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Introduction
Now that we have studied polynomial functions, we will look at a new family of functions: the
rational functions. A rational function is essentially a ratio of two polynomial functions, and has
similar characteristics in the sense that near zero the function will have interesting behaviours (x-
intercepts, y-intercepts, turning points, local maximums and minimums, asymptotes, etc) but as x
gets much larger (or much smaller) the end behaviours are quite predictable.

A rational function has the form:

where and are polynomials.

In this lesson, we will be exploring some of the general characteristics of a rational function, and
begin building a tool set so that we will be able to sketch the graphs of these types of functions.

Vertical Asymptotes
A rational function is undefined when the denominator is 0, ie. when . This will be a
value of x that the function can never equal. The graph of a rational function will get closer and
closer to this value, but never reach it; creating a vertical asymptote (shown in red below).

To find the vertical asymptote of a rational function, we have to first rewrite the given function in a
factored form, set the denominator equal to zero and then solve for x.

The equation of the vertical asymptote has the form x = c where c is a constant. The graph of a
rational function will never cross the vertical asymptotes.

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Note: You must cancel any common factors in the numerator and denominator before finding the vertical
asymptotes. This is because the factors you cancel represent holes in the graph not vertical asymptotes.

Holes
Whenever there is a common factor in the denominator and the numerator, there will be a hole.
First, find the x-coordinate of the hole by letting the common factors equal to zero. Then,
substitute that x-coordinate into the original (factored and reduced) function to get the y-
coordinate. For example:

has a hole at x = -2 since we can rewrite the as:

Once you cancel the common factors, you get the reduced form:

Substitute the x value to get the y value:

Therefore, has a hole at .

On a graph we denote a hole by placing and open dot at that point. The graph below has a hole at
the point (1, 1):

Horizontal Asymptotes
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A horizontal asymptote is a horizontal line which the graph of a function approaches but never
reaches as x goes to positive or negative infinity. As x goes towards positive or negative infinity (in
the direction of the arrows) the graph will always approach y = 0, but never reach it.

However, the graph of a rational function may (but does not have to) cross the horizontal
asymptote near the body of the graph when the x values are relatively small. Below is an example
where the function crosses the asymptote, but as x goes towards positive and negative infinity it
behaves the same as the first graph. So y = 0 is still a horizontal asymptote here.

There are three possible cases for determining the horizontal asymptote, based on the
comparison of the degree of the polynomial in the numerator and the degree of the polynomial in
the denominator.

Case 1
When the degree of the numerator is more than the degree of the denominator, there is no
horizontal asymptote. In this case, it is possible to have the oblique (slant) asymptote.
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Case 2
When the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, the horizontal
asymptote is always y = 0.

Case 3
When degree of the numerator and denominator are equal, the horizontal asymptote is y=
where a and c are the leading coefficient of the numerator and the denominator respectively. Note
the number in front of the term with the highest exponent is the leading coefficient.

A rational function may or may not have a horizontal asymptote.

Try it Yourself
Sort the following rational functions into which case they fall under, when determining
horizontal asymptotes (HAs).
This is a sorting problem. Sort the blue boxes by clicking and dragging
them into the appropriate columns.

Case #1: Case #2: Case #3:

No HA. HA at y = 0. HA at y = .

Reset

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Oblique (Slant) Asymptotes

For rational functions, oblique asymptotes occur when the degree of the numerator is exactly one
more than the degree of the denominator. The equation of the oblique asymptote can be found by
dividing the numerator by the denominator through long division.

An oblique asymptote is, essentially, a diagonal line, with some equation y=mx + b, that the graph
of the rational function can never equal (shown in red below).

Note: We must check if there are any common factors in the denominator and the numerator before
looking for an oblique asymptote.

Domain and Range

The domain of a rational function consists of all real numbers except the zeroes of the polynomial
in the denominator: . When describing the domain of a rational function we must
always exclude the vertical asymptotes and x-coordinates of the holes.

The range of a rational function consists of all real numbers, but we may have to exclude the
horizontal asymptote values and will always have to exclude the y-coordinate of the holes from the
set of real numbers.

In the case of horizontal asymptotes, remember that it is possible for the graph of a rational
function to cross over the line when x-values are relatively small. It is important to check for this
feature before excluding the y-value from the range.

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