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3.1:
o All living organisms are made of cells, either eukaryotic cells or prokaryotic cells.
o There are two types of eukaryotic cells, plant cells and animal cells.
o Prokaryotic cells are found in organisms such as bacteria.
o Difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes:
o Eukaryotes contain membrane-bound organelles, including a nucleus.
o Prokaryotes do not contain membrane-bound organelles or a nucleus.
3.2:
o Cells are arranged to form tissue and tissue is arranged to form organs and organs make up
systems in the body of a multicellular organism.
3.3:
o Structure of a eukaryotic cell:
1. Mitochondria: site of aerobic respiration (envelope- has a double membrane) which
produces ATP for active processes in the cell.
2. Centrioles: splits and produces microtubules that form spindle fibers (9x3)
3. Cysterna- membranous tubules that form stacks within the ER
4. Lysosome- specialized vesicles containing digestive enzymes used in breaking down
cell organelles and pathogens (enzyme is lysozyme)
5. Cilia- made of microtubules (9+2) involved in moving material around the cell.
6. Golgi apparatus- involved in processing packaging and modification of cell products
7. Golgi vesicle- membranal sacks which contain cellular products (intra or extra
cellular)
8. Plasma membrane- membrane that allows diffusion of products into and out of the
cell.
9. Cytosol- liquid medium containing dissolved substances and the site of most cellular
metabolic reactions also a transport medium.
10. Ribosome- protein synthesis.
11. Nucleolus- site of RNA synthesis within
the nucleus.
12. Nuclear envelope- double layer of
membranes with pores which
separates the DNA content of the
nucleus from the cytosol.
13. Nucleus- contains DNA or genetic
information, controls cellular activity,
site of DNA replication and
transcription, contains specialized
enzymes, usually the largest organelle.
14. Smooth ER- involved in the synthesis
of lipids and steroids within the cell.
15. Rough ER- involved in the transport
and modification of polypeptides into proteins.
16. Cytoskeleton- made up of microtubules and microfilaments which forms a scaffold
to which all organelles are attached, also has microtubule motors which transports
cellular contents around the cell, also involved in changing the shape of the cell such
as formation of pseudopodia (fake feet) in phagocytosis.
17. Nuclear pore- gap through which RNA escapes the nucleus.
18. Chromatin- diffused DNA (not on diagram)
3.4:
o Role of rough ER and Golgi apparatus in protein transport:
o The rough ER packages and sends out proteins in enclosed bubbles called vesicles,
for transport to the Golgi apparatus. The vesicles then fuse with the Golgi apparatus.
o The Golgi apparatus then prepares and packages the protein for secretion out of the
cell and to its final destination. They are transported again in vesicles that pinch off
the end of the Golgi apparatus.
o The vesicle containing the protein then fuses with the plasma membrane and the
protein is transported out side the cell.
3.5:
o Structure of prokaryotic cells:
1. Slime capsule/layer- protects the bacterium from a chemical medium, connects
bacteria together for protection or transfer of DNA.
2. Cell wall- a mechanical/structural protection for the bacterium, which prevents lysis
(bursting). Made of peptidoglycan (peptide with glycogen attached to it).
3. Plasma membrane- same as eukaryotic cell.
4. Cytosol- same as eukaryotic cell.
5. Pilli/pilus- help connect with other bacteria fro DNA transfer.
6. Plasmid- a ring of DNA that is separate from the nucleoid and it contains specific
genes that can be exchanged between different bacteria through the pilus. This
helps form new species of bacteria.
7. Mesosome- a folded part of the cell surface
membrane (plasma membrane) to increase
surface area for metabolic reactions due to
the lack of mitochondria and other internal
membranes.
8. Flagellum- main rotatory structure used for
movement.
9. Food store- stored food (glycogen or lipid)
10. Nucleoid/naked DNA- a single large
chromosome that carries most of the
bacterial genes.
11. Ribosome- same as eukaryotic cell, but
smaller (size70s) (in eukaryotes size 80s)
3.7:
o Magnification and resolution:
o Magnification- the number of times an object can be amplified or made bigger.
o Resolution- best resolution for microscope is 7
o Graticule measurements- method of measuring the actual size of an object under
the microscope.
o 1 mm= 10-3 of a meter
o 1000mm= 1 micrometer (10-6 of a meter)
o 1000000mm= 1 nanometer (10-9 of a meter)
o Fixing- the process of making it stiff (a specimen) by dipping it in wax to solidify.
o Sectioning- cutting
o Staining- to produce contrast Eosin stain reacts with DNA to show contrast in color
and helps locate the structure.
3.8:
o CORE PRACTICAL 5- Using a light microscope to identify animal cells and make labeled
drawings of the cell.
3.9:
o Locus- location of a gene on a chromosome.
o Gene linkage- genes that are found on the same chromosomes therefore move together.
o Sex linked genes- genes that are found on the sex chromosomes therefore move together.
o Majority of sex-linked chromosomes are found on the X chromosome.
o Since males only have one X-chromosome, the characteristic is recessive and males
show recessive phenotypes for sex linked genes.
o Many genetic diseases are recessive in nature and are called X-linked disorders. E.g.
colorblindness.
x Y o Only ¼ offspring will be affected.
X Xx XY
x xx Yx