The Skeletal System

 Parts of the skeletal system 3. Flat bones

 Bones (skeleton)  Cartilages  Spongy bone (diploe) between two compact bones
 Joints  Ligaments  Ex. skull, ribs, sternum, scapula
 Divided into two divisions 4. Irregular bones
 Axial skeleton  Appendicular skeleton  Not long, short, or flat
 Ex. vertebrae and hip
Functions of Bones
 Support of the body Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone
 Protection of soft organs  Diaphysis – shaft, composed of compact bone
 Movement due to attached skeletal muscles  Epiphysis –ends, composed mostly of spongy bone
 Storage of minerals (Ca and P) and fats  Periosteum – outside covering of the diaphysis, fibrous
 Blood cell formation - hematopoiesis connective tissue membrane
 Sharpey’s fibers or perforating fibers – secure periosteum
Bones of the Human Body to underlying bone
 The adult skeleton has 206 bones  Arteries – supply bone cells with nutrients
 Two basic types of osseous – bone tissue  Articular cartilage – covers the external surface of the
 Compact bone – solid, dense, and homogeneous epiphyses, made of hyaline cartilage, decreases friction at
 Spongy bone – small needle-like pieces (bony joint surfaces
spicules) and has many open spaces (trabeculae)  Medullary cavity – cavity of the shaft, contains yellow
marrow (mostly fat) in adults and red marrow (for blood
Classification of Bones (according to shape) cell formation) in infants
1. Long bones  Foramina – opening
 Typically longer than wide
 Have a shaft with heads at both ends Bone Markings
 More compact than spongy  Surface features of bones
 Ex. femur, humerus  Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and ligaments
2. Short bones  Passages for nerves and blood vessels
 Generally cube-shaped  Categories of bone markings
 Ex. carpals, tarsals  Projections or processes – grow from bone surface
 Sesamoid bones Ex. patella or kneecap  Depressions or cavities – indentation

Projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment Depressions and openings
Tuberosity Large, rounded projection; may be roughened For passage of blood vessels and nerves
Crest Narrow ridge of bone; usually prominent Groove Furrow
Trochanter Very large, blunt, irregularly shaped process Fissure Narrow, slitlike opening
Line Narrow ridge of bone; less prominent than a crest Foramen Round or oval opening through a bone
Tubercle Small, rounded projection or process Notch Indentation at the edge of a structure
Epicondyle Raised area on or above a condyle Others
Spine Sharp, slender, often pointed projection Meatus Canal-like passageway
Process Any bony prominence Sinus Cavity within a bone, filled with air and lines with
Projections that help to form joints mucous membrane
Head Bony expansion carried on a narrow neck Fossa Shallow, basinlike depression in a bone often
Facet Smooth, nearly flat articular surface serving as an articular surface
Condyle Rounded, articular projection
Ramus Armlike bar of bone

Microscopic Anatomy of Bone  Cartilage remains in isolated areas

 Osteon (Haversian System) – a unit of bone  Bridge of the nose
 Consists of Haversian canal and lamellae  Parts of ribs
 Found in the compact layer of the bone  Joints
 Central (Haversian) canal – opening in the center of an
osteon which carries blood vessels and nerves Ossification
 Perforating (Volkman’s) canal – canal perpendicular to the 1. Endochondral – mesenchyme  hyaline cartilage 
central canal which carries blood vessels and nerves osseous tissue
 Lacunae – small depressions housing mature bone cells 2. Intramembranous – mesenchyme  osseous tissue
(osteocytes) arranged in concentric rings
 Lamellae – rings around the central canal, sites of lacunae Bone Growth
 Canaliculi – tiny canals that radiate from the central canal  Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone during
to lacunae which form a transport system childhood
 New cartilage is continuously formed
Changes in the Human Skeleton  Older cartilage becomes ossified
 In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage o Cartilage is broken down and is replaced by bone
 During development, this cartilage is replaced by bone o Bone replaces cartilage
 Process of bone formation – bone-forming osteoblasts NOTE: Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts and
 Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth stops osteoclasts.
 Bones change shape somewhat
 Bones grow in width – appositional growth Bone Fractures
 Growth due to growth hormones and sex hormones  A break in a bone
 Bones are remodeled continually in response to:  Types of bone fractures
 Calcium levels in blood and pull of gravity and  Closed (simple) fracture – doesn’t penetrate the skin
muscles on the bones  Open (compound) fracture – broken bone penetrates
through the skin
Types of Bone Cells  Bone fractures are treated by reduction and
 Osteoprogenitor cell – stem cell immobilization
 Osteocytes – mature bone cells  Realignment of the bone – either by physician’s hands or
 Osteoblasts – bone-forming cells, deposits Ca to bones surgery
 Osteoclasts – bone-destroying cells, release of calcium

Type Description Comment

Comminuted bone breaks into many fragments Particularly common in older people, whose bones are more brittle
Compression bone is crushed Common in porous bones (ex. osteoporotic bones of older people)
Depression broken bone portion is pressed inward Types of skull fracture
Impact broken bone ends are forced into each Commonly occurs when someone attempts to break a fall with
other outstretched arms
Spiral ragged breaks occur when excessive Common sports fracture
twisting forces are applied to a bone
Greenstick bones break incompletely (halfway) Common in children, whose bones are more flexible than those of adults

Repair of Bone Fractures  Foramen magnum – largest opening at the base of

 Hematoma is formed due to broken blood vessels the skull where the brain connects with the spinal
 A fibrocartilage callus acts to splint the broken bone cord
 The bony callus made of spongy bone is formed.  Sphenoid bone – butterfly-shaped; keystone bone of the
 Bone remodeling occurs. cranial floor because it is in contact with all of the other
cranial bones
THE AXIAL SKELETON  Sella turcica or Turk’s saddle – site of pituitary gland
 Forms the longitudinal part of the body  Foramen ovale – cranial nerve V
 Divided into three parts  Optic canal – cranial nerve II
 Skull  Bony thorax  Ethmoid bone
 Vertebral column  Crista galli or cock’s comb – meninges of brain
 Cribriform plates – cranial nerve I
The Skull
 Two sets of bones Cranial sutures
 Cranium  Facial bones  Coronal suture – frontal and parietal
 Bones are joined by sutures – fibrous joints, except for  Sagittal suture – paired parietal bones
the mandible  Lambdoid suture – parietal and occipital
 Squamous suture – temporal and parietal
Cranium – 8 large flat bones (4 are single, 2 are paired)
 Frontal bone – forehead Cranial fossa
 Parietal bones (paired) – superior and lateral walls Anterior Middle Posterior
 Temporal bones (paired) Crista galli Turk’s saddle Jugular foramen
 Meatus Cribriform plates Optical foramina Foramen magnum
o External – canal to eardrum and middle ear Occipital condyles
o Internal – cranial nerve VII and VIII
 Mastoid process – posterior and inferior to the Facial bones – 14 bones (6 are paired, 2 are single)
external meatus; attachment site for muscles  Maxilla – keystone bone of the face because it anchors all
 Styloid process – needle-like; attachment site for facial bones
muscles and ligaments of the neck  Alveolar process – carry the set of upper teeth
 Zygomaticus process – joins zygomatic bones  Palatine process – hard palate
 Jugular foramen – jugular vein (largest vein in the  Palatine bones – failure to fuse is cleft palate
head) and cranial nerves IX, X, XI  Zygomatic bones – cheekbones
 Carotid canal – internal carotid artery passes through  Lacrimal bones – passageway for tears
into the cranium  Nasal bones – bridge of the nose
 Foramen lacerum – jagged opening for the internal  Inferior Nasal Conchae – lateral walls of nasal cavity
carotid artery  Vomer bone (unpaired) – bony nasal septum
 Occipital bone  Mandible (unpaired) – jaw bone
 Occipital condyles – lateral to the foramen magnum;  Attached by a freely movable joint
articulates with C1 forming the atlanto-occipital joint (temporomandibular joint or TMJ – lockjaw)
 Hyoid Bone – only bone that does not articulate with  Thoracic curvature – T1 – T12
another bone  Has two costal facets which receive the heads of ribs
 Serves as a moveable base for the tongue and as an  Heart-shaped body
attachment point for neck muscles that raise and  Spinous process is long and hooks downward
lower the larynx when we swallow and speak  Giraffe’s head
 Fetal Skull – anterior and posterior fontanel; fetal skull is  Lumbar curvature – L1 – L5
large compared to the infants total body length  Hatchet-shaped spinous process
 Fontanels – fibrous membranes connecting the  Sturdiest of the vertebrae
cranial bones  Moose head
 Paranasal Sinuses – hollow and air-filled  Sacral curvature – 5 fused vertebrae
 Functions of paranasal sinuses  Alae – winglike; acticulates with the ilium to form the
o Lighten the skull sacroiliac joint
o Give resonance and amplification to voice  Median sacral crest – fused spinous process
 4 types  Sacral foramina – passageway for sacral nerves
o Frontal sinus o Sphenoid sinus  Coccyx – tail bone
o Ethmoid sinus* o Maxillary sinus*  3-5 tiny, irregularly shaped vertebrae
 Attached to the sacrum by ligaments
9 Major Openings Structures that pass
Optic foramen Optic nerve and its meningeal
The Bony Thorax
coverings; ophthalmic artery
 Cone-shaped cage-like structure to protect major organs
Superior orbital fissure CN 3, 4, 6; ophthalmic nerve division
of CN 5; branches of middle  Made up of three parts
meningeal artery  Sternum  Thoracic vertebrae
Inferior orbital fissure Infraorbital nerve, zygomatic nerve,  Ribs
infraorbital artery
Supraorbital foramen Supraorbital vessels and nerves Sternum – breast bone
Infraorbital groove Infraorbital vessels and nerves;  Fusion of 3 bones
canal anterior and middle alveolar nerves  Manubrium  Xiphoid process
Anterior and posterior Anterior and posterior ethmoidal  Body
ethmoidal foramina nerves and arteries  3 bony landmarks
Zygomatic foramen Zygomatic vessels and nerves  Jugular notch – upper border of manubrium; T3
Nasolacrimal canal Lacrimal sac and duct
 Sternal angle – where the manubrium and body meet
at a slight angle; 2nd rib
The Vertebral Column
 Xiphisternal joint – point where the body and xiphoid
 Each vertebrae is given a name according to its location
process fuse; T9
 Before birth: 33 then 9 fuse to form sacrum and coccyx
Ribs – 12 pairs
Vertebrae features
 1 – 7 – true ribs – attach directly to the sternum
 Body or centrum – disc-like, weight-bearing part
 8 – 12 – false ribs – attach indirectly or not at all
 Vertebral arch – arch formed from the joining of all
 11 and 12 – floating ribs – lack attachment
posterior extensions (laminae, pedicles, spinous process)
 The intercostal spaces between ribs are filled with
 Vertebral foramen – passageway of spinal cord
intercostal muscles which aids in breathing
 Transverse processes – two lateral projections from the
 Costal cartilage – hyaline cartilage
vertebral arch
 Spinous processes – single projection from the posterior THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON
aspect of the vertebral arch; fused laminae
 Composed of 126 bones
 Superior and inferior articular processes – paired
 Limbs (appendages)
projections lateral to the vertebral foramen which allows
 Pectoral girdle
a vertebra to form joints with another
 Pelvic girdle
 Intervertebral discs – fibrocartilage that separate and
cushion vertebrae and absorb shocks
The Pectoral Girdle
 Intervertebral foramina – opening for spinal nerves
 Composed of two bones
 Clavicle and scapula
 Cervical curvature – C1 – C7
 These bones allow the upper limb to have exceptionally
 Transverse processes contain foramina through
free movement due to:
which vertebral arteries pass
 Each shoulder girdle attaches to the axial skeleton at
 Smallest, lightest vertebrae
only one point
 Spinous processes are short and divided into two –
 Loose attachment of the scapula allows it to slide
bifid or forked
back and forth against the thorax as muscles act
 Atypical
 The glenoid cavity is shallow, and the shoulder joint is
o C1 (Atlas) – facets that receive occipital condyles
poorly reinforced by ligaments
forming the atlanto-occipital joint
o C2 (Axis) – presence of dens or odontoid as a
Clavicle – collarbone
pivot point to form the atlanto-axial joint.
 Medial or sternal end – manubrium of the sternum
o C7 – longer spinous process
 Lateral or acromial end – scapula
Scapula – shoulder blade
 2 important processes
 Acromion – enlarged end; connects with the clavicle
at the acromioclavicular joint
 Coracoid – beaklike; points over the top of the
shoulder and anchors some of the arm muscles
 Suprascapular notch – passageway of suprascapular
nerves
 Has 3 borders
 Superior
 Medial or vertebral
 Lateral or axillary
 Has 3 angles
 Superior
 Inferior
 Lateral
o Glenoid cavity – articulates with the head of the
humerus, to form the shoulder joint.
Bones of the Upper Limb
 Humerus
 Forearm
 Ulna and radius
 The Hand
 Carpals, metacarpals, phalanges
Humerus – arm bone
 Head – rounded proximal end that fits into the glenoid
cavity of the scapula
 Anatomical neck –a slight constriction inferior to the head
 Greater and lesser tubercles – anterolateral to the head
 Separated by intertubercular sulcus
 Sites of muscle attachment
 Surgical neck – distal to the tubercles
 Most frequently fractured part
 Deltoid tuberosity – midpoint of the shaft
 Site of attachment for the deltoid muscle
 Radial groove – runs obliquely down the posterior aspect
 Marks the course of the radial nerve
 Large central condyle articulate with forearm bones
 Capitulum – lateral, ball-like; articulates with radius
 Trochlea – medial; spool-like; articulates with ulna
 2 epicondyles – allow corresponding processes of the
ulna to move freely when elbow is bent or extended
o Medial epicondyles
o Lateral epicondyles
 3 fossae found distally on the humerus:
 Coronoid fossa – anteriorly above the trochlea
 Olecranon fossa – posteriorly above the trochlea
 Radial fossa – above the capitulum
Ulna – medial
Radius – lateral
 Radioulnar joints – proximally and distally
 Joint between the radius and ulna
 Interosseous membrane – connects the two bones
 Styloid process – found at the distal end of both
 Attachment sites for many muscles.
 Head of the radius – forms a joint with the capitulum
 Radial tuberosity – below the head
 Site of attachment for the tendon of the biceps
 2 processes of the ulna – grip the trochlea; proximal end
 Coronoid – anterior; coronoid fossa
 Olecranon – posterior; olecranon fossa
 Separated by a trochlear notch
Carpals – wrist
 8 bones arranged in two irregular rows of 4 bones each
Metacarpals – palm
 Knuckles when fist is clenched
Phalanges – fingers
 14 phalanges – 3 in each finger (proximal, middle, distal)
except the thumb which has 2 (proximal and distal)
The Pelvic Girdle
 Coxal or hip bones
 Ilium, ischium, pubic bones
 The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis
 Protects several organs
 Reproductive organs
 Urinary bladder
 Part of the large intestine
Hip bones – 3 pairs of fused bones
 Ilium (Iliac) – attached to the sacrum posteriorly at the
sacroiliac joint
 Alae – winglike portions of the ilia
 Iliac crest – upper edge of an ala; IM injections
o Ends anteriorly – anterior superior iliac spine
 Below – anterior inferior iliac spine
o Ends posteriorly – posterior superior iliac spine
 Below – posterior inferior iliac spine
 Ischium (Ischial) – sit-down bone
 Ischial tuberosity – roughened area that bears body
weight when sitting
 Ischial spine – superior to tuberosity; narrows the
outlet of the pelvis in pregnant women
 Greater sciatic notch – allows blood vessels and the
large sciatic nerve to pass into the posterior part of
the thigh
 Pubis (Pubic) – most anterior part of a hip bone
 Pubic symphysis – a cartilaginous joint formed by the
fusion of pubic bones
 Obturator foramen – allows blood vessels and nerves
to pass into the anterior part of the thigh
o Anterior – pubis rami
o Posterior – ischium
Acetabulum or vinegar’s cup – deep socket where the ilium,
ischium and pubis fuse
 Articulates with the head of the thigh bone
Bony pelvis – 2 regions
 False pelvis – superior to the true pelvis
 True pelvis – surrounded by bone and lies inferior
Gender Difference of the Pelvis
The female:
 inlet is larger and more circular
 pelvis as a whole is shallower, bones are lighter and
thinner
 ilia flare more laterally
 sacrum is shorter and less curved
 ischial spines are shorter and farther apart, thus the
outlet is larger
 pubic arch is more rounded because the angle of pubic
arch is greater
Bones of the Lower Limbs
 Femur
 Leg bones
 Tibia and fibula
 The Foot
 Tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges
Femur – thigh bone
 Heaviest, strongest bone in the body
 Head – ball-like proximal end that articulates with the
acetabulum of the hip bone
 Neck – flattened pyramidal process of bone, connecting
the head with shaft; common fracture site
 Greater and lesser trochanters – anterolateral to the head
 Separated anteriorly by the intertrochanteric line
 Separated posteriorly by the intertrochanteric crest
 Sites of muscle attachment
 Gluteal tuberosity – gives attachment to gluteus maximus
 Lateral and medial condyles – articulate with the tibia
 Intercondylar fossa – separates the two condyle
posteriorly
 Patellar surface – smooth; anterior to the condyles
 Forms joint with kneecap
Tibia – medial; shin bone
Fibula – lateral
 Tibiofibular joints – proximally and distally
 Joint between the tibia and fibula
 Interosseous membrane – connects the two bones
 Lateral and medial condyles – proximal end of tibia
 Intercondylar eminence – separates the two condyles
 Articulate with the distal end of the femur to form
the knee joint
 Patellar ligament – encloses and connects the patella to
the tibia.
 Tibial tuberosity – roughened area on anterior tibial
surface
 Anterior border – anterior surface of the tibia
 A sharp ridge unprotected by muscles easily felt
beneath the skin
 Medial malleolus – distal end of the tibia
 Forms the inner bulge of the ankle
 Lateral malleolus – distal end of the fibula
 Forms the outer part of the ankle
 Head of the fibula – proximal end of the fibula
 For the attachment of muscles and ligaments
Tarsals – ankle
 Composed of 7 bones
 Body weight is carried mostly by the two largest
o Calcaneus or heelbone
o Talus or ankle – lies between the tibia and
calcaneus
Metatarsals – sole
Phalanges – toes
 14 phalanges – 3 in each toe (proximal, middle, distal)
except the great toe which has 2 (proximal and distal)
Arches of the Foot
 Bones of the foot are arranged to form three strong
arches
 Two longitudinal – medial and lateral
 One transverse
Joints
 Articulations of bones
 Functions of joints
 Hold bones together
 Allows mobility
 Classification
 Functionally
 Structurally
Functional Classification of Joints
 Synarthroses – immovable joints
 Ex. skull
 Amphiarthroses – slightly moveable joints
 Ex. intervertebral discs
 Diarthroses – freely moveable joints
 Ex. hip and shoulder joints
Structural Classification of Joints
 Fibrous joints – generally immovable
 Cartilaginous joints – slightly moveable
 Synovial joints – freely moveable
Fibrous Joints
 Bones united by fibrous tissue
 Synostosis ex. sutures in skull
 Syndesmosis ex. distal end of tibia and fibula
o Allows more movement than sutures because
fibers are longer
 Gomphosis ex. periodontal membrane
Cartilaginous Joints
 Bones connected by cartilage
 Symphysis ex. pelvis
 Synchondrosis ex. vertebrae
Synovial Joints
 Articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity
 Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity
Features of Synovial Joints
 Articular cartilage (hyaline) – covers ends of bones
 Articular capsule – encloses joint surfaces
 Joint cavity – filled with synovial fluid
 Ligaments – reinforce the joint
Bursae – flattened fibrous sacs lined with synovial membrane
and thin film of synovial fluid; found where there is rubbing
Tendon sheath – elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon
Types of Synovial Joints
 Plane joint – articular surface essentially flat and only
short slipping or gliding movements are allowed
 Nonaxial joints – gliding does not involve rotation
around any axis
o ex. intercarpal joints of wrist
 Hinge joint – cylindrical end of one bone fits into a
trough-shaped surface of another bone
 Uniaxial joints – allow movement around one axis
o ex. elbow joints, ankle joints, joints between
phalanges of fingers
 Pivot joint – rounded end of one bone fits into a sleeve or
ring of bone
 Uniaxial joints – rotating bone can turn only around
its long axis
 o ex. proximal radioulnar joint and the joint  Can usually be controlled with diet
between the atlas and the dens of the axis
 Condylar joint – egg-shaped articular surface of one bone Developmental Aspects of the Skeletal System
fits into an oval concavity in another, both of these  At birth, the skull bones are incomplete
articular surfaces are oval and allow the moving bone to  Bones are joined by fibrous membranes – fontanelles
travel from side to side and back and forth but it cannot  Fontanelles are completely replaced with bone within two
rotate around its long axis years after birth
 Biaxial joints – movement occurs around two axes
o ex. knuckles
 Saddle joint – each articular surface has both convex and
concave areas like a saddle
 Biaxial joints – allow same movements as condyloid
such as twiddling your thumbs
o ex. carpometacarpal joints in the thumb
 Ball-and-socket joint – spherical head of one bone fits into
a round socket in another
 Multiaxial joints – allow movement in all axes
including rotation
o ex. shoulder and hips

Structures Associated with the Synovial Joint

 Bursae – flattened fibrous sacs
 Lined with synovial membranes
 Filled with synovial fluid
 Not actually part of the joint and common where
ligaments, muscles, skin, tendons, or bones rub
together
 Tendon sheath
 Elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon

Inflammatory Conditions Associated with Joints

 Bursitis – inflammation of a bursa usually caused by a
blow or friction to the knee
 Tendonitis – inflammation of tendon sheaths - sprain
 Arthritis – inflammatory or degenerative diseases of joints
 Over 100 different types
 The most widespread crippling disease in the US

Clinical Forms of Arthritis

 Osteoarthritis – wear-and-tear arthritis
 Most common chronic arthritis
 Probably related to normal aging processes
 Rheumatoid arthritis
 An autoimmune disease – the immune system
attacks the joints
 Symptoms begin with bilateral inflammation of
certain joints
 Often leads to deformities
 Gouty Arthritis - Gout
 Inflammation of joints is caused by an accumulation
in blood and deposition of urate crystals (uric acid)
from the blood
 Usually affects only one joint