Chapter 5: Learning Metaphors and Theories of Learning

Metaphors of Learning
 Metaphor is a cognitive tool that enables us to see one thing in terms of developing.
 Metaphor is a transfer of meaning from one object to another in the basis of
perceived similarities.
 Metaphors are assumptions about learning.

Metaphors from a Behaviorist Point of View

 Learning is like a video camera which records the world.
 Learning is like a sponge which is soaks in the water
 Learning is like eating; it satisfies a necessity

Theories of Learning
1. Response Strengthening
Reinforcement is commonly viewed as a reward.
Positive Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Punishment is another consequence, used to decrease the performance of a behavior.

Laws that govern important aspects of behavior by Edward Lee Thorndike.

1. The Law of Effect
 If a response produces a comforting effect, there is the likelihood that such will
be repeated.
2. The Law of Exercise
 The strength of a stimulus-response association can be increased by use, while
the connection can be weakened by disuse.
 The connection between the stimulus and a response is called bond.
3. The Law of Readiness
 This law emphasizes the role of motivation.
 Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally and emotionally
ready to learn, and they do not learn well if they see no reason for learning.

2. Information Acquisition
 This theory is popularized by Herman Ebbinghaus.
 VUT TOF BIK DUL LOX REL MAH PAQ REZ (nonsense syllable)
 He devised a method know as serial learning, in which he read the list again in order
to memorize.

3. Knowledge Construction
 This theory is popularized by Frederic Barlett.
 He proposed that meaningful learning involves assimilating new information to
existing schemata.

4. Semantic Networks
 Based on this network model, knowledge is organized according to its meaning.

5. Dual Coding
 According to Allan Urho Paivio, who proposed this theory, representation of specific
information accounts for verbal association and visual imagery.

6. Magic Number 7
 George Mile is best known to his magic number (7 plus minus 2) which focused his
attention to a problem called cognitive overload.
 He believes that people can amass a large volume of information at anytime.
 Short Term Memory (STM) Techniques
 Repetition - To remember the information, we need to repeat it several times.
 Chunking - It is a method of regrouping item so that we have fewer items to
remember.
 Identifying logic patterns - Identifying the recurring patterns makes the
information easy to recall.

Long Term Memory (LTM) Techniques

 Association
 Categorization
 Mediation
 Imagery
 Mnemonics

Barriers to effective memory

 Repression and distortion - We sometimes distort or give inaccurate information
that contradicts our beliefs.
 Retroactive inhibition
 Primacy and recency effects - Primacy means the capacity of the brain to
remember best the information that is learned recently.

To help students retrieve and remember information, the following strategies are offered.
 Whole and part learning
 Repetition and drills
 Overlearning and automaticity
 Distributed practice

The Seven Sins of Memory (Daniel, 1999)

 Transience
 Absent-mindedness
 Blocking
 Misattribution
 Suggestibility
 Bias
 Persistence

7. Generative Process
 Merlin C. Wittrock was the founder of this theory that hinges on knowledge about
brain processes and functions.

There are four learning process in this model

 Attention
 Motivation
 Knowledge and Preconceptions
 Generation

8. Cognitive Process
 Cognitive development popularized by Jean Piaget who is known for his research on
the development of children’s cognition.

There are four stage of cognitive development

1. Sensorimotor Stage (from birth to two years)
 Reflex scheme level
 Primary circular level
  Secondary circular level
 Coordination of secondary course round modest circular level
 Tertiary circular reaction level
 Symbolic representation
2. Preoperational Stage (two to seven years)
 Pre-conceptual level
 Intuitive level
3. Concrete Operational Stage (seven to eleven years)
 Child possesses operative schemes that necessitate to think logical terms
4. Formal Operational Stage (eleven years and older)
 Composition
 Reversibility
 Associativity
 Identity
 Tautology
 Iteration

9. Behavior Theory
 All behaviorists are focused on the analyses of stimuli and responses.
 The methodology used in behaviorism is basically scientific where stimulus variables
can be objectively manipulated in response variable can be reliably measured, many
behaviorist conducted experiments using animal subjects.

10. Gestalt Psychology

 Behavior cannot be understood in terms of its molecular parts because the whole is
greater than the sum of its parts.

There are five laws that govern this perception

 Law of Continuity
 Law of Closure
 Law of Similarity
 Law of Proximity
 Law of Pragnanz

11. Social Cognitive Theory

 This theory refers to the interface between behavioral behavior and cognitive
perspective.
 Social-cognitive perspective is focused on both internal and external factors that lead
to idea of reciprocal determinism

12. Social Constructivism

 Lev Semeonovich Vygotsky, stressed the people’s culture has something to do with
their development.

Components of Constructivism
 Discovery learning
 Inquiry learning
 Cooperative learning
 Individualized learning
 Learning with technology

13. Conditions of Learning

Robert Gagne proposed five types of learning:
1. Intellectual Skills - refers to the learners’ use of symbols to interact in the
environment.
 Four Sub-categories of Intellectual Skills
 Discrimination
 Concepts
 Rules
 Principles

2. Verbal Information - it accounts for learning names, labels, and facts.

3. Cognitive Strategies - it deals with the coordination of muscular movement which

involves walking, running, dancing, jogging, or stretching.

4. Motor Skills - it deals with the coordination of muscular movement which involves
walking, running, dancing, jogging, or stretching.

5. Attitudes - it is our predispositions toward a person, an object, event, and other

stimuli in the environment.

Three Influences affecting Attitude:

 Affective Influence
 Cognitive Influence
 Behavioral Influence

Views about successful learning according to Gagne:

 Learning is gradually building up in a hierarchy.
 Learning is a method in which people become competent and productive
member of society.
 Learning is a product of various type of human behaviors.

14. Jerome Bruner’s Theory

 Based on the concept of categorization, Bruner believed that as active learners,
student’s continue to structure and restructure their environment.
 Metaphoric assumptions can be helpful in describing learning.