2.

Review of Related Literature

Real World Math: Everyday Examples

The fact is, we all use math in everyday applications whether we're aware of it or not. If you

look hard enough, you'll see math emerge from some of the most unlikely places.

Mathematics is the universal language of our environment, helping mankind explain and

create. From playing games to playing music, math is vital to helping students fine tune their

creativity and turn their dreams into reality. (R. Christensen 2017)

Basics of Mathematics

Mathematics is often thought of as a subject that a student either understands or doesn't, with

little in between. In reality, mathematics encompasses a wide variety of skills and concepts.

Although these skills and concepts are related and often build on one another, it is possible to

master some and still struggle with others. For instance, a child who has difficulty with basic

multiplication facts may be successful in another area, such as geometry. An individual

student may have some areas of relative strength and others of real vulnerability. In recent

years, researchers have examined aspects of the brain that are involved when children think

with numbers. Most researchers agree that memory, language, attention, temporal-sequential

ordering, higher-order cognition, and spatial ordering are among the neurodevelopmental

functions that play a role when children think with numbers. These components become part

of an ongoing process in which children constantly integrate new concepts and procedural

skills as they solve more advanced math problems.XFor children to succeed in mathematics,

a number of brain functions need to work together. Children must be able to use memory to

recall rules and formulas and recognize patterns; use language to understand vocabulary,
instructions, and explain their thinking; and use sequential ordering to solve multi-step

problems and use procedures. In addition, children must use spatial ordering to recognize

symbols and deal with geometric forms. Higher-order cognition helps children to review

alternative strategies while solving problems, to monitor their thinking, to assess the

reasonableness of their answers, and to transfer and apply learned skills to new problems.

Often, several of these brain functions need to operate simultaneously. (Nathan V., Nathan S.,

Sarah Lee 2002)

Large study shows that females are equal to males in math skills

The mathematical skills of boys and girls, as well as men and women, are substantially equal,

according to a new examination of existing studies in the current online edition of journal

Psychological Bulletin. (D. Tenenbaum 2010)

Mathematics education is increasingly becoming a concern for educators world wide as a

result of the reliance on economical, industrial, and technological careers in today’s world

(European Commission 2011, Conway and Sloane 2005). Thus , international studies have

emphasized the importance of developing the mathematical literacy of students, with the aim

of better preparing them for a number of diciplines, such as science and engineering, which

rely heavily on mathematics and are in widespread demand (Petocz et al. 2007). One of the

fundamental aims of these studies is to determine factors influencing students‟ achievements

in mathematics (Goodykoontz 2008, Fadali, Velasquez-Bryant and Robinson 2004).

How Skills and Concepts Work Together

Understanding concepts makes learning skills easier. Mastering skills, especially thinking

skills, makes learning concepts easier. Each prepares the brain differently.

People might also have a concept about something, without the skill to execute it. Many

adults understand the concept of bacteria and wound maintenance, but they still go to a
skilled professional to get stitches. Some people call this “book smarts” versus “street

smarts.” Understanding the why helps you build your knowledge base and your retention of

skills.

Most people in life don’t care about what others understand. They care about what others do.

A conceptual understanding helps build skill sets faster. (Anonymous 2017)

Types of Mathematical Skills

Mathematical terms, concepts, operations, and generalisations are hierarchically interrelated

(Resnick, Wang and Kaplan, 1973). Some of the hierarchical relationships which must be

understood in order to plan sequences of mathematics instruction have been analysed and

described by Evans, Evans and Mercer (1986), Silbert, Carnine and Stein (1990) and

Underhill, Uprichard and Heddens (1980) among others. The Silbert et al. (1990) analysis is

the most detailed of the analyses currently available.

Early mathematics development involves the acquisition of a number of component skills:

mastering the equivalence relations of mathematics, developing an adequate understanding of

mathematical concepts, learning how to perform a variety of mathematical procedures

(operations), and learning when it is appropriate to use each of these operations. (Anonymous

2010)