Topic 3 revision notes:

3.1:
o All living organisms are made of cells, either eukaryotic cells or prokaryotic cells.
o There are two types of eukaryotic cells, plant cells and animal cells.
o Prokaryotic cells are found in organisms such as bacteria.
o Difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes:
o Eukaryotes contain membrane-bound organelles, including a nucleus.
o Prokaryotes do not contain membrane-bound organelles or a nucleus.
3.2:
o Cells are arranged to form tissue and tissue is arranged to form organs and organs make up
systems in the body of a multicellular organism.
3.3:
o Structure of a eukaryotic cell:
1. Mitochondria: site of aerobic respiration (envelope- has a double membrane) which
produces ATP for active processes in the cell.
2. Centrioles: splits and produces microtubules that form spindle fibers (9x3)
3. Cysterna- membranous tubules that form stacks within the ER
4. Lysosome- specialized vesicles containing digestive enzymes used in breaking down
cell organelles and pathogens (enzyme is lysozyme)
5. Cilia- made of microtubules (9+2) involved in moving material around the cell.
6. Golgi apparatus- involved in processing packaging and modification of cell products
7. Golgi vesicle- membranal sacks which contain cellular products (intra or extra
cellular)
8. Plasma membrane- membrane that allows diffusion of products into and out of the
cell.
9. Cytosol- liquid medium containing dissolved substances and the site of most cellular
metabolic reactions also a transport medium.
10. Ribosome- protein synthesis.
11. Nucleolus- site of RNA synthesis within
the nucleus.
12. Nuclear envelope- double layer of
membranes with pores which
separates the DNA content of the
nucleus from the cytosol.
13. Nucleus- contains DNA or genetic
information, controls cellular activity,
site of DNA replication and
transcription, contains specialized
enzymes, usually the largest organelle.
14. Smooth ER- involved in the synthesis
of lipids and steroids within the cell.
15. Rough ER- involved in the transport
and modification of polypeptides into proteins.
16. Cytoskeleton- made up of microtubules and microfilaments which forms a scaffold
to which all organelles are attached, also has microtubule motors which transports
 cellular contents around the cell, also involved in changing the shape of the cell such
as formation of pseudopodia (fake feet) in phagocytosis.
17. Nuclear pore- gap through which RNA escapes the nucleus.
18. Chromatin- diffused DNA (not on diagram)
3.4:
o Role of rough ER and Golgi apparatus in protein transport:
o The rough ER packages and sends out proteins in enclosed bubbles called vesicles,
for transport to the Golgi apparatus. The vesicles then fuse with the Golgi apparatus.
o The Golgi apparatus then prepares and packages the protein for secretion out of the
cell and to its final destination. They are transported again in vesicles that pinch off
the end of the Golgi apparatus.
o The vesicle containing the protein then fuses with the plasma membrane and the
protein is transported out side the cell.
3.5:
o Structure of prokaryotic cells:
1. Slime capsule/layer- protects the bacterium from a chemical medium, connects
bacteria together for protection or transfer of DNA.
2. Cell wall- a mechanical/structural protection for the bacterium, which prevents lysis
(bursting). Made of peptidoglycan (peptide with glycogen attached to it).
3. Plasma membrane- same as eukaryotic cell.
4. Cytosol- same as eukaryotic cell.
5. Pilli/pilus- help connect with other bacteria fro DNA transfer.
6. Plasmid- a ring of DNA that is separate from the nucleoid and it contains specific
genes that can be exchanged between different bacteria through the pilus. This
helps form new species of bacteria.
7. Mesosome- a folded part of the cell surface
membrane (plasma membrane) to increase
surface area for metabolic reactions due to
the lack of mitochondria and other internal
membranes.
8. Flagellum- main rotatory structure used for
movement.
9. Food store- stored food (glycogen or lipid)
10. Nucleoid/naked DNA- a single large
chromosome that carries most of the
bacterial genes.
11. Ribosome- same as eukaryotic cell, but
smaller (size70s) (in eukaryotes size 80s)
3.7:
o Magnification and resolution:
o Magnification- the number of times an object can be amplified or made bigger.
o Resolution- best resolution for microscope is 7
o Graticule measurements- method of measuring the actual size of an object under
the microscope.
o 1 mm= 10-3 of a meter
o 1000mm= 1 micrometer (10-6 of a meter)
o 1000000mm= 1 nanometer (10-9 of a meter)
 o Fixing- the process of making it stiff (a specimen) by dipping it in wax to solidify.
o Sectioning- cutting
o Staining- to produce contrast Eosin stain reacts with DNA to show contrast in color
and helps locate the structure.
3.8:
o CORE PRACTICAL 5- Using a light microscope to identify animal cells and make labeled
drawings of the cell.
3.9:
o Locus- location of a gene on a chromosome.
o Gene linkage- genes that are found on the same chromosomes therefore move together.
o Sex linked genes- genes that are found on the sex chromosomes therefore move together.
o Majority of sex-linked chromosomes are found on the X chromosome.
o Since males only have one X-chromosome, the characteristic is recessive and males
show recessive phenotypes for sex linked genes.
o Many genetic diseases are recessive in nature and are called X-linked disorders. E.g.
colorblindness.
x Y o Only ¼ offspring will be affected.
X Xx XY
x xx Yx

o Autosomal disease- disease found in the gene on the first 22 chromosomes.

3.10:
o Role of meiosis in ensuring genetic variation:
o Meiosis: the division that takes place in sex cells to produce haploid gametes.
o Meiosis produced genetic variation while mitosis divides to produce the same exact
cells and contributes nothing to genetic variation.
o Meiosis mixes up different combinations of genes found on a particular chromosome
that is packed into a gamete.
o Genetic variation is consequence of meiosis. This is good because those that inherit
various genes that can give organisms a particular advantage in an environment will
survive. However, if genetic variation did not exist, the whole species will be wiped
out if one organism had a disease then all the species would inherit it.
o It links to evolution because if one organism had an advantageous gene and survived
it will pass it on to the offspring.
o Independent assortment is the formation of random combinations of chromosomes
in meiosis. This increases genetic combinations
and therefore a higher chance of genetic
variation.
o Crossing over is the act when chromatids touch
and the genetic material from one chromatid
crosses over to the other and causes
recombinant chromosomes to form.
o Recombinant chromosomes are chromosomes
that have genetic material from both the male
and the female due to crossing over.
o In healthy individuals when crossing over occurs
the genetic information is maintained.
3.11:
o Sperm- male gamete
o Egg- female gamete
o Gametes are sex cells that carry genetic information of both parents and contain 23
chromosomes and after fertilization form a zygote with 46 chromosomes.
o Reproduction through gametes is sexual reproduction.
o How mammalian gametes are specialized for their function:
o Egg cells (female gametes)-
 Egg cells are larger than sperm cells.
 Inside the cell membrane of the egg cell there is another protective layer
called the zona pellucida, which is a glycoprotein layer. It also has follicle cells
all over the cell membrane, which acts as an additional protective layer.
 The egg stores food for the developing embryo.
o Sperm cells (male gametes)-
 The sperm has more mitochondria than a normal cell where respiration takes
place and ATP is produced which is used by the sperm cell while swimming to
the egg
 It also has a tail, which helps with swimming towards the egg.
 The cytoplasm of the sperm contains acrosome, which has digestive enzymes
to break down the protective layer zona pellucida of the egg.
3.12:
o Fertilization in mammals:
o Fertilization takes place in the oviduct of the female reproductive system.
o The sperm swims and reaches the egg cell. Once contact is made with the zona
pellucida, acrosome reaction takes place in which digestive enzymes are released.
o After digestion, the sperm head fuses with the cell membrane of the egg.
o This leads to cortical reaction where the egg cells releases cortical granules in the
spaces of the cell membrane and the zona pellucida.
o This thickens the zona pellucida and prevents other sperms from entering the egg
cell.
o The nucleus of the sperm and the egg cell fuses and a zygote is formed.
3.13:
o Fertilization in flowering plants:
o In order for fertilization to occur in most
flowering plants, insects or other animals must
transport the pollen (male reproductive organ)
to the pistil (female reproductive organ)
o When a pollen gran comes into contact with the
stigma (top of the pistil), it sends a pollen tube
down to the ovary at the pistils base.
o As the pollen tube penetrates the ovule, it
releases two sperm cells.
o One sperm cell fuses with the egg to form a
diploid zygote while the other fuses with the
fusion nucleus (created through the joining of
two polar nuclei within the ovule).
o The sperm cell that fuses with the fusion
 nucleus makes a triploid nucleus, which turns into an endosperm, which nourishes
the developing embryo.
3.14:
o The role of mitosis in producing genetically identical daughter cells:
o Mitosis- used to produce daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent
cell by copying or replicating its chromosomes and splitting equally to make sure
each daughter cell has a full set of 46
chromosomes (23 pairs). It is used for growth in
multicellular organisms.
o Interphase- the chromosomes are still in a
threadlike structure and the nuclear envelope is
visible. The chromosomes begin to duplicate and
join together.
o Prophase- the nuclear envelope dissolves and the
chromosomes condense spindle fibers start
forming in the cytoplasm.
o Metaphase- the chromosomes line up at the
equator of the cell and the spindle fibers are
attached to them at the centromere.
o Anaphase- the spindle fibers pull the chromatids
of each chromosome pair apart towards the
poles.
o Telophase- the cell begins to divide and the
chromosomes begin to unravel. The nuclear envelope is reforming and the
cytoplasm is splitting.
o Cytokinesis- two genetically identical daughter cells are formed each with 46
chromosomes.
o The role of mitosis in asexual reproduction:
o In asexual reproduction only one parent makes offspring, therefore it copies itself
using mitosis to make a genetically identical cell.
o In unicellular organisms such as bacteria, mitosis is a type of asexual reproduction.
3.15:
o CORE PRACTICAL 6- Prepare and stain a root tip squash to observe the stages of mitosis.
3.16:
o Be able to calculate mitotic index:
o Count how many cells are in mitosis (e.g. 5 cells) and divide by the total number of
cells present (e.g. 25 cells total), then multiply by 100 to get a percentage.
o (5/25) x 100 = 20%