4. Eligibility for public office

5. Right of political leaders to compete for support

6. Alternative sources of information

7. Free and fair elections

Have preferences weighted equally in conduct of government

1. Freedom to form and join organizations

2. Freedom of expression

3. Right to vote

4. Eligibility for public office

5. Right of political leaders to compete for support and votes

6. Alternative sources of information

7. Free and fair elections

8. Institutions for making government policies depend on votes and other

expressions of preference

In a democracy, public contestation is the amount of elections held. Inclusiveness

is the proportion of the population entitled to vote or participate in the public
contests.

Thus democratization is made up of as least two dimensions: Liberalization (public

contestation) and Inclusiveness (the right to participate).

Dahl’s Basic Path to Polyarchy

I. Liberalization precedes inclusiveness.

 A. Closed hegemony becomes a competitive oligarchy by offering public
contests to a select group of individuals.

B. The competitive oligarchy becomes a polyarchy by enfranchising more

of the public.

Examples: Great Britain and the United States.

II. Inclusiveness precedes liberalization.

A. Closed hegemony includes the public in its activities.

B. The inclusive hegemony becomes a polyarchy by increasing chances for

public contestation.

Examples: Germany from the Empire to the Weimar.

III. Liberalization and inclusiveness occur simultaneously.

Example: France from 1789 to 1792

Closed hegemonies have low liberalization and low inclusiveness. An example is

an unelected monarchy.

Competitive oligarchies have high liberalization and low inclusiveness. An

example is Britain and the United States when only property holding males could
vote.

Inclusive hegemonies have low liberalization and high inclusiveness. An example

is the Soviet Union, where everyone voted for the only candidate available.

Polyarchies have high liberalization and high inclusiveness. Examples include the
United States and other advanced western countries with universal suffrage and
low limitations on running for public office.

REFERENCES:

David Held, Introduction. In: “States and Societies”. Edited by David Held et al.
Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1985, p.1

Schumpeter J.A. (2009). Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy. University of Illinois

at Urbana-Champaign's Academy for Entrepreneurial Leadership Historical
Research Reference in Entrepreneurship

Polyarchy & Participation: The Changing Democratic Theory of Robert Dahl and
Richard W. Krouse. Source: Polity, Vol. 14, No. 3, (Spring, 1982), pp. 441-463.
Published by: Palgrave Macmillan Journals