Chapter 4

Cell structure and function

4-1
 The Cell Theory

 All living things are made of cells.

 A cell-The basic unit of all living things.
 Robert Hooke coined the term “cell.”
– Look at cork cells under a simple microscope.

4-2 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 The Historical Context of the Cell
Theory

 Anton van Leeuwenhoek

– Made better microscopes
– Used them to look at a variety
of substances and identified
animalcules

4-3 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 The Historical Context of the Cell
Theory

 Mathias Jakob Schleiden

– Concluded that all plants were made of cells; 1838
 Theodor Schwann
– Concluded that all animals were made of cells; 1839

4-4 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Initial Observations of Cells
 Cell wall
– Outer non-living part of
plant cells
 Protoplasm
– Interior living portion of the
cell
– Nucleus
 Contains the genetic
information of the cell
– Cytoplasm
 Fluid part of the
protoplasm
– Organelles
 “Little organs” within the
protoplasm

4-5 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Different Kinds of Cells

 Prokaryotic
– Structurally simple cells
– Lack a nucleus
– Lack most other organelles
– Bacteria
 Eukaryotic cells
– More complex
– Have a nucleus
– Have a variety of organelles
– Plants, animals, fungi, protozoa and algae
– Typically much larger than prokaryotic cells

4-6 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Major Cell Types

4-7 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Cell Size

 Prokaryotic cells
– 1-2 micrometers in
diameter
 Eukaryotic cells
– 10-200 micrometers in
diameter

4-8 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Surface Area-to-Volume Ratio

 Cell size is limited.

– Cells must get all of their nutrients from their environment
through their cell membranes.
– Volume increases more quickly than surface area.
– Surface area-to-volume ratio must remain small.

4-9 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 The Structure of Cell Membranes

 Cell membranes
– Thin sheets composed of phospholipids and
proteins
 Fluid-mosaic model
– Two layers of phospholipids
 Fluid
– Has an oily consistency
– Things can move laterally within the bilayer.
 Mosaic
– Proteins embedded within the phospholipid bilayer
4-10 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 The Phospholipid Bilayer
 Phospholipid structure
– Hydrophobic tails
– Hydrophilic heads
 Bilayer
– Hydrophobic tails of each
layer associate with each
other.
– Hydrophilic heads on the
surface of the bilayer
 Cholesterol
– Hydrophobic
– Found within the
hydrophobic tails
– Keeps the membrane
flexible
4-11 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Membrane Proteins

 Some are on the surface

 Some are partially embedded.
– Protrude from one side
 Some are completely
embedded.
– Protrude from both sides
 Functions
– Transport molecules across
the membrane
– Attachment points for other
cells
– Identity tags for cells
4-12 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Organelles Composed of Membranes

 Plasma membrane (cell membrane)

 Different cellular membranous structures serve
different functions
 Endoplasmic reticulum
 Golgi apparatus
 Lysosomes
 Peroxisomes
 Vacuoles and vesicles
 Nuclear membrane

4-13 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 The Plasma Membrane

 Composed of a phospholipid bilayer

 Separates the contents of the cell from the external
environment
 Important features
– Metabolic activities
– Moving molecules across the membrane
– Structurally different inside and outside
– Identification: Self vs. nonself
– Attachment sites
– Signal transduction

4-14 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 The Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Consists of folded membranes and tubes throughout
the cell
 Provides a large surface area for important chemical
reactions
– Because it is folded, it fits into a small space.
 Two types of ER
– Rough
 Has ribosomes on its surface
– Sites of protein synthesis
– Smooth
 Lacks ribosomes
 Metabolizes fats
 Detoxifies damaging chemicals
 produces lipids, including
steroids

4-15 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
  After the rough ER synthesizes a molecule, it
packages the molecule into transport vesicles.
4-16
 The Golgi Apparatus

 Stacks of flattened
membrane sacs
 Functions
– Modifies molecules that
were made in other
places
– Manufactures some
polysaccharides and
lipids
– Packages and ships
molecules

4-17 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Traffic Through the Golgi

 Vesicles bring molecules from the ER that

contain proteins.
 Vesicles fuse with the Golgi apparatus.
 The Golgi finishes the molecules and ships
them out in other vesicles.
– Some are transported to other membrane
structures.
– Some are transported to the plasma membrane.
– Some vesicles become lysosomes.
4-18 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
4-19 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Lysosomes

 Vesicles containing enzymes that digest

macromolecules
– Carbohydrates
– Proteins
– Lipids
– Nucleic acids
 Interior contains low pH
– These enzymes only work at pH=5.
– The cytoplasm is pH=7.
 If the lysosome breaks open, these enzymes will inactivate
and will not damage the cell.
4-20 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Functions of Lysosomes

 Digestion
– Of food taken into
the cell
 Destruction
– Disease-causing
organisms
– Old organelles

4-21 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Peroxisomes

 Not formed from golgi membrane, but from

ER membrane
 Contain the enzyme catalase
– Breaks down hydrogen peroxide
– Breaks down long-chain fatty acids
– Synthesizes cholesterol and bile salts
– Synthesizes some lipids

4-22 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Vacuoles and Vesicles

 Membrane-enclosed sacs
 Vacuoles
– Larger sacs
– Contractile vacuoles found in many protozoa
 Forcefully expel excess water from the cytoplasm
 Vesicles
– Smaller vesicles

4-23 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Vacuoles and Vesicles

4-24 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 The Nuclear Membrane

 Separates the genetic

material from the rest of
the cell
 Filled with nucleoplasm
 Composed of two
bilayers
 Contains holes called
nuclear pore complexes
– Allow large molecules
like RNA to pass through
the membrane into the
cytoplasm

4-25 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 The Endomembrane System ̶
Interconversion of Membranes
 Membranes are converted from one membranous
organelle to another.

4-26 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Energy Converting Organelles

 Mitochondrion
– A small bag with a large
bag stuffed inside
– Larger internal bag is
folded into cristae
 Cristae contain proteins
for cellular respiration.
– Releases the energy
from food
– Requires oxygen
– Uses the energy to
make ATP

4-27 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Energy Converting Organelles

 Chloroplasts
– Sac-like organelle
– Contain chlorophyll
– Perform photosynthesis
 Uses the energy in light to
make sugar
– Contain folded membranes
called thylakoids
 Thylakoids stacked into
grana
 Thylakoids contain
chlorophyll and other
photosynthetic proteins.
– Thylakoids surrounded by
stroma
4-28 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Endosymbiosis

– Mitochondria and chloroplasts share another feature

unique among eukaryotic organelles.
 They contain their own DNA.
– The existence of separate “mini-genomes” is believed to
be evidence that
 Mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved from free-living
prokaryotes in the distant past.
 Nonmembranous Organelles

 Ribosomes
 Cytoskeleton
 Centrioles
 Cilia flagella
 Inclusions

4-30 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Ribosomes

 Made of RNA and proteins

 Composed of two subunits
– Large
– Small
 Are the sites of protein
production
 Found in two places
– Free floating in the
cytoplasm
– Attached to endoplasmic
reticulum

4-31 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Cytoskeleton
 Provides shape, support and movement

 Made up of
– Microtubules
– Microfilaments
(actin filaments)
– Intermediate filaments
4-32 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Centrioles

 Two sets of
microtubules arranged
at right angles to each
other
 Located in a region
called the centrosome
– Microtubule-organizing
center near nucleus
 Organize microtubules
into spindles used in
cell division
4-33 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Cilia and Flagella

 Hair-like projections extending from the cell

 Composed of microtubules covered by plasma
membrane
 Flagella
– Long and few in number
– Move with an undulating whip-like motion
 Cilia
– Small and numerous
– Move back and forth like oars on a boat
 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules
 Cell can control their activity
4-34 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Cilia and Flagella

4-35 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Inclusions

 Collections of miscellaneous materials

– Can be called granules
 Temporary sites for the storage of nutrients
and waste

4-36 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Nuclear Components

 Contains chromatin
– DNA + proteins
– Becomes condensed during
cell division into chromosomes
 Surrounded by double layer of
membrane
 Nuclear membrane contains
pores to control transport of
materials in and out of nucleus
 Contains one or more nucleoli
– Site of ribosome synthesis
 Contains nucleoplasm
– Water, nucleic acids, etc.
4-37 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Getting Through Membranes

 Diffusion
 Facilitated diffusion
 Osmosis
 Active transport
 Endocytosis
 Exocytosis

4-38 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Diffusion

 Molecules are in constant,

random motion.
 Molecules move from where
they are most concentrated
to where they are less
concentrated.
– This is called diffusion.
– Involves a concentration
gradient (diffusion gradient)
 No concentration
gradient=dynamic
equilibrium

4-39 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 The Rate of Diffusion

 Depends on
– The size of the molecule
 Smaller molecules diffuse faster.
– The size of the concentration gradient
 The greater the concentration difference,
the faster the diffusion.

4-40 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Diffusion in Cells

 Diffusion can only happen if there is no

barrier to the movement of molecules.
 Can only happen across a membrane if the
membrane is permeable to the molecule
– Membranes are semi-permeable; they only allow
certain molecules through.
– Membrane permeability depends on the
molecules size, charge, and solubility.

4-41 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 The Direction of Diffusion

 Determined solely by
the concentration
gradient
 Diffusion that does not
require energy input is
passive.
 Example:
– Oxygen diffusion

4-42 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Hyperbaric chamber

Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) is a medical treatment which

enhances the body's natural healing process by inhalation of 100%
oxygen in a total body chamber, where atmospheric pressure is
4-43 increased and controlled.
 Osmosis

 The diffusion of water

through a selectively-
permeable membrane
 Occurs when there is a
difference in water
concentration on
opposite sides of the
membrane.
 Water will move to the
side where there is less
water
– Or more solute
4-44 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Osmotic Influences on Cells

 If a cell has less water (more solute) than its

environment
– It is hypertonic to its surroundings.
 If a cell has more water (less solute) than its
environment
– It is hypotonic to its surroundings.
 If a cell has equal amounts of water (and solute) as
its environment
– It is isotonic to its surroundings.

4-45 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Osmotic Influences on Cells

4-46 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Facilitated Diffusion

 Some molecules have

to be carried across the
membrane.
– Accomplished by carrier
proteins
 Still involves diffusion
– Follows a concentration
gradient
– Is passive transport

4-48 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Active Transport

 Opposite of diffusion
 Moves molecules
across a membrane UP
their concentration
gradient
 Uses transport proteins
in the membrane
– Specific proteins pump
specific molecules
 Requires the input of
energy
4-49 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Endocytosis

 Moves large molecules or sets of molecules into the

cell
– Phagocytosis
 Cell eating
 Food engulfed by the membrane
 Material enters the cell in a vacuole.
– Pinocytosis
 Cell drinking
 Just brings fluid into the cell
– Receptor-mediated endocytosis
 Molecules entering the cell bind to receptor proteins first.

4-50 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Exocytosis

 Moves large molecules or sets of molecules

out of the cell
 Vesicles containing the molecules to be
secreted fuse with the plasma membrane.
– Contents are dumped outside the cell.

4-51 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Endocytosis and Exocytosis

4-52 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Prokaryotic Cells

 Two different types

of prokaryotes
– Domain eubacteria
 Contains bacteria
– Domain archaea
 Contains prokaryotes
that live in extreme
environments

4-53 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Prokaryotic Cell Structure

 Contain DNA and enzymes

– Able to reproduce
– Engage in metabolism
 Surrounded by a plasma membrane
– Plasma membrane surrounded by a cell wall
 Maintains the shape of the cell
– Cell wall surrounded by a capsule
 Helps them adhere to hosts
 Protects them from destruction
 Contain ribosomes
 May contain flagella
– Facilitates movement

4-54 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Different Types of Eukaryotic Cells

4-55 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Summary of Cell
Organelles and
Their Functions

4-56 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.