Distributed System:

A collection of independent computers appears to end-user as a single coherent system.

Usually this has a single model (not necessary, i.e. can have different models. e.g. Spark is a
distributed system that supports different execution models) or a single paradigm (i.e. pattern or
model).

This will mostly have a layer of S/W (called middleware) --on top of OS – implements the distributed
system.

e.g. World Wide Web (WWW) is shown on a webpage as a coherent system (though there can be
different servers/DBs/ Hosts behind the webpage or the web page can come from different
networks)

Distributed system is a s/w built on top of network.

Difference between Distributed system & Network is based on software used.

There are similarities between the two  like, both move files between different nodes/hosts. (In
distributed system, the files at different nodes/hosts are invoked by S/W. In network, the files at
different places of n/w are invoked by user).

Focussed on Physical Resource sharing

Computer Network: Collection of anonymous computers interconnected by a single technology.

This is not shown nor acts as coherent system but shown as collection of different hosts and/or
networks. (i.e. users are exposed to different machines in the network. E.g. Different printers,
different hosts with different OS are visible to user, Different servers like FTP & File server etc)

Focussed on Info sharing.

VPN to join individual networks at different sites into one extended network.

Information System: one or more databases with company information and some number
of employees who need to access them remotely.

Use-cases:

1. Servers, Clients
2. Use-cases: Emails, VOIP, Video conference. (saving on travels)
3. E-Commerce.
o Many companies provide catalogues of their goods and services online and take orders
online.
o Using computer networks, manufacturers can place orders electronically as needed. This
reduces the need for large inventories and enhances efficiency.
o B2C, C2C, B2B, G2C-Gov-to-Consumer, P2P.
Peer to Peer: No Client, No server. Loose group of individuals, where every individual can
communicate with anyone/more in the group.
E.g. Peer to Peer.
e.g. Person to Person communication (audio/video/text)
e.g. BitTorrent:
Each user maintains his own database locally and provides a list of other nearby people who are
members of the system. A new user can then go to any existing member to see what he has and get
the names of other members to inspect for more content and more names. This lookup process
can be repeated indefinitely to build up a large local database by the individual selecting the
selective content from what is out there, for his local DB. (This local DB will be part of the Torrent
network)  example content are PDFs, documents, music & videos.
Social  Facebook, Wikipedia.

Other Internet Applications:

o Live & Interactive TV (IP-TV) shows with massive participants through internet.
o Interactive Movies.
o Utility metering, Control & Smart Homes.
o RFIDs for IOT:
Requires standardized interfaces across vendors, technologies & formats. (like TV Broadcasting
standards)
e.g. Some IOT devices with USB2.0 or 3.0, some with peripherals. Now in Wireless and later in
some other tech like 5g.
Security (e.g. Burglar alarm manipulated by a thief on the internet) & Reliability (e.g. to ensure
your geyser is turned off when you turn off in your app) are very important.
These can be wired or wireless.
Security favours wired networking, retrofitting, cost & ease favours Wireless network.
Using power line networks for data transfer.
o Wireless network is different from Mobile networks.
o (E.g. of Wireless network is Hotspot)
o Geo-Tagging:
o

Network H/W:
There is no “generally accepted taxonomy” in which all computer networks fit, but there are 2
dimensions that are important of many.
1. Transmission Technology
Broadly 2 types of transmission technology: 
i. Broadcast Links:
Communication channel is shared by all machines on the network.
In this, packets sent by any machine are received by all machines sharing the
channel in the network.
The address field in the packet indicates the intended recipient.
A machine in the broadcast network  checks the “address in the packet received”
and processes the packet accordingly. (Generally—i.e. not always-- it discards the
packet not intended for it)
e.g. Wireless network with communication channel in a coverage region. (e.g. FM
radio)
o Multi-casting: Some networks support transmission to selective subset of
machines.
ii. Point to Point:
In this mode, short messages/packets may have to visit intermediary machines.
Multiple routes with different path lengths & traffic volume may exist and need to
find best path.
Point to Point transmission with exactly one sender & one receiver is called
unicasting.
2. Scale:
Distance is the classifier.
A. PAN- Personal Area Network
This can be with cables (colour coded) to connect to physical ports.
Wireless Network with Bluetooth. (with Mobile Phones, other devices like pacemaker).
Using RFID on smart cards (also with NFR) for short range communications.
B. LAN
i. Uses “AP-Access Point or Wireless Router or Base Station”  to relay packets
between wireless computers and also between the devices and internet.
Wireless devices can also communicate with each other directly (in P2P mode) if
they are nearer.
Standard for wireless LANs is called IEEE 802.11 (called WiFi)

ii. Wired LANs  uses different transmission medium like Copper Cable, Optical
Fibre, etc.
Speeds from 100 MBPS to 10GBPS.
Topology of wired LANs is built from point to point links.
Self: i.e. star mode  with each peripheral connected to a central
server/router). There can be star of stars, or stars(i.e. n/w server or router
connected in point to point)
IEEE 802.3 (called Ethernet) is common type of wired LAN.
Each computer speaks Ethernet Protocol, and connects to its point in a switch.
(with point to point link)
The switch relays packets between computers/devices attached to it. (using
destination address in each packet)
To build larger LANs, switches can be connect to other switches (using their
other ports)  (self: ) These ports & respective cables can have higher
transmission speed.
The switches can be connected in a loop(circle) and the protocol sorts out which
path to use.
VLAN (Virtual LAN): Divides large physical LAN into smaller logical LANs.
This can be used to match the “generic network layout” with organization
structure.
(e.g. Single n/w can be logically separated for Finance & Engineering)  by
having green ports for engineering and red ports for Finance. Also, the switch
can be configured to groups those ports accordingly.
Then packets broadcast by Red ports will only be transferred to red ports and
the same with green.
iii. Other Wired LAN topologies:
 Classic ethernet design broadcasted all the packets over a single linear cable. 
Hence, at most one computer can transmit at a time and a distributed
arbitration mechanism was used to resolve conflicts. (like a computer checks for
the idle state of the network and then transmits its packets)
This led to collisions when two computers sent packets at the same time.
iv. Static & Dynamic Design of LAN (wireless & Wired)
Static: Using TDM-Time Division Multiplexing.
Dynamic: Can be centralized or De-Centralized.
Centralized: e.g. with Base station in cellular network.
De-Centralized:

In LAN, Transmission time is “bounded and known in advance“.  This helps to design
n/w protocols.
For LAN, delay is micro-seconds or nano-seconds, and very few errors.

C. MAN – Metropolitan N/W

Cable-TV  with internet & television signals fed into Cable-head-end (in different
frequency) that provide both internet & TV-Channel service.
WiMax for Wireless MAN.

D. WAN – Wide Area Network

Example: Company with branch offices in different cities.
Subnet: A collection of routers & transmission lines that transmit packets from source
host to destination host.
This is used in other context for addressing.
SONET
Routers connects computers with different kinds of n/w technology. (e.g. Switched
ethernet is used inside offices, while long distance transmission lines from branch to
branch or to branch in another city uses SONET)
This is like composite network (network of networks) and internetwork.
Subnet may be connected with  individual computers or multiple LANs connected.
WAN using VPN (based on virtualization of network)
Advantages: Flexibility (e.g. add new office to the network).
Optimal usage of resources.
Disadvantage: Lack of control on underlying resources, performance varies with Internet
service.
One Transmission line connects a router at each of its end. (i.e. it connects 2 routers)

Internetwork:
A network is called internetwork if
i. Different orgs have paid for construction of different parts of n/w, and each org
maintains its part independent of other org. (or)
ii. If the different parts of the n/w use different underlying technology.
e.g. LAN in one part and Wireless Network in another part. (OR) Broadcast vs
Point-Point.

Gateway: This is generally defined as a machine that makes a connection between 2 or more
networks  by providing translation both in terms of H/W & S/W.
Gateways are distinguished by the layer at which they operate (in protocol hierarchy).
e.g. Too low level gateway at transmission level will not be able to make connections between more
than 2 or 3 networks. (with different h/w or s/w)
Too high level gateway will not be able to make connections between more than 2 or 3 applications.
Level in the middle is Network Layer.
Gateway that switches packets at network layer level is called router.

Standards define what is needed for inter-operability.

This lets larger market emerge.
e.g. IEEE-802.11 standard defines many transmission rates (but not specify when to use which rate
 This is a factor for performance)
Standards define many options.
TCP & IP are commonly implemented together without any common interface.
Standards are of 2types.
i. Defacto-Standard  That just happened (e.g. if that is the 1st successful one in market)
e.g. HTTP protocol, Bluetooth.
Defacto Standards many evolve into De Jure Standards (when the Defacto standards are
adopted by standards body)
ii. De Jure standards: These are adopted through rules of some standards body.
These bodies/orgs can be formed in 2 ways  1. by treaties between different
countries. 2. Voluntary body (e.g. by Industry)

Baseband Transmission: Signals occupy frequencies from 0 to max. (based on signalling

rate)
Used for transmission in wires.
Passband Transmission: The signal occupies a band of frequencies around frequency of
the carrier signal.
These schemes regulate amplitude, phase & frequency of carrier signal to convey bits.
Used in wireless & optical transmission mediums.
Multiplexing: To use a single medium/channel (e.g. wire) to carry multiple signals 
using methods like Time, Frequency & code division.)

Multi-Path Fading: Refracted waves arrive later at receiver causing phase cancellation
with direct wave.

In general, as frequencies move from long-wave-length radio waves towards visible light,
the waves behave more like light (than like radio waves).  i.e. the waves can’t pass
through objects.

Bit Rate
Signalling Rate

Socket – Port – Connection – Process.

Routing table, Routing Algorithm, Routing Protocol. (How are routes determined by
routers)

Is interface between two layers for different protocols is same. (e.g. Will TCP & UDP
protocols in Transport layer have same interface with all protocols –e.g. IP & ATM
network --in Network layer