Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
RESPONSIVE
DRAWING
NATHAN GOLDSTEIN
V*Unk»^
THE ART OF
RESPONSIVE
DRAWING
NATHAN GOLDSTEIN
—Eugene Delacroix
ISBN: 0-13-048637-X
10 98765432
PRENTICE-HALL INTERNATIONAL, INC., LONDON
PRENTICE-HALL OF AUSTRALIA, PTY. LTD., SYDNEY
PRENTICE-HALL OF CANADA, LTD., TORONTO
PRENTICE-HALL OF INDIA PRIVATE LIMITED, NEW DELHI
PRENTICE-HALL OF JAPAN, INC., TOKYO
Preface XI
Gestural Expression
A Definition 1
Shape
2 AN IRONY 16
A Definition 16
The Interdependence of
Shape and Volume 28
Shape as an Agent
of Direction and Energy 29
vn
Line
A Definition 35
On Using Line 43
Delineating Contour 57
Yal ue
A Definition 62
Perspective
A Definition 92
Some Perspective
Clues to Exact Location 104
Perspective as an Agent
of Expression 118
Vlll
Volume
6 THE SCULPTURAL SENSE 119
A Definition 119
A Definition 145
Pens 165
Brushes 170
Visual Issues
A Definition 181
IX
Expressive Issues
A Definition 208
Additional Examples
of Expressive Response 230
Pathologies of Drawing
10 SOME SYMPTOMS OF DEFECTS 239
A Definition 239
Conclusions
Bibliography 271
Index 273
Preface
This book is intended for the art student, the looks like. They tell us what our intuitive knowl-
interested amateur, the art teacher, and the prac- edge informs us it is.
ticing artist who wants to broaden his under- This is not a how-to-do-it book; rather, it is a
standing of the concepts, potentialities, and kind of how-to-see-it book. The exercises in the
processes involved in drawing from nature. first nine chapters are designed to help the reader
All drawings, whether they reflect our inter- experience the issues dealt with in each, and not
pretation of observed or invented subjects, are to suggest techniques or ready-made solutions. It
responsive. They are all founded on our intel- explores the disguises of shapes and forms in
lectual and judgments about a subject
intuitive nature, examines the visual elements and rela-
and its organized expression on the page. But, tional and emotive forces that constitute the
the primary concern of beginning students (and language of graphic expression. I have omitted
many practicing amateur and professional artists) references to color, and to drawings made on
is to expand their ability to experience and to surfaces other than flat, bounded ones, because
state their world in graphic terms, and to better both are incidental to the fundamentals of re-
understand the options and obstacles that con- sponsive drawing. Most of the drawings repro-
front them when drawing from nature. For this duced here were made in the presence of the
important reason, and because there is no way to subject depicted. Those few that were not are
test the aptness of responses to imaginary stimuli, included because they clearly illustrate points in
this book focuses on drawing as a responsive en- the text.
counter with our physical world. The book begins by examining the factors that
Here, responsive refers to our perceptual, aes- enable us to respond to a subject's measurable
thetic, and empathic interpretations of an ob- actualities, its relational possibilities, and emotive
served subject's properties that hold potential character. It then proceeds to explore the con-
for creative drawing. In responsive drawing, com- cepts, forces, and "pathologies," or common (but
prehending a subject's actualities precedes and seldom discussed) failings of perception, organi-
affects the quality of our responses. Such draw- zation, and expression in drawing. The examina-
ings do more than recall what the outer world tion, in Chapter Ten, of these pathologies, is, I
XI
believe, the first attempt to catalog the various many considerate and generous ways in which
misconceptions, inconsistencies, and errors that they helped along the way, Paula Cohn, the pro-
every one drawing responsively faces. The path- duction editor, Joe Nicholosi, the designer, and
ologies discussed should enable the reader to Marvin Warshaw, the art director, for their skill,
apply a much wider range of criteria in evaluat- patience, and care in helping to give the book its
ing his drawings. present form, and Mrs. Carol Love, who worked
I have not attempted the impossible task of hard and well, typing the manuscript. I owe a
defining all the characteristics of great responsive particular debt of gratitude to Martin Robbins,
drawings. I have, however, pointed out those fac- a poet and deeply valued friend, for many hours
tors, which if left unregarded, make the creating spent helping me to state my thoughts. His in-
of such drawings impossible. terest in art and wholehearted involvement with
I wish to acknowledge my gratitude and thanks the book provided me with much wise guidance.
to the many students, artists, and friends whose My greatest debt of gratitude and thanks I owe
needs, experiences, advice, and interest helped to my wife, Renee, who handled the voluminous
test,shape, and sustain the forming of this book. and often intricate correspondence with muse-
I wish also to thank the many museums and in- ums, artists, and collectors on three continents,
dividuals for granting permission to reproduce provided invaluable advice, proofread every word
the drawings in their collections. at every stage, and provided the working atmo-
I wish, especially, to thank Professor Jack sphere that helped so much. Finally, I want to
Kramer of Boston University's School of Fine and express my gratitude and apologies to my daugh-
Applied Arts, a fellow artist and author, for his ter, Sarah, who, at the age of five, understood
time and good counsel, Jonathan Goell, whose (usually) and allowed for a part-time and gen-
excellent photographs make an important contri- erally distracted father.
bution to the book's clarity, Walter R. Welch and
William Gibson, of Prentice-Hall, Inc., for the Nathan Goldstein
CHAPTER
Gestural
Expression
DEDUCTION
THROUGH FEELING
A DEFINITION
When confronted for the first time by any subject mon to various rooms, such as heating, wiring or
matter, whether a model, landscape, or still-life plumbing systems can be installed (without tear-
arrangement, many students ask, "How shall I ing apart each room) because no appropriate
begin?" For them, the complexity of a subject's steps of construction for the entire building oc-
forms, its values, textures, scale relationships, and cur. Without such a design or plan, none of the
position space seem too difficult to grasp.
in relationships of size, shape, placement, etc., can
There appears to be no logical point of entry, no be fully anticipated.
clue to what should be done first —
or last. If the Any building process must begin with a gen-
subject is a figure, many students decide to begin eral design framework and its development
by drawing the head, followed by the neck, fol- be advanced by progressive stages until the spe-
lowed by the shoulders, and so on. But such a cifics of various nonstructural detail are added to
sequential approach inevitably results in a stilted complete the project.
assembly of independent parts, which have little But, before construction can start, there is al-
or no affinity for each other as segments of one —
ways the design the blueprint. Even before the
thing —a figure. Whatever the subject, this pro- measurements and layout of the building "hard-
cess of visual induction, this collection of parts ened" into the blueprint, there was the archi-
which should, when completed, add up to a tect's idea: a felt attitude about certain forms,
figure, tree, basket, or building, is bound to fail their scale, placement, textures, and materials as
— always. capable of an expressive order. An architectural
It will fail in the same way the construction of structure really begins as a state of excitation
a building will fail if we began with the roof or about certain form relationships.
windows, or, realizing this is impossible, build Similarly, a drawing should start as a sense of
by finishing and furnishing one room at a time. recognition and excitation about certain form re-
Such a building will collapse because no struc- lationships, actual and potential, of a subject.
tural, supportive framework holds the indepen- But, unlike the architect, who
does not often di-
dently built rooms together. Without an overall rectly respond to nature by extracting and re-
structural design, none of the requirements com- ordering the visual and expressive properties of
—
an observed subject, the responsive artist is, by In Plate 1.1, Rembrandt uses gestural means
definition, always interpreting the "raw material" to convey the tired, resting figure of his wife,
of nature. Saskia. Rembrandt feels (and consequently we
The artist's first interpretation must be the do, too) the essence of her pose as an expression
most inclusive recognition of what his subject of limp weight. What Saskia is doing and feeling
—
does in space how its forms relate as a system of is important to Rembrandt as the delineation
as
visual and expressive affinities and contrasts of of specific forms and textures. His felt perception
volume, direction, shape, value, and scale to cre- of her relaxed body pressing into the pliant bed-
ate a sense of animated, expressive force ges- ding is intensified by the forceful speed of the
tural expression. 1 To draw the gestural expression lines in the pillow. Their radiating action con-
of a subject is draw the intrinsic nature of the
to veys the tension in strong folds produced by the
action of its components rather than their more pressure of weight against soft materials. Those
specific physical characteristics. A building's con- lines enact as well as describe the action.
struction is started with the erection of a struc- As mentioned above, gestural expression comes
tural design that carries the gestural expression of from the physical and emotive qualities of a
the building's forms before its completion. A subject's action, and, as such, results from the
drawing begun by conveying the gestural
is also totality of the subject. Drawing the gestural
expression of the entire subject, before its compo- expression of a single figure and its immediate
nent forms are drawn. Like a building without a environment, as Rembrandt did, is fully respon-
cohesive system of structural design to hold it sive if this alone is the subject. To do so when
together, a drawing begun without the search for two or more figures constitute the subject falls
the cohesive system of gestural expression "col- short of the perceptual scope necessary to see the
lapses." And, similarly, to introduce the gestural gestural expression of the total configuration.
expression after a drawing is underway, would re- Exercise 1A suggests a means by which we can
quire "undoing" and reworking nearly all of it. extract the gestural expression of a subject. Be-
Gestural expression must be understood as not cause gestural expression engages our feelings as
simply the action or rhythms of a subject. These well as our ability to see, and because of its per-
are always present, but they are present in the vasive and intangible nature, many drawings
broader, more inclusive sense of a subject's com- will have to be made in the approach about to be
ponents as they are infused with a comprehend- described, before a sense of the felt action can be
able design or order which conveys the character, experienced and made manifest in drawing.
or expressive quality of movement. It is not to
be found in any one of the subject's visual EXERCISE 1 A
|
+t9Xt&£&*4
Plate 1.1
graphs, as their use generally injects a stiff and slow, limp or rigid, supporting or supported,
artificial note to a drawing. Also, the camera's straining or relaxed.
monocular image lacks the sense of depth per- Only when you feel you are responding to both
ception our binocular vision supplies, thus re- the design and mood of the action, when the sub-
ducing or confusing our understanding of the ject understood as "doing," as well as "being,"
is
visual response to its configuration. You may not instrument often. When you want to stop to
be able to describe it verbally, but you should get make new observations or new associations of
an impression of the nature of its action: fast or parts, simply stop your drawing instrument,
Illustration 1.1
Illustration 1.4
Plate 1.2
gestural expression and cannot, as we have seen, see relationships. This failureis also the result
utes or even hours may separate the drawing of ject'sgeneral character and the idiosyncratic par-
the head from that of the feet. If the feet are ticulars of its components, is a further refinement
drawn with no regard to anything above the of both the scale and shape-state of a subject's
knees, it is mere chance when their scale, place- components. The visual character of the parts
ment, or value is in accord with the rest of the conveys a unique physical quality and should not
figure. be confused with the expressive character of a sub-
Xo one intentionally makes errors in percep- ject, though they can be interrelated to an ex-
tion, but many artists do alter their drawings, to tent. That is, the physical character of a subject's
varying extents, away from the subject's actual parts may partially determine its expressive char-
state. But these changes are based (or should be) acter, as is the case in Plate 1.1, where Saskia's
on a knowledge of what the subject's actual con- heavy, limp, and flowing forms help to convey the
ditions are. In responsive drawing seeing the figure's expressive action.
state of things as they are is prerequisite to The three remaining ways in which the ges-
change. tural mode of approach assists our general ability
The remaining two types of information — the todraw are: to aid in establishing an economical
shape-state and visual character of the subject's and authoritative graphic statement: to develop
components, begin to emerge in the later stages the general references to the volumetric or
first
of a gestural drawing. As we have seen, the con- structural state of the forms; and to develop the
tinuance of this mode of drawing leads us from first broad "confrontations" of volume, space,
the most encompassing of general responses to shape, line, value, and texture, as elements of the
more specific observations about smaller surface organizational design or composition of the draw-
conditions of a subject's forms. As we approach ing.
these surfaces, we may find it desirable or neces- Since a gestural drawing proceeds from the
sary to draw the particular undulations of a general to the specific, any line, value, or texture
form's edge. This delineation of the shape of a which "works," i.e., serves to declare the artist's
form (see Chapter Two) should not be confused intent earlv in the drawing's development, can
with the establishment of its scale. The percep- be allowed to remain as a completed visual and
tion of a form's scale precedes that of its contour. expressive remark. Because of the "fluid'' and
The visual character, in the dual sense of a sub- inclusive nature of gestural drawing, not many
GESTURAL EXPRESSION: DEDUCTION THROUGH FEELING
such lines are likely to survive. Some do, and sense the volume of his right arm beneath it, as
their broad, simple quality serves to influence the well as the volume of the hat, hair, and right
artist in establishing other equally economical hand. Though several areas of the figure's forms
drawing expressions. The bold, driving quality are not fully explained as structural masses, there
of gestural drawing and the subsequent drawing is a general feeling of his weight and substance.
influenced by it convey a sense of courageous di- In Augustus John's drawing (Plate 1.7), we again
rectness. These qualities of resolute authority sense the emergence of volume, even in the most
and economy born of a comprehensive grasp of sweeping gestural responses to the character of
a subject's essence, and the resulting sense of the action. Note that the influence of the grace-
spontaneity, are essential. No great drawings are ful, still "echo" in the more de
curvilinear lines
without these qualities. In Plate 1.5, the gestural veloped passages of the drawing. These two
expression of the scene tells us much more than drawings, so different in temperament and goal,
"horses-carriage-people"; it evokes the clatter of are alike in their manner of evolving from an
the carriage, the nervous energy of the animals initial concern with the character of the subject's
and sketchbook drawing by
their speed. In this general qualities to a controlled and concise ex-
Toulouse-Lautrec, note the economy of means, pression of their more specific properties. The
the authority and the quality of spontaneity they desirable quality of an authoritative economy in
create — the energetic presence of the subject. graphic expression often guides the artist to those
Because we wish to see the expressive action of general summaries of volume which the gestural
forms in space, gestural drawing requires us to approach frequently extracts.
move back and forth in a spatial field describing The compositional issues of a subject in a
not only the tilt, shape, scale, and (where desired) bounded, flat area (see Chapter Eight) is likewise
value of the forms, but (in later stages) some gen- aided by the requirement of gestural expression
eral suggestion of their third dimensional quality. to be "everywhere at once." We can thus see,
In Rembrandt's vigorous drawing of a man in a within the first minutes of a drawing, the place-
wide brimmed hat (Plate 1.6), the gestural draw- ment on the page, the general divi-
of the subject
ing of the figure also conveys some broad sugges- sions of the page resulting from its placement,
tions about the volume of his cloak —we can even and the general state of any other visual matter
Plate 1.5
Plate 1.7
to help you establish more responsive gestural paper, as in Illustration 1.5. The page itself is
foundations. a bounded, flat area, but you will become more
aware of the limits of your drawing area by using
this inner border. Drawing the borders, is a tem-
EXERCISE |
1
poral)' but helpful device. If some segment of
your subject warrants inclusion, let your drawing
Use the same materials and subjects as sug- go beyond the border and off the page. Should
gested in Exercise 1A. Again, draw in a standing you do this, disregard (or erase) the rest of the
position. Try to feel the subject's action and borders and use the entire page for your drawing.
emotive state and begin boldly, with the most in- But the presence of the border will increase the
clusive statements you can perceive. likelihood of getting all the subject on the page.
One purpose of this exercise is to "build" upon You will make three ten-minute drawings and
the five types of information provided by the ges- one half-hour drawing. Again, do not draw for
tural approach and to allow its tendency toward the first half-minute or so, but use the time to
simplicity, volume,and compositional concern to familiarize yourself with the subject's character,
direct your drawing actions. Another purpose is its suggestions of movement, and its general de-
to experience the shift from drawing expressive sign. This time, also observe the subject's over-
action to drawing the factual state of your subject all shape. Decide where you will place it within
and its immediate environment. the bordered area and what its scale will be.
Because a composition requires an enclosed Avoid drawing the subject so small that it
area, draw a border just inside the limits of your appears as a "tiny actor" on a large "stage."
Plate 1.8
Drawing with a border just inside the edges of the end of the exercise, now it is the beginning of a
page helps to sense the composition better and assists shift from the concern for what the subject is
in getting the subject on the page. doing to a search for what it looks like.
Continue to draw the contours of the forms,
Instead, use a scale that will make the subject fill slowing down somewhat to follow the major
a large portion of the page. changes in the directions of the forms' edges.
Now look around your subject to see what Erase any earlier, gestural marks that seem to
foreground or background material vou wish to confuse or obscure the forms. Most of the ges-
include. If the background is a blank wall, plan tural tones and lines do become integrated into
to place your subject on the page so that the sur- the values and textures of the later stages of a
rounding blank areas are divided up into inter- drawing. It is surprising how little of the origi-
esting shapes. Should there be some other objects, nal gesture drawing is visible at the completion
values, or textures around the subject you wish of even a ten-minute drawing. Avoid overempha-
to include in your drawing, consider how their sizing the edges. Contours that are heavy or hard
and gestural qualities may
scale, shape, character, tend to stiffen the drawing and weaken the ges-
augment or hinder the subject's gestural expres- tural quality.
sion. Plan to omit anything that you feel will Use those values you feel are necessary to con-
conflict with, crowd, or confuse the drawing of vey vour intent and now, also, the broad masses
your subject. of the subject's volumes. Avoid the "coloring-
Those things you choose to include in the book syndrome" of adding values after the draw-
drawing are now regarded as an extension of ing is developed through line. If vou mean to
your original subject. For example, if vour origi- use values, do this earlv in the drawing (Plate
nal subject is a figure and you plan to include a 1.11).
chair, rug, table, and darkened corner of a room, In these drawings, as in those of Exercise 1A,
your subject is the figure and all these, not just it is important to advance the entire drawing on
half-minute or so of study, use the first two or As you draw, be mindful of the eight ways in
three minutes to state the subject's gestural ex- which gestural expression can assist perceptions
pression (which now includes its immediate en- and broaden the range of your responses. It may
vironment). After two or three minutes, keep be helpful to list these in a corner of your draw-
searching for further, smaller gestural actions ing board or sketch-book for easy reference, check-
until you feel that the character of the entire sub- ing occasionally to see if you are using them as
ject's action has been stated, as in Plates 1.9 and you draw. With so much to be aware of and do —
1.10. In the Dufy drawing, note the engaging — ten minutes is not much time. This restriction
^1/
I" v^Q
J»aV^*
I
(1
,<->. I
fv
P/ate 1.9
Plate 1.10
responsive result.
In the ten-minute drawings, there was about discovered early. There is no such "clean break"
as much time for stating the gestural character of in responding to a subject. Rather, it is a change
your subject as for its visual character. But in a in emphasis.
thirty-minute drawing, the gestural expression Do several of the ten-minute drawings daily
often becomes somewhat muted. While personal (seven or eight would not be too many) and at
attitudes will determine whether gestural expres- leastone thirty-minute drawing. Do as as many
sion continues to play a major or minor role, you can in your sketchbook. Regard your sketch-
here we use gestural expression mainly to support book as personal and "off limits" to browsers.
the development of the visual responses for Be selective about who is allowed to see it, for
which there is now more time (Plate 1.12). in the early stages of the study of drawing the
There is a danger here. If you lose too much wrong compliments are as damaging as the wrong
of the gestural expression, if you sacrifice too criticism.
much economy of means, if the felt and analyti- The search for gestural expression is no more
cal, searching quality of the drawing is too muf- the key to drawing than any other of the several
fled by a meticulous rendering of surfaces, too basic concepts that are necessary to an under-
much of the life and excitement of the drawing standing of drawing. But mastery of gestural ex-
will be lost. pression is and must come early in the
essential
The shift from the expressive action to the study of drawing. Whatever goals and ideals in
visual, measurable actualities does not mean that drawing we wish to pursue, the process will be
you must stop your felt, gestural responses. You that of advancing our drawings from the general
may see some strong expressive ideas late in the to the specific and not through a system of piece-
drawing. Nor does it mean that some visual facts meal assembly. Drawings do not accumulate
about the subject's physical properties are not they grow.
15
CHAPTER
Shape
AN IRONY
A DEFIXITIOX
Like gestural expression, shape is a basic, given When we look around us we see volumes. The
quality. If perceiving the gestural expression tells several vital roles of shape in producing the im-
us what a subject does, then seeing the subject's pression of volume and space are not readilv
shapes and those of its immediate environment apparent. Seeing through the camouflage of a
tells us what it looks like. subject's surface to shape's visual and expressive
The first shape drawn on a blank, flat, and potentialities is basic to responsive drawing.
and bounded surface —or picture-plane, by its Put simply, a any flat area bounded
shape is
presence, creates a second shape — the remainder by line or value or both. Shapes are classified in
of the picture-plane. This first drawn shape, un- two general families: geometric or organic (some-
derstood as an area of active "thingness," is called times called biomorphic or amoebic). A geomet-
a positive shape; the remaining, passive, "empty" ric shape may be just that, e.g., a circle, triangle,
area, a negative shape. In this relationship, posi- etc., or any combination of the angular and or
tive shapes are not seen as "hovering" in a spatial curved boundaries associated with pure geometric
field of depth, nor do negative shapes represent a shapes. An organic shape is any irregular, "un-
spatial field of depth. They all should be under- dulating" shape in which extensive use of straight
stood as existing on the same level. Together, or evenly curved edges is minor or absent. They
they are the picture-plane. Having no volume, tend to echo the contours in nature. Organic
and intending no spatial depth, they are two- shapes are less severe and more animated, than
dimensional (Illustration 2.1). those of the geometric order (Illustration 2.2).
All volumes, when viewed from a fixed point, As discussed above, shapes may have a positive
offer an absolute shape delineation. Perceiving or negative function. They mav be hard-edged
this two-dimensional state of a three-dimensional or vague. They may be active, gestural shapes,
subject is essential to understanding its placement or passive, stable ones. They may be large or
and structure. What its shape is will largely de- small, totally or only partiallv enclosed. They
termine what its volume and position in space mav have simple or complex boundaries, and be
will be. consistent or varied in their properties.
Some of the "guises" of shape are invisible. Because we are conditioned to see things,
16
—
EXERCISE |
2 A
^
to see the tilt, or axis, of each projection and
hollow of the original, as well as their relative
scale. As you draw, ask yourself, "which is the
largest projection? which the narrowest?"
. . .
17
tration 2.3B. Try to locate the axis of a positive
or negative segment by finding its position on the
clock. For example, a segment that is vertical
would be twelve o'clock (or six o'clock), if tilted
slightly to the right, it might appear at one
o'clock, etc.
When you cannot find any further differences
between the two drawings, place one over the
other and hold them up to the light. You may be
surprised at the several differences remain-
still
18
THE SHAPE OF VOLUME
Being two-dimensional, a single shape gener-
ally cannot convey the impression of volume con-
vincingly. Only when two or more shapes join or
interact do they communicate the idea of struc-
ture and mass by which volume in space, i.e., the
third dimension, is achieved. B
When shapes unite to form volume, they are
seen as straight or curved facets of the volume Illustration 2.5
and are called planes. The various ways these Part a shape, B is a volume formed by shapes,
A is
planes abut and blend into each other determine and C is seen as three positive and one "open"
and convey the particular "topographical" state negative shape.
of a volume (Illustration 2.4). To interpret a
subject's shape and structure, we must begin by
avoiding exclusive attention to its existence as a
form in space and see its planes as a system of
positive shapes on the same plane as the negative
shapes around it. A simultaneous "reading" of
the subject as three-dimensional and two-dimen-
sional then occurs. Illustration 2.5 visualizes the
dual role of a plane as a segment of a volume's
surface, and as a shape upon a picture-plane. Il-
lustration 2.5A tells us nothing about mass or
structure. It is a flat, vertical configuration. We
cannot whether it is a solid or whether the
tell
19
20 shape: an irony
centuries, many
did quite well in suggesting, to that from their view the form is foreshortened,
a degree, a sense of volume. But their efforts, their exclusive attention then turns directly to
(Plate 2.1) tend to support rather than contest the the "telescoped" volume problem before they
view that a single shape is understood primarily have seen the shape-state of the foreshortened
as a flat configuration and only secondarily sug- form. They miss a crucial set of observations that
gests some clues about a volumetric state. could have helped them understand what the
Shapes, then, tend to "offer" their edges. The structure of that particular mass actually looked
simpler their interiors, the more emphasis on like, seen from a particular position in space.
edge and the shape configuration it describes. The seasoned artist recognizes a subject's shape-
When an observed shape's interior, by textural, state will change as he changes his position in
tonal, directional, or decorative properties, be- relation to it. He knows that perceiving the out-
comes more interesting and active than its bound- line of that particular form "traps" both the
ary, the chance is increased that the unwary information that shape provides about structure
student can be diverted from a recognition of and the form's position in space; for its position
the shape's "edgeness" and character. Likewise, creates its shape — its "field of play" (Illustration
when shapes combine to form a volume, their 2.7).
individual characteristics and their collective Further discussion of the means available to
shape-state might be missed. understand foreshortened volumes will be found
This not to suggest that edge, contour, or
is in Chapters Five and Six. The following exercise
outline must necessarily be a dominant graphic should help you to make the indispensable per-
idea. But the search for the shape-state of a vol- ception of such a volume's shape-state.
ume helps us locate those edges of straight or
curved planes forming the volume's boundary,
and thus better comprehend its structure and EXERCISE |
2B
mass. Like the search for the gestural expression,
the reduction of a volume to its shape compo- Place any cylindrical form (rolled sheet of
nents must be an early perception in the act of paper, mailing tube, juice can, etc.) on a flat
drawing. To proceed without either concept con- surface about twelve to fifteen inches away, and
tributing its basic and penetrating information about two or three inches below the level of your
is to draw preconceived notions of a subject's eyes, so as to see a side view only. It should not
class, and not a visual and expressive response exceed fifteen, nor be less than eight inches in
to a particular subject as seen from a particular length. Correctly placed and centered, neither
view. end plane of the cylindrical subject should be
This "flattening" of volume is especially help- visible. Using a 2B pencil, begin your drawing in
ful to clarify the outline of foreshortened forms. the middle of the page. Draw the shape you see.
A common error in perception is the drawing of Draw approximately actual size. Try to es-
it
foreshortened forms in a way that suggests they timate the proportion between the shape's height
were seen from above or a side view. At first, and width as well as you can. Imagine you
many students find it almost impossible to turn are going to draw a foreshortened view of
a volume such as an arm or leg nearly on end and a wheel containing eight or ten spokes. Move
"send it" back into a spatial field. If they see the cylindrical subject to the next position
Illustration 2.7
fcr
B
shape: an irony 21
22
Illustration 2.9
arrangement A.
23
24 shape: an irony
Plate 2.2
Drawing 1. Group all the observed values black end of the scale will result in fewer black
into two divisions —black and white. Select any shapes and larger areas of white. By changing the
point near the middle of the value scale and point at which the values will be separated, you
leave any observed value lighter than that point can create different value-shapes which will con-
(nearer to the white end of the scale) as the white vey new structural clues about a subject's volume,
of the paper; any value darker than that point as well as a different light intensity and expres-
(nearer to the black end of the scale) should sive mood.
be drawn as black. As in Illustration 2.10, Plate 2.2 is a good example of the structural
if you are drawing a book upon a drape-covered strength that this limited value system can pro-
table, with the light falling from a point directly vide. Here, Kathe Kollwitz designs the black
overhead, the top planes of the book, drape, and and white shapes, both as a positive-negative
table would appear as white, all the other planes arrangement on the picture-plane, and as a system
as black. of volume-producing planes in space. Your draw-
Selecting a point nearer to the white end of ing, too, should have the look and feeling of a
the scale will produce a drawing with fewer white bold brush drawing, or a woodcut.
shapes and much larger black ones. Conversely, Using compressed charcoal or black conte
placing the point of separation nearer to the crayon and a large sheet of charcoal or pastel
shape: an irony 25
Plate 23
Illustration 2.10 Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1696-1770).
A two-value drawing.
Two Magicians and a Youth.
Pen and brown ink wash.
THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART.
ROGERS FUND, 1937.
.
26 shape: an irony
sive interests. The economy of three values per- Drazving This will again be the same view
3.
mitted him to show value-shapes both as a pattern of the still-life, but use the four value divisions
of spirited shards of tone that seem to drift across mentioned on page 22. Depending on the nature
the page and as clearly defined planes that of your subject's values, the lighting, and your
"carve" the volumes with great authority and own inclination toward lighter or darker draw-
vigor. Notice how Tiepolo changes values to ings, you may wish to adjust the range that each
indicate strong changes in the direction of the of the four values will cover. The following
planes, as well as the gestural force of the shapes. variation would result in a darker, more sculp-
These are things to try for in your drawing. As tured image: observed values from white to 15%
your drawing develops, search for ways in which gray will be stated as the white of the paper; a
you can get the greatest "yield" of volume 25% gray will represent observed values in the
through these three values, and engage the an- 15% to 40% range; the darker values (40% to
imating and unifying properties of gestural ex- 70%) would be represented by a value of about
pression. 60% gray; for the deepest tones and black, use
As Tiepolo's drawing shows, this second system black. Whichever four division grouping you
of organizing values can produce a great sense of choose, you may be surprised by how many of the
volume. Working within its limits, continue your observed values can now be stated as they actu-
drawing until you cannot improve the sense of ally appear in the subject. Not nearly so many
structural mass without using more than three will have to be altered in tone (and many of
values. these only slightly) to join one of the four divi-
Plate 2.4
Plate 2.5
-i\- .
3, $ii& (i
. . ..
-•'as ... ,
•
28 shape: an irony
don the restriction on values to "get at" some is works of those artists who
largely absent in the
useful nuances of tone and develop the forms intentionally eliminate structured, volumetric
further. However, avoid going so far as to lose content, thereby clearing the way for the expres-
the sense of shapeness and planar structure. sion of concepts not otherwise possible. Paul Klee
These three exercises in value grouping are could not have probed the visual and expressive
in no way intended as "how to draw" systems issues necessary to him (Plate 2.6) if the third
(though, as we have seen, a number of notable dimension continued to be a major factor in the
artists have used the several formats discussed pictorial organization of this drawing.
here). Their primary purpose is to have you Nor could Rubens have created his powerfully
experience the value-shape as a unit of volume "sculptured" images if he had insisted on shape
building. Also, they may help you to produce confrontations as the primary visual message.
some drawings that depend more on the powerful (Plate 2.7). But unlike artists working without
but less familiar and thus, more "feared" values, volume (although two-dimensional drawings do
and less on line, than you may have done before. impart a sense of spatial depth), Rubens was not
And finally, they will help you to see the shapes free to abandon a dimension. No artist who re-
that planes and values make. quires a convincing impression of solid volume
Continue to use all three of these limited value as part of his language of graphic expression is
systems in sketchbook drawings of a few minutes free of the responsibilities of the two-dimensional
duration to extended drawings of an hour or activities of his drawing. He must be sensitive
longer. Try to apply them to different kinds of
subject matter, and try to alter the lightness or
Plate 2.6
darkness of a drawing by setting the range of
values in different ways. Paul Klee (1879-1940). The Angler.
Watercolor, pen and ink.
COLLECTION, THE MUSEUM OF MODERN ART, NEW YORK.
JOHN S. NEWBERRY COLLECTION.
THE INTERDEPENDENCE
OF SHAPE AND VOLUME
Plate 2.7
to theways in which the second and third dimen-
Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640).
sions can assist and spur each other on (see
Study of a Male Figure Seen from Behind.
Chapter Eight). Charcoal heightened with white.
Actually, dilemma disintegrates in the
the reproduced by permission of the
presence of a need to communicate the experience syndics of the fitzwilliam museum, cambridge.
of an encounter with a subject. The need to
express this experience (within the framework of
a personal aesthetic persuasion), not the explora-
tion of both dimensions (or either) as an end in
itself, is at the heart of responsive drawing. The
richest and expressive responses result
visual
from realizing the inventive possibilities of the
interdependence of the dimensions. In art, one
man's dilemma can be another's motive.
SHAPE AS AN AGENT
OF DIRECTION AND ENERGY
drawing, longer shapes and those with more You may use both geometric and organic shapes
sharply defined boundaries appear to move more for this purpose.
swiftly in a direction. Moving with other shapes In Bl and B2, repeat the exercise, using an
headed in the same general direction, a shape will organic shape for your original. First, try to
impart to them, and receive in return, the sug- speed it up by other shapes, then slow it down.
gestion of additional speed and force. Conversely, Again, both geometric and organic shapes can be
the more complex the shape, the more convoluted used to influence the speed of the original.
and/or diffuse the boundary, the more it is inter- In 3A and 3B, repeat the exercise, using simple
locked among stronger, faster shapes, the less geometric and organic volumes as in Illustration
active and directional it will appear to be (Illus- 2.13. As with the shapes, use the volumes in 3A
tration 2.12). to permit and speed up the movement of the
Exercise 2D will help you recognize the pos- primary one; in 3B, to block or slow it down.
control over the speed of the forms
sibilities for In all three parts of the exercise it is permis-
in drawing. The last part of the exercise is useful sible to place a shape or (in the last part) volume
as a preliminary rough drawing "probe" before over some of the primary configuration.
an extended effort, to help determine what direc- There are other factors that affect the speed
tional cues the shapes of a subject offer. and clarity of a shape's direction; the differences
of value between shapes, their scale and textural
differences, even the haste or deliberateness with
EXERCISE 2D which a shape is drawn affects its directional
energy. Re-examine some of your earlier draw-
Using any medium, fill a sketchbook page with ings to see how changing the directional function
three pairs of squares or squarish rectangles of of the forms can improve them by making some
the same size, making six squares, or picture- more, and others less active. Responding to the
planes in all. For our purposes here, we will call directional cues of shapes in nature and govern-
the first pair Al and A2, the second pair Bl and ing the character of their movement are impor-
B2, etc. tant perceptual and graphic skills.
In Al, place, at any angle, a straight or simply
curved geometric shape which appears to move
fast. Do not let its boundaries touch any edge of
Illustration 2.12
U^^ '* f^
^ '^^H ^B
LS^^^^x ^
Illustration 2.13
iL^a
In Part the volumes suggest speed.
In B, the volumes "cancel" each
other's movements.
—
graphic order for more subjective or imagina- ability to the artist's expressive intent — is ines-
tive results. This character of shape, its "per- capable.
sonality" as being clearly defined or unfocused, In the drawing by Degas (Plate 2.4), the gen-
curvilinear or angular, boldly or delicately eral feeling of bulk, the avoidance of intricate
bounded, etc., and its behavior as an agent of ex- specificities of edge, the inclination to generalize,
pression, must be recognized as another given and the "rush" of these undulating
forceful
factor of drawing. Because drawing without shapes establishes their unity of character and
shapes is impossible, the need to establish their expressive power. How these differ from the char-
collective unity —
their "oneness," and their suit- acter of the shapes in a similar subject is shown
Plate 2.S
31
Plate 2.9
Jacque Villon ( - ).
L'Athlete de Dlchamp.
(Torso of Young Athlete after Sculpture by
Duchamp-Yillon of 1910).
Blue chalk drawing.
COURTESY, MUSEUM OF ARTS, BOSTON.
GEORGE P. GARDNER FUND.
Plate 2.10
f
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34 shape: an irony
in a drawing by Renoir (Plate 2.8). Here, the served subject and an emerging drawing. The
shapes flow in a graceful, easy manner. There is conscious recognition of the several roles of shape
a sharper "focus" to their edges and they seem to is only one consideration, though a crucial and
hint at a geometric simplicity. They have a often overlooked one. How shape considerations
playful, rhythmic, animated quality. In Villon's fare in the medley of responses to a subject is
drawing (Plate 2.9) the shapes are angular; their determined by the artist's expressive intent and
various tilts create an agitation that plays across aesthetic persuasion. But if shapes are to play
the surface of the entire group. Most of the any active part in drawing, they must first be
shapes contain value changes and many appear to seen in their various dual roles.
hide segments of each other. As a family, they Recognizing the "double life" of shape in
are active, harsh, and aggressive. In Cezanne's drawing creates an appreciation of the ironies (1)
drawing (Plate 2.10) the interlacing of geometric of finding a shape's boundaries by seeing the
and organic shapes creates a handsome "weaving" boundaries of the shapes that surround it, (2) of
of straight and curved edges. Here, too, we see finding a volume's planar structure by seeing the
a suggestion of the shapes reaching for a simpler, shapes which constitute it, (3) of finding a vol-
"purer" state. The edges of the shapes seem to ume's direction and delineation by seeing the
vibrate, as if to avoid a final "corraling" into shape of the volume, and (4) of finding the ex-
clearly delineated configurations, and often Ce- pressive characteristics of shapes in a subject by
zanne opens the boundaries between shapes, feeling their emotive force. This duality of shape,
creating larger ones, while not losing the identity only potential in the raw material of the physical
of the smaller ones. Compare Cezanne's use of world, if perceived by the student, becomes one of
shape with those of Rubens' (Plate 2.11). Here, the most important insights in his perceptual
shapes twist, interlock, and strain against each development. Left unregarded, all that remains
other in a stormy turbulence of gestural activity. is the ultimately futile assemblage of details
These artists used the expressive power of about surfaces. It is offering the viewer a visual
shape character to help convey expressive intent, "frosting" with no "cake" inside. And this, it
and gained the additional unifying benefits of seems, is the ultimate irony: that those for whom
shapes that share a family resemblance. Neglect- a realistic image is an important goal, will not
ing or censoring the expressive power of shape reach it until they turn from it to learn the visual
character invites a randomness of shape and a and expressive abstractions that constitute the
muffling of intent. language of drawing. The contributions to the
Responsive drawing involves a complex of language of drawing provided by shape are in-
perceptions, feelings, and ideas about an ob- dispensable.
CHAPTER
Line
THE
ABSTRACT NECESSITY
A DEFINITION
The use of line as the primary means of graphic position of forms explained as located before,
communication is universal. For most people, behind, or alongside others in space, and move-
drawing consists of lines which make boundaries ment suggested.
that represent a subject's physical limits and mark In Chapter One, we found that contours
off major subdivisions within it. Line is a visu- emerged from gestural drawing. There, it was
ally concise, familiar, and generally manageable the way edges expressed our interpretation of the
device for communicating many kinds of infor- subject's action and actualities that concerned us.
mation in graphic terms. Maps, blueprints, and In Chapter Two, we focused on the way the
diagrams utilize line's ability to represent in sym- edges of shapes bear important information about
bols organic or man-made things in nature. volume. Here again, edges, as line indicates them,
Charts and graphs use line to show concepts of will be a major, though not exclusive considera-
weight, cost, and time. Line produces language tion. Line in drawing —
as we shall see —
is hardly
—
symbols as well as visual symbols we even tend limited to the delineation of contours.
to doodle with lines. Drawing in line demands a resolute and un-
This natural and unquestioned acceptance of flinching conviction. A black line drawn upon a
line as the chief method of producing graphic white surface holds a finality that most art stu-
statements tends to blind us. We do not recog- dents find both exciting and terrifying. Under-
nize that line does not exist in the physical world standably so, for a drawing limited to line only,
of matter. Virtually everything we regard as a will "falter" every time the student falters in his
line in nature is, in fact, a thin, solid volume such perceptions or daring. Certainty, self-restraint,
as a wire, pole, branch, or convex fold, or a thin and confidence are necessary to create a line that
depression such as a wrinkle, fissure, space inter- simultaneously records the artist's directional,
val between forms, or concave fold. In drawing proportional, volumetric, textural, and composi-
then, line must be understood as a wholly abstract tional responses as well as his expressive ones.
device for conceptualizing a symbol that stands Distilling observed "raw material" to a system of
for the thing seen or intended. With line, the lines is a sophisticated act of visual and expressive
limits of a color or value can be stated. Texture comprehension.
can be explained, abutments of planes shown, the A drawn line has certain given properties. It
35
\
r-f
Plate 3.1
always has direction, interrupts or divides the pic- fastand free-flowing a line as do papers with slick,
ture-plane, has a certain length, has along its hard surfaces. Not only does the medium limit
course one or more values, and is consistent or the character of the lines produced, it deflects the
varied in width or u-eight. It also has a "per- onto certain tracks of usage which in-
artist's lines
sonality" or attitudinal character mainly derived fluence his perceptions of the subject. The me-
from the artist's aesthetic and intuitive attitude to dium thus influences his selections. He will tend
line in general, and his visual and expressive to respond to those qualities in the subject that
responses to a subject in particular. The medium his medium and paper are compatible with and
and surface used also influence the attitudinal avoid those that would create technical problems
character. The using pen and ink will pro-
artist or are beyond the medium's range of usage.
duce a very different kind of line than when he Line can be used in two basic ways: descriptive
is using compressed charcoal. The first, being a and emotive. Diagrammatic lines and structural
liquid medium, has none of the characteristics of lines are descriptive in character, calligraphic
compressed charcoal which is an abrasive medium lines and expressive lines are emotive. Diagram-
(see Chapter Seven). It, in turn, cannot produce matic lines clarify the artist's impression of space,
the precise and fluid qualities of ink. Papers with shape, volume, and direction. Structural lines
a pronounced surface texture do not permit as emphasize a subject's volumetric aspects. Calli-
36
line: the abstract necessity 37
graphic lines convey a sense of animation, touch, and their lines affirm this. The artist, and conse-
and rhythm, and are generally curvasive. 1 Ex- quently the lines he produces, are responsive to
pressive lines enable the artist to convey an emo- the stimuli of visual cues about space, shape, and
tion or mood where these qualities
in drawings volume. But, although the resulting lines are
are of utmost concern to him. Although all lines primarily diagrammatic in function, they also
have expressive qualities, here an expressive use —
convey an expressive quality the artist's excita-
of line describes lines whose dominant theme is tion about his visual discoveries. Thus, their
emotive, rather than perceptual or organizational. perceptions precede their feelings. As these draw-
All four kinds of line may be present in some ings show, descriptive and emotive attitudes to
drawings and it is possible for a single line to line are not mutually exclusive.
function in several, or all four ways at once
(Plates 1.1 and 3.6). Although in practice these
categories always overlap in various combina- THE STRUCTURAL LINE
tions, we will regard them
here separately, to bet-
ter examine the nature of each.
Although related to diagrammatic line, struc-
tural lines have some distinctive characteristics.
They stem from the same necessity to explore and
THE DIAGRAMMATIC LIXE
Plate 3.2
Plate 3 3
,'
<
>:
line: the abstract necessity 39
Plate 3.5
come to the blank page with an established ex- Disasters of War," it is not the representational
pressive intent of another kind. For these artists matter alone that expresses his ominous warning
the expressive character of line, though it may of impending doom. The attitudinal character
result in part from visual challenges and insights of the lines imply this through their slashing,
that occur while drawing, receives its initial im- cross-hatched clash and the brooding tones they
petus and potency from a need to experience or form. That these lines carry the grim message
share feelings through and not merely about the intrinsicallycan be seen by covering any portion
representational content of the drawing. In of the drawing. Even small segments cannot be
Goya's etching, the first in a series called "The seen as cheerful, gentle, or serene. Lines of such
41
Plate 3.7
'
Plate 3.8
expressive force do not come from a calm, con- cise 3A) experience their possibilities. But
to
tented attitude, but from a deeply felt anguish. there are several reasons for our not being alto-
Goya's interest in any of the visual processes gether free to choose attitudes to line when we
and principles of drawing exists only insofar as draw. No completely free choice occurs for the
they strengthen his message. This is not to sug- same reasons that we do not choose our styles
gest that these matters were of little importance of handwriting. First, our neuromuscular coor-
to him, rather that they were not important as dination and control imprints certain pathways
ends in themselves. They were a necessary means of line-making and blocks others. These personal
to attain his expressive ends. idiosyncracies are not easily overcome. Nor
Jules Pascin (Plate 3.9) uses line to express a should we try to overcome them for they form
sensual, even erotic interest in the female figure. part of our unique way of drawing (or writing).
There is an honest fascination evident in the slow This personal style of using line, is in itself
search of the forms. These lines, by their nature, —
neither good nor bad it is just our way and as —
express the pliancy and weight of the body. Pas- capable of stating perceptions and intent as any
cin delights in experiencing every fold and swell other. Second, our intuitive and intellectual in-
of the figure and of the yielding, receiving char- terests —how we like to use and see line — insists
acter of the sofa. Everything in this drawing is on a particular "recipe" made of all, most, or some
felt as supple and pliant — terms which describe of these attitudes to line. This personal necessity
the character of the lines themselves. Again, of line-function may vary with the choice of sub-
covering a section of the drawing would show re- ject or medium and as our moods and interests
maining portions capable of communicating Pas- fluctuate within a certain aesthetic point of view.
cin's sensual, tactile message. That lines can There are drawings which convey little sense
function in more than one way is evident in the of line's attitudinal abilities. Such drawings tell
calligraphic qualities of Pascin's drawing. While us that their authors were unaware or not es-
the drawing's main thrust is toward the tactile pecially interested in the various analytical and
experiencing of forms through lines born of, and emotive uses of line, that no benefits were gained
imbued with his visual encounter with the model, from line as aesthetic events in their own right,
Pascin's lines simultaneously suggest an "aware- or as supportive of a drawing's representational
ness'' of each other. They create rhythms and content. Such drawings show a limited, unex-
affinities which are satisfying in themselves. plored use of line. Generally, they indicate an
Artists may support the emotive message of exclusive concern with the surface effects and
their drawing's representational content through appearances of a subject. But the use of line to
line's expressive powers for many reasons. His- symbolize a subject places the drawing (as has
torical, religious, political, and social issues have been mentioned) well away from the "real." To
been catalysts for such drawings. But many other
2
convey the experiences of our visual and expres-
motives can, and have stimulated artists to use sive encounter with a subject through line is
line for expressive purposes beyond those stimu- possible only by utilizing line's ability to explore,
lated by visual issues alone. The lines that convey act, and express. Mere delineation is too often
Picasso's understanding of a mother's feelings for unselective outlining and, always ex-
as such,
her child (Plate 3.10) are themselves gentle ca- pressively dull. This kind of line does not
resses. search, feel, declare, or play; it simply describes
boundaries. Such delineation is primarily the
scrutiny of edges as ends in themselves.
ON USING LINE In responsive drawing, a line always functions
at three levels: it describes, it acts, and it inter-
acts with other lines visually and expressively. If
This discussion of the several basic attitudes descriptive delineation is the only motive for
to line may leave the impression that these are making a drawing, we lose more than line's aes-
consciously selected by the artist. This is not the thetic potential. Descriptive drawing alone skirts
case. Although the more experience the artist all the responsive possibilities of line. It merely
has in exploring attitudes to line, the wider his notes outward appearances at the cost of line's
control of it will be. Therefore, we should strive ability to communicate relationships and mean-
for some rapport with these line categories (Exer- ings. As we have seen in the previous two chap-
ters, an emphasis on a subject's surface appearance
2 For an interesting exploration of such motives see
Ralph E. Shikes, The Indignant Eye (Boston: Beacon Press, blinds us to a subject's gestural expression and
1969. shape-state. Here, it blinds our responses to the
\
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if
C4 \ V-"
t ' t
Plate 3.9
EXERCISE |
3 A
each are:
1. a calligraphic — drawingminutes
fifteen
(Illustration 3.1).
clearly reveals line's capacity for visual and ex- attempt at a calligraphic attitude, favoring fewer,
pressive activity of its own. However, do not longer lines will make vou seek variations of
Illustration 3.1
46
line: the abstract necessity 47
direction, weight, rhythm, speed, and visual The lines are descriptive of a confident young
"play." By using fewer lines you will more likely mounted officer, but simultaneously assert their
invest them with greater visual and expressive own exciting existence. Although these lines are
duties. You will then more easily become aware expressive as well, their dominant impression is
of their plastic possibilities. Sensitivity to line's of calligraphic play. Here, again, perceptions pre-
autonomous life is a prerequisite to those re- cede feelings.
sponses that "call forth" the calligraphic quality. With fifteen minutes to make your drawing,
There is no one way to draw calligraphically. you need not feel hurried. Indeed, a slower line
Your continuing study of the drawings by artists permits you to respond more explicitly to some
using calligraphic line will reveal the endless of the smaller or subtler perceptions. It also acts
possibilities for linear play. The suggestions as a brake on the desire for fast flourishes which,
above will help you experience the visual and because of the speed with which they are exe-
expressive independence of line from its role of cuted, may not be the result of sound observa-
descriptive delineation. Such lines are not "free- tions, but of a wish to impart a calligraphic
—
born" to wander where they will but can, — "look" to the drawing. But in responsive draw-
simultaneous with their representational role, of- ing, lines not stimulated by felt perceptions are
fer linear configurations that are aesthetically either personal drawing cliches or aimless motor
satisfying. activity. The calligraphic line is always a felt,
In Lautrec's pen-and-ink drawing of a mounted informing line with a plastic life of its own.
officer (Plate 3.12), gestural and calligraphic lines Your goal in this first drawing is to interpret
occur throughout. We sense that Lautrec enjoyed the subject as a system of forms which offer in-
the "confrontation" of contrasting types of lines, teresting linear ideas — ideas
you feel extract the
and the knowledgeable flourishes of his "hand- subject's essential character and allow for a satis-
writing" are graphic activities in their own right. fying use of line, much as you use line when
Plate 3.12
Illustration 3.2
1
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*
:
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iS A
7k --. l
'VJX 1
'
--'• ('
Liirf' - \; - -
> Jl
I
I •/.. If
:
/{/.'.-ft*
ll
t^****
~~
•<
JL'jl
frequently necessary when the form is not com- groups of lines which explore surfaces, placement,
prised of flat planes, but is more rounded and and space more fully than a single line can.
organic in character. Like the Giacometti and Lautrec drawings
When diagrammatic lines are used to explain (Plates 3.1, 3.2), the Piranesi drawing conveys a
a form's cross-section character at a particular lo- sense of excitement about the creation of a three-
cation, they will differ from calligraphic lines dimensional environment. In your drawing, re-
performing a similar role. Where calligraphic gard every perception of scale, direction, space,
lines will show a tactile sensitivity to subtle nu- etc., as an important discovery. Allow or en- —
ances of the changing mass, diagrammatic lines —
courage a sense of satisfaction about each new
state a form's general structure. "find." Once you have established one or two
Although a line can function in more than areas in the drawing that convey a sound grasp
one way at once, in this drawing try to use lines of the volumes and their spatial relationships,
only to explore the forms and the spaces between other, less clearly understood passages will call
them. These spaces, like the solid forms, should for clarification. Continue to work on these less
be "measured" and explored by lines (Plate 3.1). developed passages so that the drawing, at the
Draw as if you can see through a solid form to end of fifteen minutes, will show an even standard
the forms located behind it. In this way you can of clarity throughout. Like the Giacometti, Lau-
more fully understand the location of forms and trec, and Piranesi drawings, you should let your
the spaces which separate them. drawing "glow" to include the immediate en-
In the drawing by Piranesi (Plate 3.13), the vironment of your subject, thereby including new
liberal use of line helps explain the forms he is spatial relationships.
representing. Piranesi reinforces our understand- In drawing, any kind of line can perform a
ing of a plane as flat or curved, a volume's posi- diagrammatic function. When an artist uses a
tion in relation to others and the spaces that line to tell us something of a volume's dimensions
separate and surround the volumes by using or position, the space in which it exists, or its
49
MM
50 LINE: I HE ABSTRACT NECESSITY
plnsical relationship to other volumes, that line, negative shapes, study the scale difference be-
whether additionally functioning in a calli- tween forms and their various directions in space.
graphic or any other way, is performing a dia- But do not sacrifice the search for the gestural
grammatic function. action altogether, or the resulting drawing may
Again, it is important to recognize that lines he stiff and lifeless.
generally function in several wa\s simultaneously After the two-minute phase, you will often
We have seen that Pascin's drawing (Plate 3.9) be drawing groups of lines. It may be helpful to
is made of expressive lines that have calligraphic fill a practice page with line groups such as those
properties. Lautrec's drawing (Plate 3.12), while in Illustration 3.3. The few moments taken to
primarily calligraphic, offers lines which function do this exercise within an exercise will provide
additionally in diagrammatic, expressive, and you with a better control for making the various
structural ways. When we add to this considera- line groups or cross-hatchings you will use in this
tions such as lines' contribution to the drawing's drawing.
composition and their plastic activity among Now your goal is to explain the structural role
other lines, we begin to see the challenges and of the flat and curved planes of the volumes.
possibilities that exist beyond the merely repor- Also, try to convey the volumes' sense of weight.
torial aspects of drawing. With the realization If your hand is holding a flower, show through
of choices expanded by these considerations, you the vigor or delicacy of your lines, their weight
will recognizes that discovery, experience, and and group density, the lightness of the flower,
invention, not reporting, is at the heart of re- and the relative heaviness of the hand.
sponsive drawing. Instead of drawing the outline of each plane,
use cross-hatch lines, so closely placed alongside
Dra-aing 3. You have thirty minutes in which each other as to appear to be a tone as in Illustra-
to make drawing. Again, begin
a structural line tion 3.3, and in Plates 3.3 and 3.4.
with a two-minute gesture drawing. This time, Place your hand with the object in a position
however, modify the gestural aspects and stress a which allows a single, diffused light to fall upon
diagrammatic search of your subject, as Cezanne them. Avoid strong sunlight or a position too
does in Plate 3.5. There we saw how the diagram- close to a harsh, artificial light source. These
matic "armature" helped to guide the structural conditions create extreme and often abrupt value
drawing. Concentrate, then, on drawing (in a changes and dark cast shadows. A cast shadow
general and simplified way) all the positive and occurs when a form blocks the path of light rays,
Illustration 3.3
Lines can also deny a volume's surface-state toward and away from the source of light. When
by being drawn in any direction volumetrically planes abut at pronounced angles the value
illogical to it, as in Illustration 3.4C. Sometimes, change is abrupt, as in Illustration 3.6A; but is
especially in drawing curved planes, the direction gradual when a curved plane turns toward or
of the lines that constitute the planes determine away from the light source, as in Illustration 3.6B.
our understanding of a volume's structural mass. Line, then, used in groups to suggest the behavior
In Illustration 3.5, the direction of the line groups of light on volumes through value changes, can,
clarifies the volumes of the hand. Changing like directional line-groups, convey the sudden or
the direction of these lines would diminish our gradual changes of a form's surface. It thus pro-
understanding of the subject's structural actuali- vides the viewer with another set of clues about a
ties. Therefore, indicating the direction of planes subject's structural character.
through line groups that ride upon them in a In your drawing, use both of these form-reveal-
form-revealing way is an important method to ing concepts to "carve" the forms of your subject.
convey a subject's structure. In the drawing by Jacques de Gheyn (Plate 3.15),
It should be stressed here that using these line- both means have been used effectively. Here,
groups should not be understood as a particular groups of lines, by their direction, explain the
Illustration 3.5
51
Plate 3.14
k
line: the abstract necessity 53
the subject's major structural nature by lines that dinal character of any line may primarily express
convey both direction and light. emotive qualities. In this drawing with the steel
Note the few cast shadows, how well integrated crow-quill or sketching pen, after the two-
artists'
they are among the other values, how they con- minute search for the gesture continue to advance
tribute to the pattern or design of the other a felt theme such as strength, delicacy, fear, anger,
values,and how they help explain the terrain mystery, or joy. It will now be necessary to look
upon which they fall. Despite the liberal use of at your hand and the object in it in a new way.
line in this drawing, nowhere do lines deny If you have been doing the drawings in this
the form. They all "earn their keep'' through exercise in sequence, you are, by now, quite
volume-producing tasks. familiar with the visual issues of your subject.
In thirty minutes, drawing from the general Now respond to its meaning for you. You may
to the specific,you should have time to establish not be able to express your feelings in words.
many of the smaller planes that make up a vol- They may be too diffuse or too interlaced with
ume. Divide the planes into several value groups visual responses for language, i.e., you may
as de Gheyn does, or as suggested in Exercise 2C be emotionally stimulated by visual as well as
in Chapter Two. This will help you control the psychological responses. But try to draw what-
many values of your subject more easily. Look ever your emotional response feels like. Let fear,
for the direction a plane seems to suggest. If flat, joy, or whatever your emotional response affect
which direction should the lines take to explain the choices you make from the raw materials —
that plane's union with adjoining ones better? —
what you will and will not use as well as affect
If curved, should the plane's lines move in the your "handwriting." Here, the object you se-
direction of the form's axis or wrap around its lected will surely be an influence. If you are
body? Each plane will present a perceptual chal- holding a flower or a sea shell, you are not likely
lenge in selecting the best direction for the lines to respond to your subject's mood or character
that will comprise it. The choice will usually in the way you would if you are holding a pistol
Plate 3.15
or a shrunken head. The quality of the light must include such changes, include them from the
upon your subject may influence your feelings, as start of the gesture drawing. However, resorting
may the time of day or your disposition at the to distortions before expressive line has had a
time you make the drawing. chance to convey your intent, or carrying such
Your "handwriting" will reveal your feelings changes too far from the actualities of the orig-
but these feelings should not supplant sound inal, can introduce more problems than they
visual perceptions. Rather, they should act as a solve. Such changes carry with them the greater
brake on mere copying and serve as a basis for risk of unintentional discrepancies in scale, shape,
selecting those cues that express your theme. and structural control. Sometimes the drawing
You may wish to clarify and emphasize your drifts so far from the subject's actualities that
theme by exaggerating the bigness or littleness further references to it are impaired. At least in
of some, or all of the forms. You may want to this firstattempt at expressive drawing, the pru-
change your subject's contours, alter the values dent course would be to make only modest ad-
or placement of its parts. Make such adjustments justments of the original, allowing the main
only when the attitudinal character of the line responsibility for the expressive intent to be car-
cannot, itself, intensify the feelings you want. Or, ried by the nature of the lines you draw.
if the intended theme is conceived in a way that The tight limit of fifteen minutes for this
54
line: the abstract necessity 55
drawing is designed to prompt your first, felt The expressive force of Van Gogh's "The Cy-
responses to participate in this expressive act. press Grove" (Plate 3.16) is mainly declared by
Often, in drawings without a time limit, these the swirling lines of the trees, clouds, and nearby
are censored by second thoughts. Here, it is your undergrowth. Had Van Gogh drawn these trees
feelings, advised, but not dictated to by sound "correctly," that is, had he held his feelings in
visual perceptions about the subject, that must be check and merely reported upon their propor-
communicated through line's character. To mod- tions, textures, placement, etc., we would have a
ify your first, felt impulses for other, less spon- drawing that testified to the physical characteris-
taneous ones, can weaken or obscure your mean- tics of some cypress trees in southern France, but
ing. not much more. Instead, he shares with us his
Plate 3.16
Plate 3.17
-
line: the abstract necessity 57
tive copying — a kind of fussy scrutiny —depends an interesting collection of gears, wheels, cylin-
upon the artist's ability to recognizewhat is es- ders, pipes, or tubes. Parts of discarded engines
sential to the suggestion of volume and what is and even old, carved furniture can be used. The
irrelevant or confusing. Ingres' drawing (Plate more unfamiliar and unusual these things are to
3.21) is a faithful recording of his subject, but not you, the better. All too often, forms we possess
slavishly imitative. His changes and choices make some knowledge of cause us to slip into remem-
each delineating line convey volume. Also, Ingre bered cliches. This drawing requires your sharp-
is sensitive to the rhythmic flow that organic est —
perceptual acuity not for purposes of scru-
forms possess and his delineation includes that tiny, but to analyze and understand the volumes
graceful relatedness of the parts. His line is en- you will be delineating.
dowed with aknowing ease that looks deceptively Arrange your subject so that parts overlap
simple. Far from mere copying, Ingres, despite or touch one another. This time do not make
his close adherence to his subject's actualities, a gesture drawing but begin by sighting on some
developed a style of delineation so distinct that edge of your subject and, drawing approximately
his drawings are easily recognizable. actual size, slowly follow the edge with a single,
Exercise 3B offers some suggestion for deline- continuous line. Lift your drawing tool as sel-
ating contour that will help you experience line dom as possible. Do not feel pressured to com-
as edge and volume-maker. plete the drawing within the time allowed.
At all times your line should record edges as
EXERCISE SB the last, fully foreshortened planes at a form's
|
Plate 3.20
H r,
W '
mffci
'
1
60 line: the abstract necessity
as it delineates a form's edge. This sense of a line tion 3.7). As you draw, you will notice that some
coming toward and away from you provides lines begun at a form's edge have moved into its
strong clues about the position of edges in space interior, as may happen with an object such as a
and should be used here to stress the role of the spiral-shaped chair leg. Follow such lines with an
delineating line as volume-revealing rather than awareness of their coming toward and away from
shape-making. you. Each time a spiralling edge turns away and
Ideally, you should not your drawing in-
lift out of your view, continue your line on the new
strument more than seven or eight times during edge that blocked your view. But recognize that
the entire thirty minutes. However, do not hesi- doinor this means leaving a form at one level in
tate to do so more often if you find this restriction space to "hop"' to another one located nearer to
too limiting, or less often, if you can. While you.
most artists do not restrict their contour line in Do not use lines in any way that will suggest
this way (Plate 3.21), in this exercise it will help value. Todo so now is to release the delineating
to increase your sense of delineation as a distinct line from some of its responsibilities. Here, you
graphic idea. A line can be kept going by continu- want to test your ability to perceive, and lines'
ing to find "routes" for it to take. Often, a line, ability to convey volume, as edges may reveal it,
having reached a dead-end. can be made to con- without other aids.
tinue by back-tracking. Just draw your line (as When the delineation of edges alone conveys
slowly and as well observed) along the same edge volume, you will find that the angle of intercep-
it came up, until you find some way out (Illustra- tion of one line by another —
the impression of
space and volume resulting from perspective prin-
Plate 3.21
ciples —
is as important as particular changes
along a form's edge. Perspective is a factor in all
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres (1780-1867). volumetric drawing, but drawings that rely on the
Portrait of a Lady Seated.
single, delineating line to communicate several
Pencil.
kinds of information require the artist to be es-
THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART.
pecially sensitive to the direction of edges in
BEQUEST OF GR^CE RAINEV ROGERS.
space. Part of the impact of such a line is in being
"right" the first time. If several lines are needed
to adjust or repair the original one, there is some
loss of the clean, economical control that you
want to command in this drawing. In Chapter
Five, the critical effect of the direction of lines
upon the sense of volume
examined. is
CHAPTER
Value
LIGHT,
LOCAL-TONE, AND MOOD
A DEFIXITION
A children's riddle asks us what the subject of a Chapter Six). But the application of actual gray
black sheet of paper is. The answer is: a coal- tones has its own versatile uses and characteris-
miner with no headlamp, in a mine at midnight. tics, as we shall see.
Why not? A black surface can be imagined to be Value, whether it is the result of optical or
—
anything in itself, it is nothing. A coal-miner actual tones or both, is the necessary and (except-
—
with a lamp and there is no riddle. Forms in ing color) only tool for modelling form with
nature, as even the children who ask the riddle light. It gives the artist the means of showing
know, are revealed by light. In drawing, the subtle changes in a form's surface-state, and it
impression of light is conveyed by changes in the helps clarify the relative distance between forms.
values of a subject. Value also conveys the inherent lightness or
There are just two ways by which value can darkness of a form its local-tone. This is a
be produced: by line-groups creating optical given quality of all forms. It is affected by, but
grays, that impressions of value resulting from
is, separate from the light and dark areas that result
the collective tone of massed black lines and the from light falling on forms. The local-tone is the
white spaces between them, their value resulting intrinsic value of a thing —
excluding any effects
from the density of such massed lines; and by of light. The local-tone of a pearl is very nearly,
deposits of actual gray tones by media such as but not quite white; that of a lump of coal,
ink, paint, chalks, or pencil. Diluted, inks and nearly black. If we use the value scale described
paint can produce a wide range of tones. The in Chapter Two, the pearl's local-tone is about
varying degrees of softness of chalks and pencils, ten degrees of value, the lump of coal's, about
and the variations of pressure upon them in ninety degrees. Light on both objects
falling
drawing, as well as the smudging of such materi- would make them and darker in places,
lighter
als, also produces a wide range of tones. but the darkest value seen on the pearl will not
For the student, the use of massed lines in be as dark as the lightest value seen on the lump
modelling forms provides important experiences of coal. The light is incidental to the local-tone.
in perceiving and explaining the direction of Values enable us to state a subject's intrinsic and
planes in space and is, therefore, highly instinc- incidental tonalities.
tive of the structural aspects of volume (see Through contrast, scale, shape, distribution in
62
value: light, local-tone, and mood 63
a drawing, and manner of transition from light application, only loosely confined by the lines,
to dark, value also suggests a broad range of further suggests energy breaking loose.
expressive meanings. In the powerful seven- Like line, shape, texture, and volume, value
teenth-century Venetian drawing of a triumphant is a fundamental compositional force. In draw-
general (Plate 4.1), the scale, the manner of ap- ing, value's influences on those issues which de-
plication, and the bold contrast of values be- termine composition can be subtle or powerful
tween the configuration and the white of the (see Chapter Eight). Value can command atten-
page suggest power and grandeur. The forward tion to a form's direction, weight, or importance,
part of the horse and rider "burst" out of the helps create visual diversity, and serves as an
splashy field of tone to assert aggressive strength. effective unifying agent.
Note the shapes of the tones; their spontaneous Unfortunately, most beginning students sel-
Plate 4.1
dom use value. Partly due to a universal ten- tempting to sort out local-tone and value-varia-
dency to regard drawing as a process limited to tions.
line, and partly because of its relative un- The basic skill of tonal drawing is the trans-
familiarity, they restrict their responsive means posing of colored forms and the light upon them
by a general avoidance of value. When intro- into values. Just as a black and white photo-
duced to value, man) beginners are uneasy about graph is an extraction of the values upon an
drawing large or dark tones. They are afraid illuminated, colored subject, the student's tonal
that such areas will be hard to manage or re- — drawings should be tests of his ability to assign
—
move that they will "mess up" the drawing. local-tones and value-variations to colored forms.
These concerns are understandable. But when However, unlike the camera, the student can and
value's functions are understood and some ap- must make selections from, and changes in, the
proaches to its use suggested, it is often quickly observed values, for light can distort as well as
adopted and controlled. How soon and how well explain both local-tone and value-variations.
it serves the student depends on how soon and Texture can also disguise the local-tone and
how well he confronts his concerns about, and value-variations of a subject. "Texture," here,
the functions and approaches to, value. designates the character of surfaces. 'When a sur-
As suggested earlier, there are three wa\s face has a pronounced, all-over tactile qualitv
marks make images: lines, lines and values (either like a tree trunk or silk, when it has qualities
optical or actual), and values alone. Each has a inherent in its physical composition like a calm
wide range of possible uses. Each has had, his- or stormy sea, or when a surface results from the
torically, its brilliant virtuosi. Drawing with line proximity of many small forms, like leaves or the
—
alone freely selected over the other two wa\s threads of a lace collar —
the visual activitv thus
is excellent, but when a drawing is restricted to generated should be regarded as texture. "Tex-
line only, by innocence or fear, it is a regrettable ture" also defines value and color changes of
limitation. Value provides the only means to either a patterned or random nature in a form's
convey responses which must otherwise remain surface. A plaid shirt, a tiger's stripes, and the
stifled. markings of a marble slab are examples of non-
tactile textures. The term also includes groups
of three-dimensional forms when they activate a
the lemon may be painted yellow and the plum textured they cannot be reduced to a single local-
purple, but these colors may be lighter or darker tone. A chessboard, a zebra, a boldly patterned
in value, than those of the fruits. If he is draw- —
wallpaper or flag or anything else that has strik-
ing with charcoal, he will, of course, disregard the ing and frequent differences in color or texture,
subject's colors. But often he will also disregard inherently possesses two or more local-tones. But,
the values of the colors and will not extract their if an intense light illuminates part of such a sur-
local-tone. Rather, he may begin to draw the face, leaving the remainder in a pronounced
various values or value-variations resulting from shadow, the surface's tonal differences are made
light striking the subject, as if the lemon and subordinate to the strong contrast of light and
plum were actually white. If he does try to show shadow upon it. When a strong light strikes half
their local-tone, it will generally be at the cost a chessboard it unifies the alternating light and
of the value-variations. Establishing the value- dark squares of the illuminated portion as a
variations of a subject in the context of its local- lighter pair of values in contrast to the light and
tones is not likely before the student sees the dark values in the unlit portion (Illustration
difference between these two aspects of the sub- From this example we see the importance
4.1 A).
ject's values.For him, color disguises local-tone. in distinguishing which of a subject's values are
Or, seeing it, color adds to his confusion in at- given and which the result of light conditions.
Illustration 4.1
In Illustration 4.1A, the intense light unifies the 2H pencil for thefirst few squares, darkening
two local-tones of the board by showing their dif- them asneeded with the 2B pencil. For the next
ferences to be less contrasting than the contrast few squares, the 2B pencil, used with increasing
between the lit and unlit halves of the board. pressure, will be needed. If necessary, combine
But this is achieved at the cost of seeing the it with the 5B or 6B pencil. The last squares
chessboard as split into two halves. In Illustra- may require the softest pencil only. But use all
tion 4. IB, the intensity of the contrast is some- three in any way that will help you control the
what lessened and occurs less abruptly than in changes in value.
Illustration 4.1 A. This results in a more unified
chessboard and a more consistent texture, with-
Plate 4.2
out losing the impression of strong light striking
the board. Francisco Goya (1746-1828). Crowd in a Park.
EXERCISE 4 A
In choosing the first light tone to put beside changing one often requires changing one or
the white square on the far left, remember that more of the others.
you need to make five more value jumps before In deciding whether your exercise is successful
you reach the black square on the right. All eight or not, you will be making judgments about its
squares must show the same degree of difference tonal organization, its tonal order. Evaluating
between values. If you make the first tone too the tonal order here —
perceiving and weighing
light (too near to white), the small difference in the differences between degrees of value is sim- —
tone between it and the white square to its left ilar to the way the values in an observed subject
sets the degree of value difference between all the are assessed. Then, too, we want to see the range
values to come. Because the goal here is to have and relationships of the values. If our goal is
—
the eight values progress evenly on the value reproducing the tonal order of the subject, we
scale where white is zero and black is one hundred must study our drawing to search for false
— starting at the left, each square must be just "notes" —
for faulty tonal judgments.
over twelve degrees darker than the one on its Try some variations of this chart. Here are a
left. In Illustration 4.2, there are intentional er- few suggestions.
rors in the eight values shown. These cause some
squares to be too greatly separated in value from 1. Draw a ten-square value chart. Try for the same
neighboring squares, while others are too close. kind of value progression from white to black as in
Avoid such blending as occurs between squares the first chart. This time, the value changes will
three and four, and such splits as occur between be subtler, their differences more critical.
squares four and five. 2. Draw another ten-square chart using pen and ink
Try to draw each tone evenly. There should only. The true black now possible will make it
be no value changes within a square. By placing somewhat show ten different values, but
easier to
the inability to lighten any square will make estab-
lines close together in one direction, or by cross-
lishing the values more difficult. Producing even
hatching and varying the pressure on your pencil,
tones in pen and ink will likewise prove more of
a uniform value of any degree can be produced. the lighter value (see
a challenge, especially in
The control necessary to make line-groups pro- Chapter Seven).
duce a desired even value is a useful "byproduct"
3. Make another rectangle one inch high and eight
of this exercise. Therefore, do not smudge or rub
inches long, but do not divide it into squares.
the tones to get an even value. When pencil Using your three pencils, make a gradual, un-
lines are rubbed with the fingers, the oil in the broken progression from white to black. Here, the
skin mixes with the tones deposited, making fur- tone should continually grow darker as it moves
ther adjustments difficult-. Although the smudg- to the right. On the rectangle's far left, some white
ing of tones is a valid graphic tactic, it is often paper should remain to establish the scale's zero.
overused by the beginning student, causing over- Placed at a ten-foot distance, the values should
worked, "precious" results that destroy a draw- flow evenly from white to black.
ing's freshness and spontaneity. 4. Mix eight to ten gray tones with poster-paint or
When completed, this eight-value chart should any opaque, water-based medium, then try to re-
be placed about nine or ten feet away and produce these tones in pencil. The painted tones
should cover a wide range of value and be evenly
studied. Are there any sudden breaks in the
applied. They need not be lined up in a chart-like
value changes? Are any values so similar they are
way but can be used to create a small two-dimen-
hard to separate at this distance? Do the values
sional painting of clearly defined shapes. In this
on the seem to group together and split
left side
way, along with the challenge of perceiving the
off from the values on the right? Are the values values of another medium, you can practice seeing
from left to right so light that they seem to drop shape-actualities.
off to black too suddenly? Check to see if any of
5. Cut out of magazines, construction paper, etc., ten
the values, including white and black, break the or twelve evenly colored one inch squares. Paste
even progression of the values. In making any them down in a row according to their value, with
adjustments in these tones, you may find that the darkest color on the right. Seeing the value
Illustration 4.2
!*>
—
difference between a light blue and bright orange its effects are merely copied or used as one more
is demanding test
a of your ability to disregard a source ofperceptual information. A drawing
color's hue and to extract its value. When this which tries to duplicate the values in the original
chart completed, draw another row of one inch
is
will reveal no more than the light does about
squares directly below it, and using pencils, match
volume and space, and will even distort and
the value of each color in the square below it.
divide the volume and space when the light
does. But if light's behavior is understood, the
It is important that you occasionally practice
these exercises or make some tonal drawings that light will be "edited" —
selected and altered to
general distribution of a drawing's values in its divided into tonal shapes when an intense light
early stages. Establishing these major value-
source casts harsh, deep shadows across their
groupings before we draw the smaller, specific bodies (Illustration 4.1 A). Such shadows can also
distort a form's volume and obscure important
ones that constitute them will reduce the possi-
bility of destroying the tonal character of an
passages (Illustration 4.3). But a moderate, well
area —
whether that character is mainly the re- placed light helps the artist reveal, explain, and
unify complex subject-matter. A tree need not be
sult of local-tones or light diversity. For example,
in a drawing of a sunlit interior, a white cat drawn leaf by leaf. Grapes, pebbles, hair, a sta-
King in a shadowed, far corner of the room, seen dium crowd, or any other subject comprised of
in its value context as one of several forms small forms can be expressed in a unified way by
darkened by the reduction of light in the corner, broad value-variations that explain the overall
would be understood to be not white but — — volume these small forms contribute to.
Until the Italian Renaissance, most drawings
gray. The darker the corner of the room, the
darker the value of the cat. It is easier to see the comprised of small forms described all or most
white cat as actually gray if we first search for the of them with roughly equal attention. A clump
major value divisions created by both local-tone of leaves, a bunch of grapes, resulted from the
and changes in the light. delineation of virtually every member (Plate 4.3).
To draw the cat in that tonal environment as In this Lombard drawing, each leaf has been
actually white, "pop out" of the
forces it to carefully drawn in each tree. The physical prox-
darkened corner's tonal order. Drawing values imity of the leaves communicates the symbol
sequentially, and with no regard to the tonal Tree. Here the artist has drawn his concept,
order they contribute to, increases the danger of rather than his perception of a tree. As drawing
prior knowledge (the cat is white) replacing moved toward perceptual response to observed
visual comprehension. matter, the additive process of drawing ninety —
Color, sequential drawing, and dis-
texture, leaves equals one tree —
declined. As ways of
placing perception by prior knowledge all camou- perceiving expanded, sensitivity to the ways vol-
flage value. Learning to extract a subject's tonal- ume could be suggested also grew. The drawing
ities from the visual factors obscuring them and by Cesare da Sesto (Plate 4.4) goes far beyond the
avoiding attitudes that intrude on such percep-
tions require us to develop the visual compre- Illustration 43
hensions and insights necessary to overcome these
factors and attitudes.
-
THE EFFECTS
OF LIGHT ON VOLUME
wm^^m i
68 value: light, local-tone, and mood
Plate 4.3
ing light. The sun's life-giving light and warmth
is, together with the forms depicted, Seurat's
Anonymous. Page from a Lombard Sketchbook.
subject.
Pen, brush and ink.
As Plates 4.6, 4.7, and 4.8 show, drawings in
THE PIERPONT MORGAN LIBRARY.
which light is the dominant graphic idea, infer
a view of our world as existing in darkness dark- —
accumulation of particulars in suggesting mass. ness is the norm, light is the transitory, revealing
We see light falling upon the tree from above exception.
and to its right side. Although numerous leaves
are individually drawn, there are shaded passages
suggesting the darkened underside of masses of THE ELEMENTS OF LIGHT
leaves. Likewise, the shading of the left side of
each branch and the shaded branches beneath
In drawings where values represent light (values
the leaves on that side unify trunk and branches
can be used in other ways, as we shall see), the
into visually related volumes. Although da Sesto
value contrasts can denote the forms, the spaces
sees masses as having particulars, and not merely
surrounding them, and the shadows they cast.
resulting from them, the particulars still receive
These contrasts conform to six discernable divi-
much individual attention. Rembrandt's re-
sions, regarded here as the elements of light. As
sponse to trees (Plate 4.5) stresses the gesture of
seen in Illustration 4.4, they are:
mass. In this drawing of a rural landscape he
disregards particulars altogether. Using the im- 1. The lightest value of an illuminated form, or
pression of light in a simple, but eloquent way, highlight.
he carves the broad, structural planes of masses. 2. The next lightest value, or light-tone.
value: light, local-tone, and mood 69
Illustration 4.6
HH
70 value: light, local-tone, and mood
drapery, the strong, but softly graded value con- light, or has a polished or otherwise reflective
trasts show chiaroscuro's volume-revealing possi- surface, as when an object is wet, the highlights
bilities. Notice da Vinci's looser, broader man- upon produce a mirror image of the light
it
ner, used in the earlier stages of the drawing and source. Highlights on objects with a mat surface
visible in the upper part of the figure. The draw- denote the small areas where the greatest con-
ing is a closely observed and fully realized study centration of light rays strike a form directly. A
of light's behavior on volumes through the use subject's surface may be only slightly reflective,
of value. But at the beginning da Vinci's search and thus may offer both kinds of highlights. This
for the general masses of the drapery, and some makes it difficult to know when a highlight re-
preliminary line drawing, show that his first sults from reflecting light or when it is an intense
responses were aimed at understanding the ges- concentration of nonreflecting light. In the first
ture and the essential volumetric and tonal actu- —
instance if volume through value is a goal it —
alities. Also observe this brush-drawing,
that can usually be omitted, for it is not relevent to
heightened with white, consists mainly of line- volume but rather to surface texture. Indeed,
groups that effectively produce subtly graded drawing a subject's surface effects instead of its
value changes. These changes, like those in the volume cues usually obscures the latter. When a
Courbet drawing, show a use of all the elements highlight is nonreflective, it should be under-
of light. stood as part of the form's surface and not as an
Plate 4.5
isolated, bright speck of light. Seeing it as a self- area of a form, contributing little. If a volume
contained, shape often makes the student
little has been sensitively perceived, their inclusion is
treat it as something separate from the form's not necessary. We understand a subject's volume
surface, with the result that it appears to occupy mainly through its major structural character.
a position in space in front of the form's surface. When the major structural facts are not clear,
The texture of the human figure often contains highlights cannot contribute enough to make us
both kinds of highlights. When drawing human understand the volumetric character of a subject.
forms, the experienced artist often subdues or The student can distinguish whether a high-
even omits both reflecting and direct highlights. light is a reflected or direct light by deciding if
The volume-destroying nature of reflecting high- it seems to concern the form's texture or its
lights usually warrant their exclusion. Direct structure. To take an extreme example, imagine
highlights, on rounded forms, are relatively un- drawing a large, shining, steel ball-bearing. Its
important because they describe only a small mirroring of the light source (actual images of
windows, light bulbs, etc.) and the sudden, dras-
tic changes of value inherent in any curved and
where the impression of volume is intended the planes, such as a cube, they may each occupy one
attitude to highlights should be the fewer the or more of the form's planes (Illustration 4.8).
better, the less intense the better, and the less The light-tones are usually found on all flat or
defined the better. curved planes in positions facing the path of the
On rounded forms, the light-tone, half-tone, light rays. Those placed at a right angle to the
base-tone, and reflected light will fuse into each light's direction will be most intensely illumi-
Plate 4.7
73
Plate 4.8
Plate 4.9
10
76 value: light, local-tone, and mood
tone divisions suggest flat shapes. They appear environment. Yet this figure appears to be almost
to be somewhat more on the surface of the page, monumental. Had Seurat clearly focused the
modifying the impression of volume. figure's edges, it would have looked silhouetted
Where intentional stress on the shapes of tones and flat. As he drew it, it exists in space, has
is desired (Plate 4.11), reducing the subject's volume and weight, and even seems to be illumi-
values to black and white, and avoiding gradual nated. Here, it is the "soft" edges and gradual
transitions between them helps convey both two- value transitions that convey those impressions.
and three-dimensional impressions. In the pow- Note the relatively clear edge of the woman's
erful drawing by Matisse, this strategy helps back and the pronounced value contrast between
convey both a woman and the animated, tonal it and the background area that abuts it. This
activity which is itself a visual and expressive stress in edge-clarity and value contrast implies
event — these together are the subject. They are strength and stability. It also keeps the drawing
interdependent. Matisse also uses value as an from appearing merely unfocused. The impres-
agent of composition and to convey his emotional sion of the torso rising like a pillar is made
responses to the subject. We
will return to his clearer because other edges and value contrasts
drawing when examining these additional prop- are less defined. This visual "crescendo" the —
erties of value. figure's —
grandeur and strength depends on the
Illustration 4.11
77
Plate 4.11
state of edges and values throughout the quality. As you draw, use the soft charcoal stick
drawing. It is like a composer who creates big for the deeper tones and the other two for the
crescendos of sound by contrasting them with lighter ones. You may erase, but avoid erasing
quieter, less emphatic passages. tones that subsequent drawings may incorporate.
Watteau (Plate 4.13) uses value to lose and Ideally, all the tones in the first drawing should
find forms in emphasizing the graceful sweep of be made of line-groups. Where a particular tone
the woman's arm. He diminishes the contrast of or texture cannot be produced this way, some
her head with the background and darkens the moderate adjusting of these line-groups by a
area of the figure below the arm. He also avoids kneaded eraser or a paper blending tool, called
"cutting" the torso by the drape and the head by a stump or tortillon, may be used. But erase and
the uplifted arm, by losing the edges of these blend only when absolutely necessary. Both eras-
—
forms allowing almost no value change between ing and blending tend to diminish a drawing's
—
forms in these places. This helps create a grace- freshness and promote a concern with unimpor-
ful letter "S" rhythm that starts in the lower arm tant details. In the second and third drawings,
as a gentle movement and, gaining momentum, erasing and blending will be necessary to pro-
moves through the figure to end very boldly in
the woman's right hand. The values and edges
throughout the drawing support this enveloping Plate 4.12
sweep.
Georges Pierre Seurat (1859-91). Seated Woman.
We feel the locomotive's power in Hopper's Conte crayon.
drawing (Plate 4.14) through his bold use of large COLLECTION, THE MUSEUM OF MODERN ART, NEW YORK.
dark tones that hide some of the particular ABBY ALDRICH ROCKEFELLER BEQUEST.
mechanical appurtenances which a more factual
drawing might provide. By losing these details
in strong, dark tones that stress the major vol-
umes of the engine, Hopper makes us feel its
heaviness and bulk —
and its immense energy.
The values of the tunnel and the engine dissolve
into each other, uniting the two halves of the
drawing and suggest the train's ability to move
through the tunnel.
If Hopper tells us little about what a train is
—
made of, he tells us mainly through value —
great deal about its character and power. He
even uses value to tell us that it is a bright day.
The strong cast shadows, the gleaming metal
(note that Hopper does not allow the highlights
to "jump" off the forms) and the value contrast
between the surface of the wall and the tunnel
opening all suggest strong sunlight.
The impression of volume through the appli-
cation of the elements of light and the concept
of lost and found values provide versatile ways
to state perceptions that are beyond the range of
nontonal drawing. The following exercise sug-
gests some general modes of approach to these
uses of value.
EXERCISE 4B |
Continue by placing the halftones in their subtleenough to stay within the value range of
observed locations. Again, using the darkest of the immediate tonal area. If, for example, you
the halftone range, place it in all areas seen to are explaining the planar construction of a half-
be darker than the actual halftone areas. Next, tone area in which the light failed to convey the
place the base-tones in their observed locations volume, the broadened range of halftone value,
only. Because you have been drawing tones on if extended too far at either end of its range,
all but the highlight areas in your drawing (if would invade both light-tone and base-tone areas,
any), the reflected light areas (if any) are now a distorting the volume. Such strong light and/or
darkish halftone. Adjust any reflected lights to dark tones in a halftone area would appear as
their correct relationship with the other values depressions or projections of the surface. Deter-
of the drawing. mine these arbitrary value differences by imagin-
Remember that the entire still-life is regarded ing a very weak light source falling across the
as white in local-tone, so a half-tone on a light planes in the blank area. Direct the light source
object, such as an egg, will have the same value from whichever angle would best reveal the vari-
as one on a dark object, such as a black shoe. ous tilts of the planes.
This similarity will require you to make tonal As the drawing develops, check to see that the
judgments that are based on the position of value range of one object has not grown lighter
planes in relation to the direction of the light or darker than that of another. Should any cast
source. Do not merely follow the subject's value shadows appear in your drawing, remember that
actualities. Instead, you must understand the they are striking surfaces assumed to be white.
direction of the planes in space so that you can The background can be handled more inde-
assign to them their proper tonality. pendently. Its main function here is to provide
When the entire still-life has been stated as value contrasts for the objects in the still-life. It
more or less flat value-shapes, begin to "carve" can freely, but subtly, change value to be lighter
at the borders between values where transitional than a form against its dark side and darker than
tones are needed. Feel the nature of the turning the form on its light side (Illustration 4.13).
that occurs between the planes they represent by Because you have been using light to explain
constantly observing the planar nature of the volume, the drawing may say less about the sub-
forms of the still-life. ject's volume than if you had stressed structural
As you model the form at the shapes' edges clarity. But the completed drawing should still
bridging sudden tonal changes between them convey the impression of light revealing masses
—
with transitional tones the sense of value-shapes in space.
will recede and the impression of planes forming
volumes in space will emerge. Refer to the still- Drawing Begin by using the same still-
2.
life continually to check on how gradual, or life objects, but rearrange them. As in the first
sudden, the value-transitions between planes are. drawing, just a few minutes should elapse be-
Try to feel the weight and bulk of the subject's tween starting to draw and introducing the first
forms as you draw. As in structural line drawing, tones. But now these tones should represent each
try to feel your lines are "riding" upon the object's local-tone. Where an object cannot be
surfaces of the forms. reduced to a single local-tone, draw the two or
Here, make any changes in value that help
explain a form's volume when the light distorts Illustration 4.13
it, or when the light fails to reveal the planar
activity you know is there. Sometimes the light
strikes a surface from an angle that does not
distinguish its planar differences. Such changes
in the subject's terrainmay actually be difficult
to because of the sameness of the light.
see
Coming nearer to the subject, or seeing it from
another angle, will help you comprehend the
planar structure of poorly illuminated parts. In
explaining them in your drawings, you will arbi-
trarily have to widen the value range in such
"blank" areas. The value differences needed to
show the terrain in these areas must be strong
enough to perform their modelling function and
—
more that are necessary to establish its inherent tains similar objects, forexample, two apples, see
tonal character. if any value differences exist between their local-
Drawthe local-tones as flat areas whose limits tones. Such differences, however slight, should be
will determine the various shapes. These local- seen and stated. It is often helpful to determine
tones are not volume-producing values they — the still-life's lightest and darkest local-tones. If es-
merely state the object's own lightness or dark- tablished early, they serve as tonal "brackets"
ness,independent of the conditions of the light. all other local-tones are placed within the tonal
They can be stated in any broad, simple way. limits of thesetwo extremes.
Here, some blending may help to produce just Be sure what you draw is the local-tone of an
the degree of value you want. Except for the object, not the effects of illumination upon it. If
few, brief notations to get your drawing under- an object possessing a light local-tone, such as a
way, line (except for structural line-groups func- lemon, is observed in deep shadow, its local-tone
tioning as values) not needed in this drawing.
is —
should be drawn, not its darkened state not yet.
The boundaries of volumes will be conveyed by When you have drawn all the subject's local-
the values that formed the volumes. Surrounding tones and have made the adjustments necessary
tonally developed forms with line is visually re- to establish the same light and dark relation-
dundant — it suggests a mistrust of value's ability ships of the local-tones that exist in the still-life,
Plate 4.14
miss) volumes, and those which convey volumet- character. Again, some parts of the still-life may
ric information about parts of an object when not be explained by the light, or may be dis-
the light does not. Both may require you to torted by cast shadows. The subtle changes in
lighten as well as darken parts (or all) of every value that you will make to explain the surface-
local-tone (making charcoal lines or tones lighter state of such areas must now agree with the local-
is accomplished with a kneaded eraser,
best tone of each object and the tonal order of the
which can be shaped to make fine points that area in which it is located.
enable you to make a kind of "negative" cross- The completed drawing should convey the
—
hatching white or light gray lines in areas of impression of light revealing the volume of sev-
dark value). eral objects of various values. Here, the lightest
The first of these changes, those where light value of a black glove will be darker than the
ravs explain volume, may require that some local- darkest value of an egg if the light upon them is
tones be darkened entirely. If a form is located roughly the same.
entirely inside an area of diminished light that
results from a cast shadow, all its surfaces will Drawing 3. Coat your paper with a layer of
obviously be much darker than its local-tone. To soft or medium The
value of this
vine-charcoal.
have drawn this darker tone earlier would have tone is not critical, but should not be lighter than
complicated the search for local-tones by includ- a thirty degree or darker than a sixty degree tone.
ing responses to the effects of light on form. Extend the tone to the edges of your paper.
Here, you want to experience value's several roles Begin this drawing as you did the other iwo,
in a more isolated way. However, many artists working from another rearrangement of the still-
do omit the search for the local-tone of objects life. Again, begin using values within the first
roughly equidistant from it. For once, white is The drawings in this exercise may suggest
not a given condition of the drawing but must other variations of tonal drawing. These three
be produced by removing tone from the page. approaches are not intended as "how to" systems.
When this is the case, it is more likely to be Rather, their selection here provides three gen-
seen as present in most subjects in small amounts, eral modes of approach to the issues of forms in
if at all. light. The results of each depends on visual com-
Beginning with a toned surface also helps to prehension, not on method. They are intended
establish a subjects local-tones, and the elements to promote, not replace understanding.
of light that its forms, and the nature of the The following variations on the drawings in
light, produce. If you begin with an all-over tone this exercise are helpful, and may, in turn, sug-
that is close to many of the tones of the subject, gest others.
itis easier to match these by making the minor
adjustments required than to estimate and draw 1. Using a sheet of gray pastel paper, draw in black
and white conte crayon or chalks. Here, the forms
the precise value upon the white page.
emerge from the page's fixed tone as you adjust
Once the search for value-shapes has begun, the tone with light and dark values. By varying
the tone of the page can be altered depending the pressure on your crayons or chalks, you can
upon the still-life's local-tones, tonal order, and, produce a wide range of values. The only "rule"
later, the behavior of the light that falls upon here is never to mix the black and white to pro-
the still-life's forms. Advance the entire drawing duce grays. Every value from black to white can be
together. As you study the way the forms made without doing this. Black and white, or any
affect and are affected by the light rays, notice tone they can separately produce, may appear side
that you can better grasp the behavior of both by by side in the drawing. But all grays should result
viewing your subject both ways. When you con- from black or white being "mixed" with the gray
centrate on a form's volumetric character, the
of the page (preferably by line-groups) —
not with
each other. When a grav identical with the page's
light rays can be seen to be interrupted and
tone is required, let the page provide the value
altered by it; when you fix upon the light's path,
(Illustration 4.14).
it can be seen illuminating planes according
as
2. Start a tonal drawing on a stiff, white support, such
to their position in space. In the first instance,
as illustration board or a heavy-weight cold-pressed
you "identify"' with the form; in the second, with water-color paper, using black and white goauche,
the light. Doing both gives you a fuller under- casien, or acrylic paint. Use the paint thinly to
standing of the nature of the light and the vol- establish the local-tones, and continue to develop
ume. One explains the other. the forms, using black and white conte crayon or
When completed, this drawing may look chalks. Here, the black and white paint may be
—
rather like the second one the goals in both mixed together to produce grays, but the conte
were the same. But here you began with an crayon or chalks should be used separately, their
tones "mixing" with the underpainting to make
erasable, toned surface, and it may have resulted
the required tonalities.
in a darker over-all character, a wider value
range, and more convincing volumes. Because
the common tendency to draw tones too lightly Illustration -4.14
was here circumvented by the tone of the page
which required a special effort to make light
values, your drawing may more nearly approxi-
mate the still-life's actual tonal order.
Drawings in which light reveals volume should
be done often. The demands they make on your
perceptual skills increase your capacity to see
shape, scale, direction, and texture, as well as
your general understanding of value and vol-
ume building.
Even the ability to use line to suggest vol-
ume is improved through tonal drawing. When
3. Using india-ink washes of varying tints to develop nant impression of their collective behavior is
the local-tones,continue to establish the illumi- more one of value than of line. These values
nated volume with pen and black and white ink. not only convey form and to some extent, light,
Here, the black and white ink lines may cross each they pulsate with vigorous rhythms, reinforcing
other or combine to make various optical grays.
the figure's action. The energy with which
Matisse slashes at the page is necessary to his
expressive idea —the figure's bold stance and the
85
Plate 4.16
Plate 4.17
87
tant peaks to emphatic contrasts in the moun-
tainside on the right. Kuo Hsi's values suggest
space, atmosphere, texture, and volume in a way
that conveys a feeling of stately silence. Kuo
Hsi's handling of the drawing, so unlike
Matisse's, is as gentle and delicate as the value
transitions and the mood they convey. Both
artists use value to express their meaning. In
these drawings, as in the examples following, the
way values are employed and the manner used
to state them are determined by the artist's ex-
pressive responses, which modify, intensify, and
edit his visual responses.
"Fish Skeletons" by Hyman Bloom (Plate 4.16)
offers an approach to value drawing we have not
yet considered. Reversing the usual role of white
or light paper and black or dark drawing materi-
als, Bloom draws in white ink upon a dark
red surface. Depending on the subject and the
intent, this can be logical both visually and ex-
pressivelv. Here, the reversal of light tones upon
a dark surface helps suggest the feeling of under-
—
water depths its mystery and darkness. In this
way, the spikey fish skeletons are drawn as being
light in value —
which they are. Note the flowing
quality of the forms and how Bloom causes them
to "flash" into bright light and then fade into
the deeper background.
Lebrun, in his drawing "Reclining Figure"
(Plate 4.17), draws the figure's head obscured by
the shadow
of the hood-like drape, as contrasting
with the lines and light tones of the rest of the
Plate 4.19 drawing. The head becomes the visual and ex-
Illustration 4.15
=-~
Chapter Three) to convey meaning by its char- these graphic impressions appear to fragment,
acterand behavior, so others, like Matisse, Kuo confuse, or destroy its over-all cohesion as a sys-
Hsi,Bloom, and Lebrun produce values whose tem of design, value can enforce visual affinities
character and behavior express the mood and that cause groupings, emphasis, and directions
meaning of the drawing's abstract and figurative to emerge (Illustration 4.15). Note how Charles
content. As these drawings show, responsive draw- Sheeler (Plate 4.19) directs our attention to the
ing concerns more than perception of the measur- play of vertical and horizontal movements of a
able facts of scale, shape, direction, distance, or room's interior by values that unite the subject
value. It also concerns felt responses -to a subject's in groupings organized to convey direction and
plastic activity and emotive character.
to its emphasis. The strong dark tones of the stove,
For many artists, like Watteau and Hopper, seen against its surrounding light tones, fix our
the expressive intent of a particular drawing is attention upon its "mysterious being" and its
largely triggered by their subject. Although such powerful sense of verticality. Throughout the
artists do bring attitudes, feelings, and ideas, or drawing, values merge and contrast, stating a
concepts to their confrontation with the subject, value "plan" that unifies the subject and estab-
perception is a dominant factor in forming their lishes a sense of balanced value-design. In this
expressive responses. Thus, their general dispo- drawing, the values simultaneously convey the
sition to use value in certain ways for certain descriptive, expressive, and organizational mes-
purposes is given its specific opportunities by the sage. Through value, Sheeler also guides our
subject's expressive potentialities. attention to both shape and volume so that we
Other artists, like Bloom, Rothbein, or Dick- sense the organization of both two- and three-
inson, experience a deeply felt "presence"; more dimensional space.
than an idea, less than a vision, they seek forms As mentioned in Chapter Two, shape is a
that will help them make their meaning visible. basic, given quality. It is important to recall
They can be said to intend before they see. that value always has shape. Whether as clearly
Neither kind of artist functions as he does ex- defined as a sharply focused tonal drawing of a
clusive of the other's means of approach. The square or as diffuse as a puff of smoke, the termi-
perceptually stimulated artist brings certain con- nation of a value within the boundaries of a
cepts to the encounter with a subject; the con- drawing establishes its shape. The scale and
ceptually stimulated artist responds to the visual character of the shape always influence its visual
and expressive stimuli of the subject. Both re- and expressive behavior. When two or more
quire value to do more than merely describe. shapes are identical, or even just similar, value
can help locate the volumes they represent in
their respective positions in space, as in Illustra-
tion 4.16. Here because of the value differences,
VALUE AS
we read the distant hill on the right as farther
AN AGENT OF COMPOSITION away than the similarly shaped hill on the left.
Likewise, the spheres and cubes occupy different
Value's uses in pictorial issues such as direction, positions in space because of their value differ-
balance, emphasis, diversity, and unity will be ences, despite their sameness in shape and scale.
examined in Chapter Eight. Here, it is helpful In this illustration, the impression of distance
to mention, in general terms, the various ways given through value is assisted by the phenome-
in which value can convey these considerations non of perspective (see Chapter Five)
aerial
of pictorial design. which causes distant objects to appear lighter in
Like line, value iscapable of a vigorous ab- value. The same clarity of spatial position be-
stract existence of its own. For example, in Plate tween like forms, by value contrast, will also
4.18, the dark tones of the dress and the light occur in shallow space situations such as a still-
ones of the background serve to intensify the life arrangement. Then, the value of the forms
sense of rushing vertical movement that contrasts relative to the value of the background determine
with the figure's inactive stance. The visual and their position in space. An object possessing a
expressive impacts of value co-existent with, or light overall tone, seen against a background of
independent of its representational role, that is, a similar tone, will appear farther back than an
its abstract activities, constitutes the means by identical object of a dark tone located alongside
which not only expression but also compositional it.
Illustration 4.16
light dominates our attention and envelops a and solved in tonal drawing than in painting,
wall, dancer, and floor. When objects stand in where value, like hue and intensity, is a property
the path of a light source, cast shadows can take of color and harder to isolate for consideration.
on unusual shapes. When light creates such pro- It is no coincidence that Rembrandt was not
nounced light and dark shapes, they become only a great painter, but also a prolific and
important factors in composition. Sometimes, as brilliant draughtsman from his earliest days as
in Illustration 4.17B, although the objects in the a young aspiring artist until the end of his life.
path of the light source are located "off stage," Rembrandt's mastery of value (Plate 4.20) en-
their influence on composition can be consider- abled him to convey light, volume, gesture, and
able. profound expressive meaning, with an economy,
We have seen that value is a potent graphic power, and eloquence rarely equalled. His pene-
force. Its uses in drawing are limited only by trating knowledge and inventive use of value is
our perceptual understanding and inventive wit. amply evident in his paintings (Plate 4.21).
Its relevence to responsive painting, which, like For the student, the development of graphic
responsive drawing, conveys our intellectual and —
freedom- the ability to pursue his drawing in-
intuitive judgments based on a subject's actual terests in —
any direction for any purpose depends
and inferred potentialities for expressive order is on his comprehension and control of value's
clear though sometimes overlooked by the stu- potential for contributing to expressive order.
dent. Many responsive painting problems are Whatever uses value will have for the student
often really drawing problems, and those involv- later on, now the study of the several functions
ing value are among the most vexing to the of value is essential to his development as a per-
young artist. These are more easily recognized ceptually sensitive and knowledgeable artist.
Illustration 4.17
Plate 4.20
Plate 4.21
Perspective
THE
FORESHORTENED VIEW
A DEFINITION
For the responsive artist, perspective embraces Second, it enables the student to draw more com-
any visual clue to volume, scale, placement, or plex and/or interesting subjects that he might
the direction of forms in a spatial field. Using otherwise avoid. Third, it allows him to regard
this broader meaning of perspective, we see that spatial and volume clues that he might otherwise
some of its aspects are present in all drawings not consider.
that convey the impression of three-dimensional A number of perspective systems have been
forms in space. Even primitive works show some devised in the past. Ancient Egyptian, Persian,
rudimentary (though possibly unconscious) em- and Oriental artists developed visually lucid and
ployment of perspective (Plate 5.1). aesthetically pleasing systems. There have been
The wider interpretation of the term perspec- others. The system normally used in the Western
tive, as the appearances of forms in space, may world is called linear perspective. Like all other
reassure the student who feels he is confronted systems, it is not completely successful in project-
with a complex, rather dry, and mechanical sys- ing real volumes in real space onto a flat surface
tem. Actually, for most artists, the exact and without some distortion. It differs from all other
predictable complexities that stem from the basic systems in being based upon what forms in space
application of perspective hold little interest. A look like when observed from a fixed position
preoccupation with perspective generally restricts with one eye closed. Naturally enough, artists,
inventive freedom. In fact, the student has been when drawing, do move about. Indeed, many
using most of the basic principles, and probably artists find the act of drawing in general, and the
sensing some of the others. Because perspective requirements of perception in particular, demand
deals with appearances, the student knows more a considerable amount of movement. In the act
about the subject than he realizes. What he of drawing, an artist must look up and down,
needs to do is to clarify and expand his under- left and right, and frequently step back or other-
standing of these principles to benefit from the wise change his original position relative to his
specific information and control they provide. subject. Thus, with its very first requirement
A knowledge of perspective is helpful in three often disregarded, linear perspective is best used
ways. First, it serves as a "checklist" to uncover in a supportative, rather than a methodological
unintended distortions of the subject's actualities. role. The artist drawing volumes based mainly
92
—
Plate 5.1
on linear perspective is limited by its nature intensify the drawing's visual and expressive
—
and his in transposing actual volume and space meaning are more important than following per-
into their two-dimensional equivalents. spective or any other convention. Any conven-
Allied to linear perspective are some observ- tion that unquestioningly restricts is destructive
able phenomena resulting from atmospheric con- of the freedom necessary to creativity. When
ditions and particles of matter suspended in the used with a liberal tolerance for its adjustment
air, called aerial perspective. These affect the to other factors in responsive drawing, perspec-
clarity, texture, and values of subjects seen at a tive becomes a valuable aid.
distance. The foreshortening of forms in space is in-
Together, these concepts have helped Western herent to three-dimensional drawing. seldom We
artistsconvey much observed visual fact with see a form from a view that offers only one plane.
little intrusive distortion. But the greatest artists The seasoned artist usually avoids such totally
wisely regarded perspective as a tool, and one foreshortened views of objects because they hide
with definite limits. Ironically, the impression of too much of the object's mass. A line drawing of
forms in space becomes more convincing when a circle, representing an end plane of a cylinder,
the principles of perspective are not unselectively tells us nothing of the cylinder's length. Unless
followed. we are told the circle represents a cylinder, we
When applying the principles of linear per- would have no way of deducing this from the
spective in a drawing, it must be remembered circle itself. could represent the base of a cone,
It
that in responsive drawing, results emerge from the base of half a sphere, or any other form that
the negotiations between perception, feeling, and resolves itself to a circular plane at its base.
aesthetic attitude. The information provided by Understanding the principles of perspective
linear and aerial perspective, like all other visual helps to clarify and control the effects of fore-
perceptions, is subject to this interpretive process. shortening. They give us a number of ways to
Perspective is useful as a means, but has restrain- make the impression of a foreshortened form in
ing tendencies as an end. When overused, per- space more convincing. Likewise, when a draw-
spective begins to change the purpose of a draw- ing requires that the impression of foreshorten-
ing from invention to imitation which are — ing be subdued, these principles can assist this
mutually exclusive attitudes. In relinquishing aim.
inventive choice and change, we lose the means Perspective's more technical complexities tend
to order, expound upon, and pictorially activate to pull us away from the needs and purposes of
the subject's random properties. Changes that free response. Most of these complexities can be
93
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AMJ
Plate 5.2
before detail and surface, permitting the inter- THE HORIZON LINE
play between facts and intent, are first considera-
tions to understanding volume in space. A A fundamental concept in linear perspective
knowledge of perspective can serve, but not re- is the horizon line. This is determined by, and is
place them. equivalent to, the observer's eye-level. Whether
Perspective can also help the artist subdue visible or not, the horizon line is imagined as de-
volume and space. Knowing what clues will scribing a circle around the observer at eye-level.
convey these impressions, he has greater control Being equivalent to the observer's eye-level, the
over other clues that involve the beholder with horizon line is as high or low as his position is
the activity on the picture-plane. For example, above or on the ground. To someone standing
Alcalay, in his drawing, "Times Square" (Plate on a mountain ledge, the horizon line would be
5.2), achieves an interesting fusion of two and very high in his field of vision, for someone lying
three-dimensional space by stressing some per- on the ground, very low (Illustration 5.1).
spective principles and subduing others. Normally, obstacles such as hills, houses, walls,
Illustration 5.1
or foliage block the view of actual horizon lines.
They are occasionally visible, as when viewing a
large body of water or an enormous stretch of
flat land. Visible or not, linear perspective re-
quires that the horizon line be established in the
drawing. This can be actually drawn or simply
understood as located on a particular horizontal
level on the page. Knowing the location of this
line helps determine quickly the general position
of forms in relation to the observer. Anything
above the horizon line is seen above the observ-
er's eye-level; anything below is below the ob-
server's Therefore, we look at the
eye-level.
undersides of forms located above the horizon
line, and down on the tops of forms below it.
To better understand the horizon line as
equivalent with the eye-level, take the example
of a room with three transparent walls, through
which we see the horizon of a lake (Illustration
5.2A). Our eye-level is centered between floor and
ceiling, equidistant from both walls. Through an
opening in the middle wall, the horizon of the
lake can be seen directly. If now we assume the
walls are not transparent, but solid and opaque,
the only part of the horizon visible is the small Plate 53
segment seen through the window-like opening. Andrea Mantagna (c. 1431-1506).
The rest of the line that formerly represented A Man Lying on a Stone Slab.
the horizon can now be seen as a painted line Pen and ink.
on each of the three walls, exactly at eye-level. TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON.
Were such lines drawn on each wall near the
floor, they would not form a straight line, but When such lines are horizontal, that is, parallel
would incline upwards toward the horizon line to the ground-plane, they will always meet at a
on the two side walls. If they were drawn close vanishing point on the horizon line, except when
to the ceiling on each of the three walls, the lines seen at eye-level. This can be seen by extending
on the side walls would incline downwards to- the lines on the side walls in Illustration 5.2B.
ward the horizon line. The horizon, or eye-level In Illustration 5.2C, the same room is viewed
line, is that horizontal level where lines that we with the observer's eye-level near the floor. Now,
know to change direction in space appear to the next-to-the-lowest lines on the three walls
flatten into a straight line. In Illustration 5.2B, have become the horizon line and appear as a
the same room is shown with several lines on the straight line. Thus, we no longer see the lake
three walls. Note that extending any pair (one through the opening in the center wall. Looking
from each of the side walls) would cause them to at Illustrations 5.2B and 5.2C, we sense the dif-
meet at a point on the horizon line. This is ference in the level at which we view the two
called the vanishing point. rooms. Through perspective, the artist not only
Recalling the principle of convergence, we sets the stage, he controls the level and, as we
know that lines can be made to appear to recede from which we view it.
shall see, the angle
in space when they incline toward each other. The horizon line need not appear within the
Illustration 5.2
-B- a
B
a
limits of the page. Sometimes, as in Mantagna's as in Illustration 5.3A. Note that the middle box,
"Man Lying On A Stone Slab" (Plate 5.3), the observed at eyelevel, shows only one plane. This
horizon line is assumed to lie above the page. is the one parallel to the observer's face (or at a
Here, we know it is far above the page, because right angle to his line of sight), and it is com-
the degree of inclination of the lines representing prized of four right angles. The other boxes
the slab's left and would make it
right sides, show same plane, but because these boxes
the
impossible for them
to meet until they had tra- are above and below the horizon line we see the
versed several inches beyond the upper limits of underside of the one above and the top of the
the drawing. Less frequently, the horizon line one below.
may be known to lie below the limits of the But one-point perspective has an immediate
drawing (Plate 5.4). limitation. If we wish now to surround the
central box with two others —
one far to the left
and one far to the right and parallel with it —
ONE, TWO, AND
THREE POINT PERSPECTIVE
Plate 5.4
\ 7
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I
Illustration 53
dilemma arises. Indeed, it already exists in Illus- clination of the former front planes' lines is
tration 5.3A, but because the three boxes are so slight, requiring them to traverse a considerable
close together, it is hardly noticeable. Assuming distance before they can meet.
all the boxes to be made of rectangular planes, In Illustration 5.3C, this correction has been
there is only one position that will show a plane made. The boxes on either side of the center
with four right angles: the eye-level position of one are no longer distorted. They are now "in
one-point perspective. This is the only position perspective" but their alignment with the center
that will not show any of the sides of the boxes. box has been destroyed. The original intention
But, seeing the sides of the two new boxes in was to have these three boxes line up in a row
Illustration 5.3B, we recognize that the observer parallel with the observer. This was achieved in
seems no longer to be right in front of them, Illustration 5.3B at the cost of distorting the
but views them from oblique angles. But if the side boxes, but corrected in Illustration 5.3C at
new boxes are turned enough to show a fore- the cost of destroying their alignment. Here, the
shortened view of their side plane, their front limits of projecting real volume and space onto
planes should no longer be seen straight on. The a flat surface becomes apparent.
boxes cannot show a three-quarter view of their Looking again at Illustration 5.3C, we see that
side planes without similarly changing their the side boxes, no longer centered on the ob-
front planes. If, then, the front planes of these server, each possess two sets of converging lines
two boxes are no longer parallel to the observer, that meet at two widely separated vanishing
they must conform to the principle of conver- points on the horizon line. These boxes, unlike
gence and show the horizontal lines of their the center one or their counter-parts in Illustra-
(former) front planes to incline toward vanishing tion 5.3B, are drawn in two-point perspective.
points on the horizon line. The lines of the former Whenever forms are parallel to the ground-
front plane of the box on the left will converge plane but not to the observer, as, for example,
to meet at a vanishing point to the left, those of when we stand facing a corner, not a side of a
the former front plane of the box to the right, square table, their parallel lines will appear to
far to the right. The left and right vanishing meet at two vanishing points on the horizon line.
points will be distant, because the degree of in- Any number of forms, when parallel to the
98
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vS&
Illustration 5A
ground-plane but differing in their alignment to the boxes denoting their verticality, whether or
each other, as, for example, a floor strewn with not they are actually at a right angle to the
boxes, all upright but at various angles to each ground-plane, do not converge. In two-point per-
other, will each have its own two vanishing points. spective, lines observed to be measurably parallel,
Though an object like the folding screen in Illus- as mentioned drawn as true parallels.
earlier, are
tration 5.4 may have many parallel lines converg- When we look down upon a subject from a
ing upon many vanishing points, it is still regarded great height or look up from a low observation
as being drawn in two-point perspective. point to see a towering form such as a skyscraper,
When forms are seen as floating at an angle to the subject's vertical lines will appear to con-
the ground-plane, their vanishing points will be verge toward a vanishing point. When this is ob-
above or below the horizon line, as in Illustration served, a three-point perspective situation exists,
5.4. Note that the lines of the folding screen and as can be seen in Illustration 5.5 and Plate 5.4.
Illustration 5.5
99
mok in > «.^> ". am
Plate 5.5
J- •
>. Life of St. Paul.
Pen and ink, brown and gray washes.
THE PIERPONT MORGAN LIBRARY, NEW YORK.
r^-ran*™-
L Plate 5.6
£=»—
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Illustration 5.6
In both two and three-point perspective, the smaller than nor larger than twelve inches in
five,
vanishing points should not be placed too close any direction. Avoid broken or otherwise mis-
together. Crowding them produces forced and shapen forms and those that do not offer right
distorted forms, such as those in Illustration 5.6. angles abutments of all planes.
Because of the unavoidable distortions in trans- Plan to cover a sheet of 18" X 24" paper with
posing real volume and space to a flat surface, as many views of these two forms together, in
most artists will make subtle adjustments be- varying positions, as will conveniently fit on
tween conflicting perspective views such as in the page. Draw these considerably smaller than
Illustrations 5.3B and 5.3C, thereby reducing and actual size, but avoid tiny drawings.
obscuring the evidence of distortion (Plate 5.6). Arrange these forms in any way that offers a
Many artists intentionally "go against" the con- new combination for each sketch. Or, leaving
vergence effect, to reduce the camera-like distor- the blocks in some arrangement, draw the differ-
tions that a strict adherence to perspective can ent views you see as you move around them. You
cause. Here, the vanishing points may be ex- can place them next to each other at different
tremely far apart, giving a broad "frontality" to angles, place one atop the other, or lean them
forms, that emphasizes attention upon the pic- against a wall, balancing them on their corners.
ture-plane (Plate 5.7). Draw them as they appear above, at, and below
In the following exercise, try to select views your eye-level. If the forms are light enough,
that will test your understanding of one, two, they can be taped to hang from a doorjamb or
and three-point perspective. can be otherwise suspended above eye-level.
Begin your drawing of each view in a free
manner. Note, first, where each form is in rela-
EXERCISE 5 A tion to your eye-level. Look for the shape-state
of the planes. In doing so, you will see planes
Draw in pencil on any suitable surface. Use a more objectively and, thus, be more aware of the
ruler and eraser freely on all but the last of the direction of their lines. Here, a diagrammatic
three drawings you will make. use of line will help you concentrate on analysis,
rather than exposition. When your drawing has
Drawing 1. Use two simple, block forms as some rough relationship to the shape, scale, and
models. Gift boxes, cartons, or children's large location of the two forms, use a ruler to establish
pasteboard building blocks are excellent, but any the right relationship of inclination between the
block-like object will serve. These need not be lines. Allow the lines to extend beyond the point
cubes, but do avoid very long block forms. If pos- of intersection with other lines when you see
sible, one or both of the forms should be open at them as converging toward a vanishing point.
one or even both ends, permitting you to see in- As there are no visible horizon lines to be drawn
side. You will be drawing both forms as if they on this page, extend such lines only slightly be-
were semi-transparent. It is helpful to see the yond the form itself. These extensions help you
angles of inside lines. These forms may be the to see their inclination better, as in Illustration
same or they may differ in size, with neither being 5.7. Notice that many of the lines of the lower
101
102 perspective: the foreshortened view
Illustration 5.7
Plate 5.7
sired location for the block. Where the four lines and position on the ground-plane, the upper por-
intersect, the bottom plane of the block will be tions of the blocks in the third section may rise
located. Elevating four vertical lines at each above the horizon line.
point of intersection, raises the four walls of the When you have completed drawing these three
block. To locate the top plane of the form, views, return to the center section and continue
again draw diverging lines from both vanishing to develop it as if the blocks represented the
points until they intersect, this time at a higher geometrically "pure" state of houses. Add win-
elevation than the first set of lines. dows, roofs, and anything else that would con-
Whichever way you draw the three blocks, vert the original forms into houses. Place them
place them well away from the horizon line. in a simple landscape setting that may include
They may, however, vary in their nearness to the streets,lampposts, trees, and fences. Keep these
observer. These blocks, when completed, will be additions quite simple. Use converging lines to
your models for the two remaining sections. align windows, streets, etc., as in Illustration 5.8.
Using a ruler held vertically, locate the six Then try to show how landscape would look
this
vanishing points on the horizon lines of the first from a different elevation, by drawing the same
and third sections. In both sections, draw the objects in thesame positions in the first section,
three forms in the same relationship to the and how it would look from a low eye-level
ground-plane as established in the middle sec- view, by developing the third section in the same
tion. way. When completed, the three landscapes
The differences in the location of the horizon should show each component in a correct posi-
line will make the blocks appear farther below tion in relation to its ground-plane and horizon
the observer's position in the first section than line.
in the third section. Depending on their height You may find yourself faced with perspective
103
104 perspective: the foreshortened view
Illustration 5.8
Illustration 5.9
perspective: the foreshortened view 105
Illustration 5.10
ing the window in each as being centered on it. further, several source-books are listed in the
Placing these planes at an angle to the observer, bibliography.
we find that drawing diagonal lines from corner
to corner gives us the exact perspective center
and locates the position of the centrally placed
window (Illustration 5.9B).
THE CIRCLE IN PERSPECTIVE
Perspective provides a simple system to locate
the position of evenly spaced forms such as fence-
To see a circular shape, the observer must be
posts, telephone poles, or soldiers in a row. To positioned parallel to its surface and centered on
locate them, draw the first member of a row of
its limit. When its surface is parallel to the
forms, and, extending lines from its tip and base,
observer's line of sight, that is, totally foreshort-
incline these lines to meet at the desired vanish-
ened, it appears as a line. Viewed from any
ing point on the horizon line. Based on these other angle, it appears as an ellipse-like shape,
lines, draw the second member at the desired as in Illustration 5.11.
distance from the first. This
space interval
first
If we bisect a true ellipse along its longest as shown, but may lie to either side of the
axis, produces two equal halves. Bisecting a
it square's horizontal dimensions.
circle seen in perspective in this way produces a To draw the foreshortened view of the circle,
fuller curve in the half nearest the observer extend the five vertical lines of the square to
(Illustration 5.11). In drawing foreshortened cir- the desired vanishing point. Place a horizontal
cular forms, it is important to remember that line (X) at a level estimated to establish the
they are not seen as true ellipses —
though some- foreshortened width of the original square. Al-
times referred to as such in this chapter. though there is a complex geometric means to
Illustration 5.12 shows a circle put into per- determine the exact location of line X, the
spective. Although somewhat mechanical, this artist's "feel" is often as dependable and, because
drawing aid is sometimes required by certain of the alien nature of such a mechanical pro-
subjects (and artists) to achieve a convincing cedure to responsive drawing, always preferable.
representation of foreshortened circles. For ex- Dividing the foreshortened square (B) in the
ample, in making a closely observed study of a same way as A, establishes eight points, as shown,
large circular form, whose dimensions are basic to help draw the foreshortened circle. Note that
to the placement of smaller forms upon its body, the actual, mathematical bisection of the ellipse
as in a large, decorative fountain or pool, an in B is nearer to the observer than the perspec-
accurate perception of its actual shape is im- tive mid-line.
portant. Although most do not engage in such
artists
To help see this, the changes that occur from mechanical procedures, examining the changes
circle to ellipse-like shape must firstbe under- that occur in circles in different degrees of fore-
stood. The circle's center is first established by shortening is a useful sketchbook practice.
drawing a square and dividing it horizontally The angle of any foreshortened circle is deter-
and vertically into four equal parts. The circle mined by the perception of its longest axis.
is then drawn by making a line that without — When such an elliptical shape is upright, its long
changing its degree of curvature strikes the — axis will be vertical. When it is parallel with the
center of each of the square's four "walls." ground-plane and centered on the observer, it is
To place the circle in perspective, redivide horizontal. All other positions in space will show
the square by diagonal lines going from corner the long axis of an ellipse as inclined to some
to corner, making eight sections, as shown. Two degree.
vertical lines are now
elevated from the base-line In Illustration 5.13, the long axis in each of
(A) to run through the intersections of the circu- the four ellipses is different. In a it is horizontal
lar line and diagonal lines. The necessary van- because, unlike b, it is centered on the observer.
ishing point need not be centered on the square But both are parallel with the ground-plane. In
c, it tilts away from a vertical position, matching
the tilt of the box-like container. Many artists
find it easier to place an ellipse at the desired
Illustration 5.12
angle by first drawing such boxes in the required
position and drawing the ellipse by making a
curved line strike the center of each side, as in
Illustration 5.12. Though d, like c, turns away
from the observer, its long axis remains vertical.
Note in e that the long axis of each ellipse is at
a right angle to the line running through them
all. This curved line running the length of the
CAST SHADOWS
107
the same general procedure. However, as shown
in Illustration 5.18, there are now three vanish-
ing points that affect the cast shadow. The van-
ishing point of the shadow's lines dictates the
direction of the block's shadow; the other two
vanishing points and the sun's height, its shape,
and scale. The irregular shape of the cast shadow
in this illustration results from the block's posi-
tion in relation to the sun.
Illustration 5.16
Plate 5.8
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perspective: the foreshortened view 109
Illustration 5.19
110 perspective: the foreshortened view
Illustration 5.21
urae is increased when values are used to "under- or to lend emphasis to others, it is a helpful
score" the blocking of one form by another in this tactic.
way. When forms lie close together on a plane in The use of cross-section or cage lines or of
a way that does not make it clear which one is structural line groups is another means of pro-
dominant at any one point, the use of value to viding clues about foreshortened form. In Illus-
darken the subordinate form near its neighbor tration 5.22, the lines convey the surface-state of
helps to clarify their placement as in Illustration the volume, and their increasing closeness and
5.2 IB. As with any device, unselectively used, delicacy, the sense of receding in space.
this solution can quickly degenerate into gim- Even aerial perspective, generally reserved for
mickry. Employed when other clues cannot con- subjects in which deep space occurs, as in Plate
vey the dominance of one volume over another, 5.11, can assist in conveying the spatial behavior
'&K'
Illustration 5.22
112 perspective: the foreshortened view
V>.
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Plate 5.9
of —
nearby organic forms if used with great failing to reduce the distance between the last
subtlety. In Plate 3.3, da Vinci just barely sug- two trees, might show the last one as being a full
gests the second head from the right as less city block away from neighbor, when only a
its
defined, that the value range has lessened, and fraction of that distance was intended.
that there is less textural activity. In general, he Thus, all nine perspective clues can partici-
makes the nearer forms of the drawing sharper pate in foreshortening any kind of form. The
in focus, bolder in value contrasts,and richer in more complex the form, the more useful perspec-
textural activity.Note all the clues used to tell tive becomes as a tool for clarifying its direction,
us that the second head from the left is severely scale, location, and essential mass.
foreshortened. Because volume and space are inseparable
Relative distance and position can also help issues, the drawing of a foreshortened form
convey foreshortened views of independent or- should be made believing that the flat surface of
ganic forms. The decreasing space between trees, the page does not exist —
that we can reach in
flowers, or figures in some orderly pattern sug- and touch, with our drawing instrument, a form
gests space. The farther back in space such sep- that is located far away in space. Many artists,
arations are between forms, the more critical therefore, simultaneously develop the volume
their position becomes. Misjudging the distance and the which it exists. Leaving
spatial cavity in
between two nearby forms to a small degree, is the space aroundform (or between forms) as
a
generally of little importance. But the same de- just the white of the paper sometimes tends to
gree of misjudgment between forms a mile or so have a flattening effect on their sense of mass.
away becomes a serious change in the scale of the The forms appear somewhat pressed upon the
distance between them. Thus, in a drawing show- page. Or, it may make the forms appear to lift
ing a foreshortened view of a row of trees in- off the page and hover above it. Both of these
tended as equidistant, enlarging, or even only problems are solved by establishing a spatial
perspective: the foreshortened view 113
cavity to receive them. Where such spatial "re- ter. For these, use the human figure, either
ceptacles" are limited by other masses or the draped or nude, as your subject. If no model is
horizon line, perspective can assist in shaping available, make a still-life arrangement consisting
them. of some of the following: pillows, fruits, purses,
In the next exercise, you will draw some fore- hats, boots, dolls, and vases. Here, the idea is to
shortened forms. As you go from simple forms to simulate some of the characteristics of organic
more complex ones, remember the nine ways in forms. Any other objects that you feel would be
which perspective can help. consistent with this theme may, of course, be
used. The still-life should be fairly simple and
should avoid angular or mechanical objects.
However, if a choice of subjects is possible, use
EXERCISE i 5B the figure, preferably nude.
In all four drawings use any erasable medium.
You will be making many adjustments in the
There are four drawings in this exercise. search for scale, direction, shape, etc., and
There is no time limit on any of them. The should use a medium and paper that permits
first consists of invented forms, the remaining changes. All four drawings should be made on
three will be drawn from observed subject mat- paper no smaller than 18" X 24".
T"
*
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Plate 5.10
Draiving 1. Fill one-half of the page with where overlapping does occur. Make all the
simple geometric forms such as cylinders, cones, changes and corrections needed to produce
half-spheres, and any other variations of such clearly stated volumes floating in space.
basically rounded forms. Use your imagination When you have completed the half-page, draw
freely, but avoid complex forms. The cylinders each of the objects again on the other half of
may bend, interlock, or develop variations in —
the page as if you have moved a few feet to
their thickness. However, try to show the ellipti- your right. Imagine how each of these would
cal end-planes of these cylinders at right angles look if you changed your position in this way,
to the bodies of the cylinders. Other forms may and draw their new view (Illustration 5.23B).
consist of several joined volumes. For example, Although each is now "seen" from this new
a cylinder may have a mushroom-like cap at angle, avoid any blocking of independent forms
either end, or a tire-like ring around its body. that would occur in such a shift of position.
Except where forms are made of such combina- Draw them again, as floating free of each other.
tions of smaller forms, avoid having one form Thus, in drawing each volume as you imagine it
blocked by another. In general, they should float from this new view, disregard the spatial rela-
free of each other, as in Illustration 5.23A. These tionships between them (except, of course, those
should be drawn in line, using structural line- made up of joined forms) allowing each form to
groups wherever you feel the volumes need be fully visible. If you find it difficult to imagine
clarification, or to indicate the subordinate form these rounded forms in their new positions, "en-
B
Illustration 5.23
perspective: the foreshortened view- US
Illustration 5.25
116 perspective: the foreshortened view
room. Any clues you can provide to strengthen subject, develop such geometric forms by stages.
the sense of a spatial cavity will help you to For example, instead of drawing the observed
better locate the forms within it. forms of the head upon the block that represents
it, "carve" the block to make a few more broad
Drawing 3. In this drawing, work from the planes that more nearly represent the volume
same position, but this time you should be seated This will help
actualities of the observed head.
in a chair, upon a low stool, or even on the floor. you locate some of the smaller forms upon the
Begin as you did the second drawing. Again, simplified form. Normally, it is not necessary to
locate the horizon-eye-level line. Though the use such severely reduced volumes as a basis for
pose has not changed, your position is lowered drawings in which structural volume is to be
and all the relationships are changed. Noting stressed (see Chapter Six), but here it helps to
these differences, again draw each form as re- more easily control the subject's perspective.
duced to a simple geometric state. But this time, As you develop the simple forms, do not bury
do so lightly, using as few lines as possible. Once them under many details, but keep an echo of
you have established the direction, scale, and the geometric "parent" evident in all the final
overlapping of these forms (which should be forms of your drawing, as in Plate 5.10. The rule
thought of as transparent), continue by drawing here can be "when in doubt, leave it out."
upon these geometric forms what you do see of As the drawing develops, resist any tendency
the subject's actualities. That is, using the geo- to make a foreshortened part turn frontally.
metric forms as indicators of each part's essential This sometimes happens when the attention
mass and direction, develop the forms of your shifts from a part's placement in space to its
subject. If you find that some of these severely specific characteristics.
simplified forms are too remote in volumetric Your goal here isproduce a drawing mod-
to
character from the parts they represent in the elled mainly by structural line that shows con-
Plate 5.11
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Plate 5.13
vincing, foreshortened volumes that collectively can be a tool of exciting expressive possibilities.
reflect the subject as you saw it from your posi- Less evident, Homer uses perspective to subtly
tion in space. convey a child's feeling of elevation in a com-
mon, household chair. From the view he presents,
Drawing 4. The fourth drawing is to be we see the child's right foot well off the ground.
done exactly as the third. But this time, move to Note how Homer has "spread" the eye-level to ex-
a position that is approximately at a right angle tend from the child's legs to the curves of the
to the one you held for the second and third armrests. This has the effect of suggesting a
drawings. You may stand or sit for this drawing. broader band of horizontal mass which in turn
Seeing the same forms from this new view, you implies that the child is solidly seated.
will have a completely new set of relationships,
but the experience of the previous drawings We have seen that perspective, in its broader
should help you represent them with greater sense, is a given condition of three-dimensional
economy and control. drawing. It helps provide important informa-
tion about volume and space, and provides a
number of ways in which these qualities can be
PERSPECTIVE AS clarified and emphasized. Although sensitive vis-
AN AGENT OF EXPRESSION ual perception would seem to make perspective
almost unnecessary, understanding its principles
A knowledge of perspective can contribute to provides a drawing with that extra measure of
expressive meaning by enabling the artist to authority and economy that the sensitive be-
draw a subject from that angle most evocative of holder recognizes as issuing from knowledge, not
his feelings and intent. In Plates 5.4, 5.11 and bravado. Also, because responsive drawing may,
5.12, the views given stimulate emotions about for some artists, require considerable changes in
the subject. The use of three-point perspective in what is observed, when such changes concern the
the Sheeler drawing helps us to feel the towering relocation of volumes, perspective is immediately
elegance of the building. The Piranesi drawing, involved. While linear perspective has its limits,
which is almost certainly a work largely of the it has important virtues —
especially as a tool in
imagination (as the title suggests), show s a view r
helping us to understand the state of a fore-
that permits us to share his excitement in the shortened form. Its general influence helps us to
quick sweep of the forms and in the emotional know and control the behavior of volumes in
impact of the spatial cavities they create. Here, space and thus, is necessary to the development
as in Plate 3.13, Piranesi proves that perspective of a mature understanding of the physical world.
CHAPTER
Volume
THE
SCULPTURAL SENSE
A DEFINITION
The previous chapters centered on a subject's observed volumes, not their surface effects, not
physical actualities and emotive character so that vague suggestions of volumes, but the convincing
the student could better select, alter and control impression of solid masses that have weight and
them in forming responsive drawings. Thus, a occupy space.
major consideration in each chapter was the fact Volumes can be represented in two ways. A
of a subject's existence as volume in space. We drawing can describe a subject's outsides — its
119
—
design in space — the ordering of its parts into bottles, apples, boulders, or animal and human
some system, flow, or continuity, can all be ex- forms, being less angular, show less clearly de-
pressed. fined surface facets. The more smoothly rounded
The human because it clearly demon-
figure, a subject's surfaces, the more arbitrarily intrusive
strates the concepts being discussed, is heavily it usually seems to translate them into planar
relied on here. These concepts and the processes divisions. The would seem
sphere, for example,
they lead to are, of course, applicable to any solid to defy planar analysis. But in drawings showing
mass in space. volume with emphatic clarity, evenly rounded
forms are sometimes shown as less smoothly
rounded by flat or curved planes that abut at
THREE BASIC APPROACHES subtle angles, as in Jacques de Gheyn's drawing
TO STRUCTURAL VOLUME of some Gypsies (Plate 6.1). Another approach to
explaining a planar structure relies
subject's
All volumes, as we saw in Chapter Two, can be less on clearly defined abutments. Instead, the
translated into flat or curved planes. Some sub- planar-state of forms, especially organic and
jects —jagged rocks, tables, books, or bananas
Whether
curvasive ones, is shown by sensitive-graduations
clearly reveal their planar construction. of value as in Jacobo da Empoli's drawing,
simple or complex, their surface-states are re- "Young Man Seen From the Back" (Plate 6.2).
solved into explicit planar divisions that give Here, the planes are drawn more realistically,
such subjects structural clarity. Other subjects their clarity conveyed by tonal, rather than
Plate 6.1
121
Plate 6.3
*•-•
*
W
I \ N
/
volume: the sculptural sense 123
some folds in the drape behind the figure's right as in the de Gheyn and da Empoli drawings, illu-
side. A light tone that envelopes over two-thirds mination is used mainly to explain the figure's
of the background serves push forms back,
to structural character. Notice that Rembrandt re-
and creates the spatial cavity occupied by the lies on broad planes that stand as summaries of
figure. On the drawing's right side, very bold several smaller ones to convey volume. For ex-
cast shadows explain the masses of the supporting ample, a single tone describes a broad plane along
pillow and the surface against which the figure the side of the head that shows the change in the
stands. As the shadow descends, it "mea-
cast surface direction along the ridge of the cheek-
sures" the increasing divergence and advance of bone. To summarize the planar actualities of
the figure's left leg from the nearby wall. In this part of the head, Rembrandt had to find the
drawing the forms that make up the young man's strongest over-all directional grouping of the ob-
figure, Rembrandt more evenly divides the roles served planes. Because no other over-all changes
of value and line to develop the volumes. Usu- in direction were as strongly evident as that form-
ally, short, structural line-groups define sudden ing the ridge of the cheek-bone, he chose this
changes in direction between planes, and washes change as the demarcation "line" between those
of tone explain the more gradual changes. Here, planes above and below it. Such bold, broad
Plate 6.4
carving can give drawing a strength and clarity mation provided by the nine principles of
that is often lost in more detailed approaches. perspective, or any of the other volume-revealing
Carpeaux's drawing, a study for a sculptural concepts already discussed, the sense of solid,
work, also combines tonal washes of grays and structural mass results the choices and
from
those formed by line-groups to explore more fully changes such concepts make possible. To convey
his subject's volumes. Here, there is the need to volume, it is always necessary to extract and stress
understand each part's structural character, and the visual and expressive qualities that evoke it
the over-all structural behavior of five interwoven and subdue or omit observations that would
figures in space. This makes the relatively less weaken or obscure it.
probing approach of de Gheyn's brief .drawing, In the energetic drawing by Delacroix, "Stud-
or da Empoli's somewhat naturalistic and thus ies After Rubens' 'Crucifixion' " (Plate 6.5), there
not so aggressively analytical approach, unsuited are just such extracts from some forms in the
to Carpeaux's purposes. These aim at under- Rubens painting that interested Delacroix. We
standing the major planes that form the parts of see these forms as weighty and animated because
—
each figure: the spaces the negative "masses "- Delacroix stresses these qualities. In making this
that result from the placement of the figures; the sketch, he knew what his interests and intentions
organizational and expressive character of the were, and, consequently, so do we.
group; and the way light plays across the forms This drawing, made not from nature but from
from this view. The results of such analytical a work ofart in which the volumes of the original
approaches to volume as Rembrandt and Car- subject have already been extracted and trans-
peaux utilize in these two drawings enable us to lated into visual terms, is, then, a kind of double
see structural, spatial, and even expressive quali- extraction. Perhaps that is what makes Dela-
ties that would otherwise be lost. croix's brief sketch appear to seize the very essence
To disregard the interlocking, directional be- of the structural character of these human forms.
havior of a subject's planes and that of the Although Delacroix is quite different from Ru-
masses they form, that is, their explicit struc- bens in his approach (Plates 2.7, 2.11, and 5.10),
tural nature, weakens the impression of volume. each in their own way builds powerful volumes
Trying to produce the impression of volume by from an excited involvement with the experi-
making a faithful copy of externals not only ences, processes, and goals of volume-making.
re-presents the subject's superficial and random
—
properties some of which actually limit the
—
development of the volume but also records DIRECT IOX
the subject's structural and expressive clues and
AND GEOMETRIC SUMMARY
possibilities in their original state as undeveloped
potentialities. The raw
material is not inter-
preted and ordered but only re-presented as raw Volume, most other goals of drawing, is
like
material. usually arrived at by working from generalities
As we have seen, there are many graphic con- to specifics. The draughtsman, like the sculptor,
cepts that create the impression of volume in generally states the broader planes of his subject
space. Whether it is general information about before the smaller ones. Indeed, neither one can
masses in space that result from the search for know with any certainty where smaller planes are
gestural expression, or the more specific infor- to be located until the broad "parent" plane is
Illustration 6.1
volume: the sculptural sense 125
Plate 6.5
established, because, as we saw in Chapter Five, There are generally two unfortunate results
the smaller ones are always variations on the di- when a concern for such details precedes the es-
rection of the parent plane and depend on its tablishment of a subject's over-all position in
positionfor their own. This is evident when space. First, because what is not perceived is only
drawing subjects that are naturally almost pure accidentally (and rarely) drawn in accordance
geometric volumes. with the subject's actualities, the probability of
Few students are likely to be diverted from see- error in a part's direction is very high. Second,
ing the basic direction of a simple plaster wall by beginning with details and permitting them to
any minor variations in its surface-state due to determine the whole, is, as we saw in Chapter
aging or an uneven application of plaster. How- One, a sequential, additive process in which
ever, as such variations increase in scale and fre- superficial details dictate the essential issues. It
quency, the likelihood of disregarding the wall's is the tail wagging the dog. It violates the way
position in space, as well as the major planes of forms in nature are seen.
which it is constructed, increases (Illustration A form's volumetric character is not perceived
6.1). When we consider the many volumetric by adding up its details. Rather, the details are
complexities of a subject such as the human seen as particular facts belonging to a volume.
figure, need to understand a part's basic
the Usually, they are seen after a general perception
direction and those of its major planes becomes about the form has been made. If, for example,
apparent. In complex subjects, the superficial we are asked to identify an object flashed on a
details of volume and texture can easily divert screen for one-tenth of a second, we may recog-
the unwary student from perceiving the direc- nize its general shape and volume, but we will
tions of masses and major planes. not have seen its details.
V
i
/
V.
p
I
In drawings that include a considerable amount to become the figure. Nor, in either drawing, do
of detailed volume, the major planes and masses such parts result from an accumulation of details.
must maintain dominance over smaller ones. Instead, the details are seen as subtle, flat or
"When their influence as basic planes or masses curved planar variations on the basic geometrical
is neutralized by minor embellishments upon and directional behavior of these forms. They
them, both the structure and the unity of the "well up" from the forms and "belong" to them.
forms are weakened. Likewise, the position in space of the figures
The persistent influence of major planes and themselves do not result from their parts having
masses seen "through" the details is readily sensed been drawn separately. Seeing the figure's over-all
in Michelangelo's imposing study of a figure and direction in space (note the search for the entire
a head (Plate 6.6), and in an early Degas drawing figure's direction in the beginning few lines of a
of a standing figure (Plate 6.7). In these drawings, second nude in the Degas drawing) each artist
otherwise so different in mood and manner of ex- was better able to locate the direction of arms,
ecution, there are many similarities. But in nei- legs, etc. to it, and relate these parts to each other.
ther do the parts, limbs, i.e., torso, etc., "add up" In both drawings, the parts are subordinate to
126
volume: the sculptural sense 127
the whole. Each part contributes to the unity of with, but subordinate to modelling based on
the whole. In both, we sense the "echo" of the structural clarity.
basic geometric volume that underlies each part When a subject is comprised of many inde-
of the figure. And each partis a convincing, pendent volumes, the danger of disregarding its
structural volume that has weight and occupies a over-all mass is increased. If the earlier example
specific direction in space. Note that neither ar- of a wall were made of casually heaped fieldstone
tist smudges of tone to model the forms, bjut
uses instead of plaster, a greater analytical effort
establishes the sense of volume by cross-hatched would be required to conceive its overall mass
line-groups. These are more involved with a tac- as reducible to a simple, geometric volume, or
tileexperiencing of the subject's terrain than volume-summary. The more the independent
with the effects of illumination. In these draw- volumes that form a greater one are scattered,
ings, light's ability to reveal volume is integrated the more difficult it is to see their collective
Plate 6.7
£UA --
Illustration 6.2
volume-summary. The clarity of direction and Some artists begin by actually drawing the sub-
volume-summary of the tightly constructed •wall ject as made up of volume-summaries, as you did
(a) in Illustration 6.2, is easier to see than in the in Exercise 5B. However, the severelv summa-
wall formed by loosely piled stones (b). rized volumes used in that exercise, or as seen in
Unlike the walls in Illustration 6.1, which are the Cambioso drawing (Plate 5.9), are often felt
both reducible to slender, vertical slabs, inclined to be too mechanical and too removed from the
toward the horizon to the observer's right, only overall character of most subjects. Therefore,
the tightly constructed wall in Illustration 6.2 ap- many artists who begin by showing the simplified
proximates a similar volume-summary. Although volume-summaries of a subject arrive at sum-
both walls in Illustration 6.2 go in the same direc- maries that are less extreme. They search for
tion as those of Illustration 6.1, the loosely con- those which clarify perspective, but still retain
structed wall (b) is more accurately analysed as a the major, and even some of the secondarv struc-
half-cylinder. Discerning a form's volume-sum- something of the subject's
tural features, as well as
mary is basic to its more specific development. Da character. Unencumbered by many small, planar
Vinci's drawing of stratified rocks (Plate 6.8) surface changes, perceptions concerning scale,
clearly shows his grasp of the volume-summaries shape, and space can be more easily established.
that unite the subject's many independent vol- Making such adjustments before the volumes are
umes. Indeed, it seems that conveying such sum- developed further frequently avoids the later,
maries is part of this striking drawing's visual more difficult changes that are so injurious to a
and expressive theme. drawing's spontaneity and strength.
Thus, the two basic perceptions of a subject's Other artists, like Cezanne (Plate 6.9), start
mass in space are its overall direction and volume- by drawing only a few, abbreviated hints about a
summary, and those of its parts. Both require an subject's volumes in space, again simplified for
effort to temporarily bypass lesser planes and vol- the sake of clarity. This second approach is pre-
—
umes to be seen and much of the impression of ferred by those who feel it too restricting to divide
convincing volume in space depends on their the act of drawing into separate stages, or, that
being seen. Disregarding such fundamental gen- it is too strong and isolated an emphasis on vol-
eralities will almost certainly compromise a vol- ume outside the context of the subject's other
ume's specifics. potentialities for compositional and expressive
The more organic or convoluted a subject is, activity. Also, the nature of some drawing
and the more independent or overlapped its parts media, such as pen and ink, make any extensive
are, the greater the need to see such generalities underdrawing impractical.
first. There are three basic ways of approaching Still other artists begin a drawing in the
these simplifications. charged spirit of a direct attack — intending each
128
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519).
Outcrop of Stratified Rock.
Pen over chalk.
WINDSOR CASTLE, ROYAL COLLECTION,
COPYRIGHT RESERVED.
Plate 6.9
I
Paul Cezanne (1839-1906). Study of a Nude Figure. '
Plate 6.11
Plate 6.10
existence in space. By drawing the head set upon First, any greater form, if it is to retain a sense
a pedestal, which, in turn, is placed upon a flat of its basic volume-character and unity, requires
surface, Villon creates two simple volumes in itscomponents, large and small, to be subordinate
space — the pedestal and the flat surface — that to it. Many otherwise admirable student draw-
prepare us to accept the head's position in a spa- ings have suffered because a part "broke away"
tial field. Thus, part of our understanding of the from a major form, as in a figure drawing when a
head as a volume existing in space is conditioned muscle is shown as a self-contained unit, isolated,
by the masses around and below it. Here, as in and as visually attracting as its parent plane. Or,
the da Empoli drawing, the lines of the back- when a few folds of a jacket sleeve appear more
ground tone appear to pass behind the head, add- important than, and compete with, the arm in-
ing to the impression of its existence in a spatial side.
field. Second, locating the direction of the greater
Delacroix, using more curved than flat planes, volume guides us in locating all smaller ones.
draws the figure's forms as simplified volumes If the subject is, for example, a hand, its mitten-
that occupy precise and readable positions in like mass should be known before the structural
space. Note the subtle difference in elevation be- nature of its major subdivisions is considered.
tween the left and right legs. As in the Villon Seeing these should, in turn, precede the drawing
etching, Delacroix explains the form's structural of specifics — fingernails and skin-folds (Illustra-
nature with great clarity. But his more inferen- tion 6.3). To reverse the visual order of showing
tial approach to volume sharply contrasts with smaller parts as belonging to larger ones isolates
Villon's more schematic one. the specifics as ends in themselves, obscures the
Later in this chapter we will examine the ex- character of the greater volume, and destroys the
pressive aspects of volumetric drawing, but it is unity of the drawing.
worth noting here that both of these works are
energetic, felt responses to the forms to the —
ways in which their parts join, flow, and resist
each other. Both artists invest the volumes with THE JOINING
strong, animated meaning. OF PLANES AND VOLUMES
A brief summary of the order in which we per-
ceive volumes would be helpful here. A sub-
ject's overall direction, or the direction of its Any ambiguity of the direction of planes, or in
several components, for example, the various di- their manner of uniting to form volumes, creates
rections of agroup of trees (Plate 6.13), and some ruptures in the continuity of the structural and
gesturaland analytical response to its overall mass spatial clarity of volumetric drawings. Although
or major masses, are best established before any some structurally unexplained passages are often
smaller subdivisions. There are two important found in drawings by the masters (Plates 6.1, 6.6,
reasons for this. 6.10), they are never the results of indecision or
Illustration 63
132 volume: the sculptural sense
COLLECTION, THE MUSEUM OF MODERN ART, NEW YORK. large masses, small ones are also clarified by see-
GIFT OF VICTOR S. RIESENFELD. ing their direction, summarizing the volume,
and explaining the way they join.
innocence. Sometimes such drawings are prepara- The scale of a part or plane, then, should not
tory studies for works in other media, and the affect the way it is developed. The planes of a
artist develops only those areas of a subject he pebble, blossom, or eyelid are as deserving of
wishes to study more fully. Often, undeveloped structural analysis as those of a mountain, tree,
passages serve compositional or expressive inter- or man.
ests. The relative directness of drawing compared It is helpful to think of every union of planes
to painting and sculpture, and the relative sim- or volumes, large or small, as interlocking, clasp-
plicity of means, makes it far more suited to ing, impacting, or fusing. The clarity and con-
spontaneous, bold, and brief explorations or viction with which such uinons are drawn re-
graphic declarations. The results of such inves- quiresmore than sensitive perceptual skill. It
tigatory drawings are sometimes more intimate demands felt responses to the ways they join. Al-
and revealing of an artist's perceptions, feelings, though the drawings reproduced in this chapter
and intent, than those of his more formal works. are highly individual in temperament, approach,
Also, they are often refreshingly free of the dead- intent, and order, in other words, in their point
volume: the sculptural sense 133
of view — their style — they all reveal the artist's shoulder masses that appear to part and allow its
feelings about the nature of the unions between rise. Or they may be fast and active, as in the
planes and between masses. Although perceiving interlaced race of folds around the young man's
the directions and summaries of planes and waist. They may be given to variously gradual
masses is necessary to the clarity of their inter- fusions, as in Degas' figure drawing (Plate 6.7),
play, the response to, and the intensification of, or to sudden, crisp, abutments of planes and
their suggestions of movement and energy in- wedge-like interlockings, as in Carpeaux's drawing
vests a drawing with the emotive character of (Plate 6.4), and Villon's etching (Plate 6.12).
their interplay. They may be frenzied couplings, as in Delacroix's
Therefore, the artist intending structural mass drawing (Plate 6.5), or rhythmic, as in da Vinci's
cannot regard such joinings as only a matter of (Plate 6.8). Their nature may often elude any
perspective, shape, or any other measurable per- verbal description.
ception. He must feel their potential for mean- Here, another aspect of expressive response
ing — must be able empathize with the inferred
to should be considered. As demonstrated in any
character of the unions. That is, he must inter- of the previous plates in this chapter, in others
pret their suggestions of action and energy ac- throughout the book, and especially well in the
cording to his perceptual comprehension and his drawings of Michelangelo (Plate 6.6) and Dela-
ability to feel their behavior —
his empathic tem- croix (Plate 6.5), some subjects are constructed
perament. of parts which support, and others of parts that
The gestural characteristics of such unions are are supported. These actions cause tensions and
limitless. They may infer slow, subtle, move- pressures between the parts of such subjects.
ment, as in the way the column of the young Some of these forces are actual, some are inferred.
man's neck in da Empoli's drawing (Plate 6.2) When a subject's forms are supported by, sus-
seems to lift gracefully from deep between the pended from, and attached to an inner skeletal
Plate 6.13
-
;
A
f
,uartjt*r
t
— —
framework such as a human (or other) skeleton, pulling at themselves and the supported material.
or when naturally limp materials like cloth or The sagging and taut folds, the bulges and
leather are supported by solid masses beneath hollows of inner supported subjects, and the folds
them, there is real tension and pressure between and bulges resulting from parts pressed against
the visibly "held" and the inner "holder." In each other express the struggle between the
such constructions, the supporting structure, holder and the held, and between both of these
whether skeletal or solid, is sometimes stable, as and gravitational pull.
when a cube supports a cloth draped over it. Re- The pressure upon the right shoulder of the
moving the cloth does not affect the cube's be- figure in Michelangelo's drawing, the straining
havior. Other constructions depend on mutual of the bones and muscles of the shoulder and
support. Two poles holding up a pup tent are chest against the thin container of skin, the
themselves held in place by the balanced weight pressure of the heavy upper body upon the fig-
outer parts of his subject, and feel their weight. These empathic responses to the ways in which
The force of gravityan important participant
is planes and masses join, and to those generated
in the struggle between the parts. Supporting by a subject's inner and outer structure and
frameworks, in addition to creating tensions and weight, endow a drawing with a "life" that is the
pressures between themselves and the material graphic equivalent to those qualities seen and
they support, also resist the force of gravity felt in the subject. But such responses are not
Illustration 6.4
Plate 6.14
restricted to organic forms only. Rock and ice actual or inferred, the artist must feel the force
formations, bridges, furniture, utensils, tools of of their structural activities as "meant," or neces-
various kinds, and numerous other inorganic sary — as obligatory actions inherent in the sub-
some or all of these energies
subjects often suggest ject. To
the extent that we can empathize with
to some degree. Although some of these subjects these actions, our expressive involvement deep-
have inner supports and others do not, the char- ens, urging more incisive and direct drawing
acter of their masses can suggest the kinds of activity. Again, responses limited to the measur-
union, tension, resistance, and pressure con- able actualities of shape, direction, scale, etc.,
veyed by living things, as in the rocks and clouds record a subject's physical facts, but a sensitivity
in Plate 6.8, or in the chair and plant holder in to the forces of union, support, containment and
Plate 6.14. gravity that issue from, or affect it convey the
Whether the subject is the human figure or pulsating energies of its structural character.
some rock slabs, and whether the energies are Pontormo's drawing, "Striding Nude" (Plate
135
136 volume: the sculptural sense
6.15), suggests the energies that drive planesand knees, elbows, and at several places on the torso,
volumes into strong unions, and also those issuing creating firm anchors against which the muscles
from pressures and stresses between the holder strain. The entire figure seems to vibrate with
and the held. Note how the volumes around the the activity of volumes pressing, straining, and
shoulders, knees, and ankles insert and clasp resisting.
each other with hard intent. The planes abut Pontormo's interest in such forces is apparent
with vigorous certainty. These not only produce, in theway he suggests gestural "ripples" of action
they enact the forceful energy of the interlockings that course through the figure, and lesser ones
of the volumes they form. The skeletal frame- that move between the parts. These suggestions
work emerges from deep within the forms to press are further strengthened by showing some vol-
against the containing surfaces at the ankles, —
umes as elongated as if they are being stretched
between fixed points. These attenuations serve
Plate 6.15 to exaggerate the graceful flow of their form.
This results in many of thevolumes
figure's
Jacopo Pontormo (1494-1556). Striding Nude.
enacting a rhythmic pattern of growth and
Red and black chalk, heightened with white chalk.
THE PIERPONT MORGAN LIBRARY. diminution of mass. Just as small volumes rise
from, swell, and subside back into major ones,
so major volumes, like the torso, right arm, and
right leg, are seen as increasing and diminishing
in bulk. In the right leg, for example, the volume
begins at the ankle, swells at the calf, and, begin-
ning to subside, is overtaken by the clasping ten-
dons of the upper leg. These, in turn, expand,
interlace with other volumes, and merge with
them to form one swelling, tubular volume which
suddenly erupts into a still greater volume by the
addition of the buttock, part of the pelvic area,
and some muscles of the lower torso. We see the
right leg and hip as one volume that seems to
spring up from the ankle with some velocity,
swelling, subsiding, and finally implanting itself
THE DESIGN
OF VOLUMES IN SPACE
well as the physical proximity of parts, can all side. Degas' use of structural line-groups made of
contribute to our comprehension of volumes as be- thick, bold, charcoal strokes, introduces a texture
longing to some system of order. The location of that unites volumes throughout the drawing. He
—
masses in a spatial field their manner of dis- holds his darkest values in reserve while the curv-
tribution— and the various ways they overlap ing action mounts, and commits them in the
and join, provides some strong relationships in curve's "crescendo" in the head and hair — the
the design of volumes. Thus, when Pontormo two forms that appear to descend, and are in con-
stresses structural energies coursing through the trast with the rising of the others. Thus, values
figure, he also contributes to the sense of its ab- also help explain the plastic action of the whole
stract plastic energies. This is so because sensi- figure. Degas' stressing of the back's twin halves,
tivity to a subject's structural character includes and treatment of all the volumes as somewhat
his
seeing similarities and contrast of scale, direc- tubular, help to unite the figure and to increase
tion, and shape. The rhythms and affinities the force of its gesture. Note how emphatically
these similarities create help convey the subject's he overlaps the lower part of the head with the
volume-design. To the extent that the artist de- right shoulder, and how powerfully the right
sires to strengthen the sense of volumes as unified hand is forced into the towel.
by an overall system of relationships and move- Although Pontormo's drawing seems to em-
ments, he will stress the visual similarities be- phasize the structure of volumes, and De-
—
tween the parts of his subject the "alikeness" gas's drawing accents their designed flow, both
—
between unlike things and their collective ges-
tural actions. Conversely, sensitivity to a subject's
volume-design helps discover structural facts.
Plate 6.16
Did Pontormo first see the design or the struc-
tural aspects of the right leg —or both simulta-
Edgar Degas (1834-1917). After the Bath.
Charcoal.
neously? It impossible to say. What is evident
is
STERLING AND FRANCINE CLARK ART INSTITUTE,
in his drawing, however, is his interest in both. WILLIAMSTOWN, MASS.
These two considerations, the mechanics and
dynamics of a subject's volumetric structure, and
the design of such structures, are interlaced con-
siderations. Both are necessary in apprehending
the potentialities for expressive order in nature.
Degas, in his drawing "After The Bath" (Plate
6.16), shows a strong interest in the design of
volumes. Although the model's forms must have
described something like the action of the draw-
ing's forms, it is evident that Degas extracted and
strengthened the continuity of their flow. They
rise from the bottom of the page as three simple
shapes that become three volumes which collec-
tively suggest a greater columnar volume, in-
clined to the left. The movement they generate
is continued and intensified by the forms of the
m
138 volume: the sculptural sex^e
artists respond to both considerations. When volvement in analysis and empathy should be so
studying the drawings reproduced in this chapter, exclusive that the resulting drawings will be
notice that each conveys both structural and plas- something of a surprising byproduct of your ex-
tic energies. Without the energies of structural perience in responding to the constructional,
volume, forms are dead bulk: without the ener- gestural, and design aspects of observed volumes.
gies of design, they are discomposed as well. The real value of these drawings is more in the
In the following exercise, a series of drawings quality of the realizations and insights they pro-
will stress the material discussed in this chapter. vide than in their successful accomplishment.
As you first look at your subject, most of its per- In responsive drawing, as in the development
spective, its system of support, the
planes, its of any other ability, concept and experience pre-
forces that drive them, and the subject's overall cede successful usage.
design potentialities may not be readily apparent.
Their presence is discovered by only perceptions Draiving. 1. Collect seven or eight small ob-
that trigger both analysis and empathy. jects of a simple volumetric nature. Books, boxes,
cups, bowls, or any other objects that are basically
box-like, cylindrical, etc., are usable, but these
EXERCISE 6 A need not be severely geometrical forms. Fruits,
vegetables, shoes, even rocks, will do. Cover some
There are six drawings in this exercise. For of these with a thin fabric such as cotton or
each one, use an easily erasable medium such as jersey. Some of the objects may be partially un-
vine charcoal sticks or a 5B graphite pencil, on covered. Place the remaining objects upon the
any suitable surface. These drawings may be any fabric, amongst the fully or partially hidden
size but avoid tiny ones, as they tend toward a objects beneath it. Arrange all the objects in ways
timid fussiness. Here, your attention should focus that reveal something of the forms of the hidden
on the structural facts and forces of your subject, ones and that create strong protrusions, hollows,
and on the design of its parts. In fact, your in- sagging and taut folds, and overlaps. The ten-
lllustration 6.5
volume: the sculptural sense 139
sions and pressures produced will be roughly metric volume a part could be reduced to without
similar to those on the surfaces of subjects formed losing its basic volume character. Thus, a head
around skeletal frames. The over-all arrangement became a block or cylinder, because a case could
should not be an extended, rambling one, but be made for either as an acceptable geometric
somewhat compacted in character (Illustration core. Here, such extreme generality is not desir-
6.5). able. Although the clarity of the subject's fore-
This is minute drawing. In the
a twenty-five shortenings, overlaps,etc., is just as important in
first five minutes draw in an analytical, investiga- this drawing was in Exercise 5B, clarity in
as it
tory way. That is, broaden your gestural ap- these matters should not be gained at the expense
proach include a greater than usual emphasis
to of the general structural character of the subject's
on the search for the subject's main directions, parts. Grasping the essentials of the subject's
scale relationships, and volume summaries. To structure in the first five minutes is important to
do you must disregard all surface details,
this, the development of the volumes in the remaining
including minor planar changes. Avoid making twenty minutes.
this a contour drawing. Here, you will use only Illustration 6.6 suggests a degree of summary
—
some of the actual contours those which happen and arrangement in
stress of direction that the
to fall on a line that describes the limits of a Illustration 6.5 could be reduced to. Note the
generalized volume. Even then, draw such edges use of structural line-groups to suggest some
in a simplified way. This five-minute phase has major planes, and the searching, diagrammatic
the general character and goal of gesture drawing, lines feeling out both solid mass and spatial areas.
but it attempts to analyze, in broad terms, the Note, too, the emphasis on pressures, tensions,
subject's major structural actualities. It is some- weight, and design.
what similar in concept to that of Exercise 5B in Illustration 6.6 should not influence you to
the previous chapter. Then, the need to clarify emulate its particular characteristics — its hand-
and stress foreshortening, overlap, convergence, writing. It is not intended in a how-to-do-it sense,
etc., led us to draw the simplest available geo- but to show a serviceable degree of development
Illustration 6.6
—
of the subjects forms in the five-minute phase. It veyed by the primary and secondary planes, not
is intended to suggest a degree of emphasis on the multitude of tiny ones. The remaining
direction, volume summary, and the energies of twenty minutes should provide enough time to
structural and plastic forces, specific enough to develop those secondary planes that help ex-
establish these important aspects of the subjects plain the subject's sculptural character, and
major masses, and general enough to be free of should prevent the tendency toward an involve-
lesser — —
and for the moment complicating ones. ment with details.
To summarize in a more sweeping way produces Beginning anywhere on the drawing, compare
generalities too removed from measurable actu- any generalized volume with its original in the
alities and restricts responses to the structural arrangement. If the generalized volume repre-
and plastic energies. To draw the arrangement sents a rather geometrically simple object, such
in a much less generalized way than that sug- as a book or a cup, you may find little to add to
gested in Illustration 6.6 risks missing some im- your initial observations. Instead, vou mav want
portant fundamental perceptions about direction to adjust its direction, scale, and the expressive
and general mass, as well as relationships of scale nature of its planar joinings, and develop its
and location, and the energies that flow between contours. If represents a complex and irregular
it
the parts. Drawings that do not grasp the sub- object, such as a pillow (Illustration 6.7A), it will
ject's total disposition of volumes in space cannot require the addition of its secondary planes to
— —
except by chance become totally organized. convey its unique structural and expressive char-
In this five-minute phase, your goal is to ex- acter (Illustration 6.7B).
tract from the arrangement the simplified nature
of its various volumes and their relationship to
Illustration 6.7
each other in space, and to convey the expressive
and visual forces that move amone them. Your
attention, then, should focus as much on seeing
N
and feeling the relationships between the parts
as on analyzing them separately. Look for in-
dependent parts that may share a common direc-
tion or scale by comparing such angles and sizes
with those of parts placed far from, as well as
near to each other. Locate and stress the strongest
pressures and tensions, and establish the subject's
overall design theme — the related order of its
parts.
This phase of the drawing is limited to five
minutes for the same reason that the gestural
drawings in Chapter One were held to even
briefer limits. It encourages a search for essen-
tials before particulars.
In the second part of this drawing, the em-
phasis should shift to an analysis of the shape,
scale, angle, and location of the smaller planes
those which explain the various surface irregu-
larities of the subject's components and any
substantial volume-variations formed by their
unions. Even here, however, you should distin-
guish between those smaller, or secondary planes
that advance your explanation of a part's struc-
ture,and those which, because of their tiny scale
—
or "busy" nature such as the hundreds of small
planes in an extremely wrinkled cloth —merely
crowd the drawing with unimportant details. '
v y^
Even when an object's surface is made of such
most artist's state only a
tiny planar-variations,
few here and there to imply their presence
throughout the object. Drawing them all often
weakens a form's structural claritv, which is con-
—
In the case of a volume formed around and en- the top with a rope long enough to tie onto some
closing a space, as, for example, a cup, consider overhead support such as a beam, pipe, or rafter,
this isolated space as a "negative" volume. Thus, enabling the container to hang free. As you draw,
instead of its resulting from observation of the notice the folds caused by the weight of the con-
cup's solid parts, the space itself is observed as tainer pulling against its restraining rope. At the •
one more measurable component of the cup. top of the container, they will be extremely pro-
Seen directly, its direction, scale, and shape re- nounced. Lower down, the objects inside it will
quirements may warrant changes in your drawing press against the fabric, revealing parts of their
of the cup's solid parts. form. Try to stress this struggle between the con-
Now you are clarifying the subject's physical tainer and its restrainer, and between the con-
facts, expressive energies, and overall system of tainer and the objects inside.
order. Try to keep a balanced attitude to all Again, begin the drawing with a five-minute
three considerations. Becoming too intellectually analytical-gestural search for direction, scale, lo-
engrossed in the technicalities of a complex cation, etc. Again, the reduction of the subject's
union of planes may result in correct but cold forms, although less severe than those in Exercise
passages in the drawing. Conversely, over-react- 5B, should be summarized enough to enable you
ing to the gestural character of such a union, to to see its volume character.
basic
the pressures and strains between the parts, may In the remaining thirty minutes, spread your
produce frenzied ambiguities. Considering both attention over the entire subject, advancing it
the visual and expressive behavior of a particular together. Here, be especially insistent on showing
union to the exclusion of its role in the design the pressures and tensions between the parts of
of the drawing's volumes may break the conti- the subject. Do not hesitate to make moderate
nuity of the design. adjustments to help intensify these forces to —
Here, we should consider a common error in exaggerate the weight of the objects and the
placement. Sometimes, two adjacent objects are pliancy of the container.
drawn so close that an overhead view would re- Here, too, search for the abstract energies the —
veal them to be interpenetrated. Be sure that you —
rhythms and movements that organize the sub-
allow enough room for the bodies of closelv ject into a related system of volumes, each of
placed objects. Although your drawing of any which participates in the structural and design
volume stops at its physical boundaries, your action.
ability to "believe"' in the existence of its unseen
back must be strong enough to prevent the inva- Drawing This, too, is a thirty-five minute
3.
sion of one solid by another. drawing. This time, the human figure, preferably
As you draw, try to feel the heaviness of the nude, should be used as your subject. If a draped
objects and the "determined" resistance of the figure is used, the attire should be simple and
fabric-supporting solids. Think of the fabric as should not cause complex folds or billowing
sopping wet to help you respond to its inability shapes. Again, begin with a five-minute analyti-
in the tug of gravity. This will also
resisting cal-gestural drawing. The forms should be sim-
help you explain the volume of the objects cov- plified enough to help you see the foreshortening
ered by the fabric. of forms with some ease.
As the drawing nears completion, refer to the In the first drawing of this exercise, the in-
principles of perspective to prove or help clarify dependent nature of the objects helped you to
any part of the drawing that seems troublesome. understand their volumes better. Then, the ob-
Although perspective principles cannot displace jects were rather simple in their construction,
perception, it is, as we saw in Chapter Five, a and establishing their generalized volume-state
helpful support for it. In fact, its influence has was correspondingly simple. Now, the subject is
been present throughout the drawing. Now, a composed of complex organic forms, rooted in
brief examination of relative scale, convergence,
and other considerations of perspective dealt with
the central form of the torso — a single, extended
system of inner-supported masses. Pose the model
in Chapter Five can help you adjust some faulty to avoid complex overlapping of the limbs. This
or confusing passages. helps maintain your awareness of its continuity
its oneness. Therefore, a simple standing or re-
Dr diving 2. You have thirty-five minutes for clining pose is most suitable here.
the second drawing. This time, select three or In less compacted poses the forms are seen as
four of the objects used in the first drawing and flowing into one another. For example, there is
place them inside a cloth container, such as a no one place on a leg where we can see the ankle
laundry bag or pillowcase. Tie the container at as ending and the lower-leg beginning with
—
sausage-link clarity. Instead, there is an inter- origins deep inside, the result of forms and forces
laced, almost braided system of bone, tendon, and that press against the interior walls of its surfaces.
muscle that forms transitional, planar passages. As before, first establish the secondary planes
Sometimes these planes are subtle and fluid and then consider the smaller ones. Use only
(Plate 6.7); sometimes they erupt from the surface those smaller planes necessary to explain the
forming clearly carved volume-variations (Plate basic volumetric character of the major forms.
6.6). Often, these transitional, planar "avenues" This usually reveals how much the impression
can be traced for long distances above and below of three-dimensional mass is carried by the pri-
a joining of parts, thus adding to the flow of the mary and secondary planes. Often, very few
forms. As your drawing continues beyond the smaller planes are required, or, as in the Dela-
five-minute phase, try to see the several planes, croix drawing "Nude Woman" (Plate 6.11), de-
and the volumes they form, that explain these sired. Looking at this drawing we know that the
transitions. Their visibility is partly due to the artist has omitted many of the planes of the
yielding, pliant character of the skin, which, like female figure, but nowhere are we left with
supported by a frame-
fabric, will collapse unless blank, flat areas. Nor are there areas where many
work. As the supporting and supported inner small planes indicate the many minor surface
system of bone, tendon, muscle, and fatty tissue changes. Here, the volumes owe much of their
interact, their forms, pressed against the elastic sculptural solidity to Delacroix's emphasis upon
skin, like the objects in the suspended container, those larger planes that denote important changes
reveal planar transitions, support-function, and in the direction of a volume's surface. This bold,
some of their volume by the amount of stress or selective, carving of large forms by large planes
pressure they exert on the figure's surfaces. In this —
economy of the means itself gives the vol-
the remaining thirty minutes, try to see and feel ume power and impact. It is impressive when so
the subject's structural behavior as having its little can express so much. This is not to suggest
Plate 6.17
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interesting and challenging view of the form The longer drawing time allows you to make a
(Plates 6.17, 6.18). Draw large —a little over ac- more probing study of quite small structural de-
tual size. Again, begin with an analytical-gestural tails. As you begin to include these, be sure to
search for the volume fundamentals described keep them subordinate to the larger planes and
earlier. This time, however, take as much time masses. You may want to explain all the small
143
144 volume: the sculptural sense
volumetric activity, as in Plate 6.17, or show it as subject. This can assist, rather than restrict, your
all but absorbed by the major mass, as in Plate grasp of the essentials of the figure's forms. Degas'
6.18. Whichever way you develop the drawing, drawing (Plate 6.16) shows the kind of energy
remember to search for the structural volume by and excitement such a spontaneous and forceful
working from the general to the specific, and to approach can convey. This is knowledgeable sim-
show the unity of a major mass regardless of the plicity, not emptv flourish. The drawing's de-
amount of planar change in its terrain. Here, as signed flow, discussed earlier, gets some of its
in the previous three drawings, look for the pres- force and clarity from Degas' bold, direct attack.
sures and tensions between the holder and the Your drawing, too, should aim for volume in
held, for the way in which parts join, and for the simple, broad terms. And it should convey the
design of the segment of the figure. Avoid in- expressive and plastic energies that make it more
volvements with the impression of illumination than just bulk.
where it does not help explain volume, and use
direction-informing line-groups to show the var- Droning 6. This drawing allows you a great
ious tilts of the planes, as in Plate 6.17. Notice deal of free choice. You will set the time-limit,
that the line-groups in Plate 6.18 all go in the determine how much time, if am, to use for a
same direction. Here, surface changes are con- preparatory stage, and select the subject. Al-
veyed by the variations in their density and in though the figure is an excellent subject for this
their value. Although such variations do explain largely self-directed drawing, you may want to
the subject's terrain, changing the direction of apply the concepts and processses you have been
lines tocorrespond to the direction of the planes practicing in this exercise to a landscape, animal
they describe is an important aid in explaining form, interior, etc.
the subject's surface-state. Here, you will even decide whether construct-
Your goal here is to develop a drawing so ing volume is to be a dominant or supporting
structurally clear and convincing that a sculptor theme of the drawing. Your goal is to regard what
could use it guide for a free-standing sculp-
as a you now know about volume-building as one
tural work and never be confused in understand- more tool, albeit an important one, of responsive
ing the general structural volume or the various drawing, and use it as your interests require.
planar changes on its surfaces. Whether it will be central to your interests or
subdued by other interests, should now depend
Drawing 5. This drawing is limited to fifteen on your visual and expressive responses to the
minutes. Pose the model in some rhythmic, "an- —
nature of your subject let the subject suggest
imated"' position. There is no specific time-limit the means.
for establishing the broad volume generalities. "We have seen that creating the impression of
You may, you choose, "attack" directly, in-
if convincing structural volume is both a demand-
tending each mark as part of your final statement. ing perceptual challenge and an emotional ex-
In begin in a gestural way, as described
this case, perience. It calls for an understanding of gesture,
in Chapter One. Whether or not you employ an line, shape, value, perspective, and the ability to
underdrawing stage, continue to stress the major feel a subject's structural and plastic energies.
planes and masses first. It is the quality of the negotiations among
In the previous four drawings, the analytical- these concepts and processes that determines the
gestural phase permitted you to concentrate on degree and quality of convincing volume. By
the broad, visual, and expressive characteristics of knowing what is involved in creating the impres-
your subject in the knowledge that these early sion of convincing volume, we also know what is
explorations were tentative— that they would involved in subduing it. In this way, our control
largely be absorbed and altered by the drawing's of the images we make is expanded.
later development. Now, should you choose to The necessity for, and logic of, the concepts
work directly, every mark must respond to the and processes discussed in this chapter, become
subject with feeling and decisiveness. Instead of more evident the more you confront the chal-
emphasizing analysis first and "conclusions" later, lenges of volume. Not because they convince as
in direct drawing these considerations are parts a system, but as an approach. These concepts and
of the same action. processes require and deserve your commitment,
You may find that the reduced time demands patience, and tireless efforts to see, feel, and
a more energetic and broader approach to your know volume.
CHAPTER
Media
and
Materials
THE
TOOLS OF DRAWING
A DEFINITION
For the responsive artist, the substances that pro- indifference to media and a compulsive search
duce the lines and tones of drawing, the media, for "the right one," the student's own needs and
and the papers and boards that receive them, the curiosity are his best guide in the investigation
.surfaces or supports, simultaneoulsy carry and in- of additional media as his studies progress.
fluence his responses and thus are important in Some order can be made of the varieties of
the forming of his works. drawing media by recognizing that all media are
The beginning student may be amazed at the applied to a surface either by adhesion or intro-
number of kinds of drawing media available at mission. The adhesive media are the dry, or
the larger art stores. Much of the apparent vari- abrasive media —
applied by rubbing off particles
ety is often the same media, stocked in several onto the grain, or tooth of the surface. The
brands. Fifteen or more different India-inks may intromissive media are the wet, or absorbent
be displayed, representing no more than three or media. Here, pigment particles are suspended in
four distinctly different kinds, by as many manu- a holding agent, or binder, and water. Applied
facturers. Also, there are the various specialized in this liquid state, the pigment, binder, and
media and materials for the advertising artist. water are absorbed in quantities that depend on
Although some of these can be used for any the nature of the support. The water evaporates,
kind of drawing, the student can disregard the but the binder dries within and upon the fibers
more exotic media and paraphernalia of the of the support, holding the pigment particles in
commercial artist. place.
But this still leaves a wide variety of drawing Every media has its intrinsic characteristics
media. The student need not immediately ex- and technical limits. Some, such as a hard graph-
periment with many. Nor, considering the vir- ite pencil, have pronounced characteristics and
tually endless combinations of media possible, definite limits. Others, like brush and ink, have
with differing behavior on different supports, is an almost limitless ability to change character,
it possible to explore the entire range of avail- and answer virtually every graphic demand.
able drawing supplies. For the first several Although every medium is distinct in its char-
months, the beginning student should work with acter and range of usage, the graphic possibilities
no more than three or four media. Between an of each can never be fully exhausted. In an age
145
146 MEDIA AND MATERIALS: THE TOOLS OF DRAWING
of media proliferation that includes plastics, film, media convenient and helpful, but such a pur-
is
neon, and power-driven works, the common suit should not be over-stressed. Picasso is equally
"lead," or graphite pencil is still capable of new at home with pen and ink, chalk, crayon, and a
uses. Because every medium reflects the user's number of other media. But Holbein, Ingres, and
level of sensitivity to it, as well as his judgments many others used only one or two media to pro-
about graphic role, some new accents of usage
its duce most of their drawings. What is important is
are always possible. If the user is "blind" to a how well a medium can assist the expression of
medium's nature and range, or influenced by the our responses. Good drawing invariably de-
way others have used it, his responses will be pends on a sympathetic union of intent and
poorly or derivatively expressed. But if he finds tools. The medium used in every instance
the medium compatible with his intent, and if should be one that the artist feels a rapport with
his creative interests are original, that is, genu- for its aptness —
an intuitive sense of its compati-
inely personal, his rapport with the medium can bility —
with his intent, and with the nature of
create still another unique use of it. There can the subject.
be as many original uses of a medium as there But word of caution. Any new medium
a
are inventive artists for whom its nature is con- deserves more than a brief trial. All media
genial and stimulating. Although the technical require time and repeated use to comprehend
limits of a medium cannot be appealed, the scope and control. During a period of exploration,
of behavior within these limits is bounded
its it is helpful to see how others have used a me-
r
only by the artist's sensitivity to the medium and dium, to gain some idea of its range. In the
by his creative wit. case of the one can look at
graphite pencil,
The first time we manipulate a new tool or drawings by artists as different in temperament
medium, we experiment with its performance in and approach as Ingres (Plate 3.18), Degas (Plate
various ways that interest us. If we are given to 6.7), Cezanne (Plate 6.9), Eilshemius (Plate 7.1),
slow deliberate statements, or fast, impulsive
r
, and Klee (Plate 7.2), to see how flexible a tool
ones, we want to know if it is responsive to such it is.
demands. By such exploration we learn how the Sometimes, a medium may work poorly on one
medium feels — literally. The heft of the instru- kind of surface and should not be rejected until
ment, the drag or flow of dry or wet media, the several other kinds of paper have been tried. At
its properties are impor-
overall tactile nature of times, the problems with a medium are traceable
tant considerations. We test its behavior in to the scale of the drawings. Sometimes, pen and
maneuvers we have required of other media to ink appears weak in a drawing of large dimen-
make comparisons. We try to learn its charac- sions, just as charcoal seems too thick and un-
teristics and consider its potentialities. These wieldy in a small drawing area. In general, the
manipulations are instructive. They not only student should experiment freely for at least a
tell us what a medium or tool is like, they tell few months, with the several media he selects
us something about our overall attitude and before coming to some decision about their apt-
interests—what we are looking for in a medium ness for him. He should occasionally combine
or tool is a clue to what we want to do. them, and should work with as well as "go
A medium's characteristics and limits can in- against" their characteristics. He should use them
fluence the artist's tactics. He is not likely to on different supports of various sizes, for various
draw a cloud formation with pen and ink in the purposes.
same way he would with charcoal. Artists tend Our first, unfavorable reactions to a material
to use a medium's strengths and avoid forcing it may survive the period of exploration but they —
to do what it cannot do well. In this regard, the may not. It is not uncommon for many begin-
choice of media is important. Selecting pen and ning students to prefer "neat" media such as
ink, the artist drawing a cloud formation would graphite or charcoal pencils, which have the
probably forego the smooth graduations of tone additional "advantage" of being more or less
easily produced by charcoal, to other
obtain erasable. Other media, such as conte crayons, or
qualities in the subject that he feels pen and ink brush and ink, are bolder, broader media and —
can best state. cannot be erased. Do not reject an unfamiliar
Thus, the medium can influence, but should medium because of its bold or permanent nature.
never dominate a drawing's direction. Congenial A bolder medium helps guide the student away
media help stimulate and extend our range of from minor niceties, and toward the essentials.
responses, but do not determine them. Usually, the stronger, more animated results of
A sensitive versatility with a wide number of such media are soon recognized by the student
f 4
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Plate 7.1
Plate 7.2
/
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—
concerned with analysis and expression, rather inks; transparent watercolors; and the several
than exposition and polish. more or less opaque, water-based paints. Less
We should recognize that the medium has too frequently, but a practice of long standing,
often been blamed for shortcomings of percep- thinned oil paint is also used as a drawing
tion and conception. Although, after an ade- medium.
quate period of trial, we may wisely set aside a Often, abrasive and absorbent media are inter-
particular medium, we should always guard mixed. In Daumier's drawing (Plate 7.3), graph-
against rejecting it because it has not solved ite and watercolor washes are
pencil, charcoal,
creative problems in general, and perceptual ones used. Often, mixed media drawings result from
in The "right" medium ivill stimu-
particular. the graphic and expressive needs of the moment.
late invention will ease and enhance expres- If, as a drawing develops, the artist finds new
—
sion but cannot itself make perceptions or creativepossibilities suggested by the subject
directly contribute concepts. The medium is an and/or the drawing warrant a change in the
integral part of the graphic message, not the general handling, he will use whatever addi-
message itself. tional media are required.
Beginning with the cave artists, who discov- an artist envisions a drawing
Sometimes,
ered the possibilities in natural chalks and clay, strategy that must necessarily include several
artists have always shown ingenuity in adapting media. Daumier's drawing seems to be one of
any material that suggested possibilities as a these. Here, the vague charcoal lines appear
soft,
medium or a tool. The need to create certain as a first, gestural underdrawing, as can be seen
images, to produce a certain texture, or to im- by the preliminary indications of a figure on
provise when art supplies were unavailable, has the far left. Pencil lines establish the more spe-
stimulated the invention of many tools and cific delineations of the forms, and the watercolor
materials in use today. The first painting knife washes, the local-tones, and broad modelling of
may well have been an artist's palette scraper, the forms. Note the integration of charcoal,
used in a moment when a heavy impasto was graphite, and wet tones. The drawing has no
needed. For years, soft bread was used as a sizable segment expressed by only one medium.
charcoal eraser, and crumpled paper dabbed Each is active everywhere.
upon ink, watercolor, or opaque paint produced Unless media and materials are technically or
interesting results and is now a common prac- chemically incompatible, they can be combined
tice. Fingers were probably man's first "brushes," in any way that seems to offer a solution to our
and there are few artists who do not add or desired goals. "Rules" for using the various
adjust a tone or line in this way. media have often presented unnecessary barriers
Finding himself without a pen or brush, an to the student's free response to his subject and —
artist may apply ink or paint with a twig, a cot- to his free exploration of media. Many of these
ton swab, sponge, matchstick, or any one of a prescriptions for usage grew up around those
score or more of adaptable applicators. When procedures that direct the user toward a medi-
the medium itself is unavailable, instant coffee um's most typical and natural characteristics.
or tea have been used, as has food coloring, For example, some artists still strongly insist that
iodine, and similar staining liquids. Almost any the use of watercolors must be limited to trans-
substance that can make a mark, and any surface parent washes. To include opaque passages is
that can receive it may serve as drawing materi- considered a kind of illegitimate or impure use
als. Sometimes, tools and materials discovered in of the medium. But such a peremptory view
an emergency situation, or in free experimenta- stands in the way of an objective evaluation of
tion, have become favored media for some artists. works that disregard this "rule." Whether
One contemporary artist of note for years regu- opaque passages help or hurt a watercolor draw-
larly used mercurochrome with his inks, applied ing must be decided on its merits as a system of
to common shelf paper. Too often, however, as expressive order, not on its conformity to estab-
in this case, such innovations lack permanence lished codes of usage. Such codes, begun as well-
or adequate control. intentioned suggestions to students, sometimes
The abrasive media in common usage today have, over the years, hardened into unquestioned
can be grouped into four general divisions: the policies that are often limiting. The justification
several kinds of charcoal-based media; graphite, for the use of any medium or combination of
with clay or carbon mixtures; the several kinds media can only be found in the artistic worth of
of chalks;and the fatty-based crayons. The ab- the drawing in question.
sorbent media include: waterproof and washable Because, as suggested earlier, successful draw-
I /»
Plate 73
Honor e Daumier (1808-79). Connoisseurs.
W'atercolor, charcoal and pencil.
THE CLEVELAND MUSEUM OF ART,
DUDLEY P. ALLEN FUND.
ing depends on the union of its meaning and the THE ABRASIVE MEDIA
means used, every great drawing is a virtuoso
performance of the media used. But placing the
emphasis on display of technical facility with The common stick charcoal (Illustration 7.1),
media, shifts the emphasis of drawing from anal- possibly used in prehistoric times, continues to be
ysisand expression to performance. The drawing a popular medium with students and profes-
then becomes not the result of an artist's in- sionals. Stick charcoal,sometimes called vine
terpretation of nature, but a show of skill in charcoal, is simply carbonized wood. The longer
manipulating tools. When such technical skill be- the sticks (usually of willow, beech, or vine
comes the primary goal, then the subject lias branches) are allowed to carbonize in a sealed
become the medium for this display of virtuos- chamber, the softer and darker the charcoal sticks
ity. become, enabling them to produce darker tones.
1-49
—
Illustration 7.1
**&*
.f .
Illustration 7.2
Charcoal has no holding, or adhesive agent needs only light pressure to mark a surface. Its
no binder —
and, therefore, is an especially friable particles are not usually embedded very deeply
material; that is, it can be very easily crushed into a paper's grain, and are very easy to erase or
into a powder. It depends, as do most abrasive dust off.
media, on a surface that has, however fine or Charcoal can be repeatedly erased and re-
rough, a tooth. By rubbing any abrasive medium worked. It can, when sharpened on a sandpaper
across such a roughened surface, minute particles block, produce quite delicate lines. When used
are filed away and lodge among the hills and on its side, stick charcoal makes bold, broad
valleys of the paper's surface (Illustration 7.2). tones. Because of its easy application and re-
Because of its extreme friability, stick charcoal moval, and its range of expression, it has been
J
fine grain,stick charcoal's weak holding power The hardest compressed charcoal sticks have
on such smooth surfaces. Even some of
will fail some of the characteristics of the natural black
the smoother types of newsprint paper will not chalks, which were in popular use from the fif-
take charcoal well. teenth century until the nineteenth century,
Compressed charcoal, made by pulverizing when good quality natural black chalks became
charcoal, adding a binding agent, and compress- less available. Made of various colored earths,
ing it into small cylinders or square-sided sticks, minerals, and carbon mixtures, natural chalks
*
Plate 1.5
*N Cliarcoal.
COURTESY OF THE ART INSTITUTE OF CHICAGO.
s~ V
v^ >
»
Plate 1.6
Illustration 7.3
were available in black and several shades of The term chalk has been freely applied to a
brown and earth red. Most natural black chalks Aside variety of friable media, including those of
(Plate 7.7) seem to smear less and allow for a a fatty-based composition. Originally, the term
precision not as easily attainable with the softer referred to the natural chalks, now rarely avail-
contemporary, manufactured black chalks. able. Today, the differences between various
Compressed charcoal, usually available in four types of manufactured chalks that are a mixture
degrees of softness, is also manufactured in pencil
form, and referred to as charcoal or carbon pen-
cils (Illustration 7.3). Fashioned into slender Illustration ~A
"leads" and encased in wood or paper shafts, these
are also sold in packets, for use in holders. The
softer charcoal pencils must be carefully sharp-
ened, as their composition does not permit rough
handling. When used with a holder, only a short
stump, no more than one fourth of an inch,
should be allowed to protrude to avoid its break-
ing off during energetic drawing actions.
The thin lines possible with a charcoal pencil
allow for a more linear use. Although this can
provide handsome results (Plate 7.8), it can have
inhibiting effects on the handling of large draw-
ings. It is generally used for works of a small
scale, or in conjunction with the broader charcoal
media when more precise statements require a
medium capable of fine lines and tonal nuance,
as in Illustration 7.4.
All members of the charcoal family are inter-
mixable and frequently used together. Com-
pressed charcoal is often used to deepen values
J
>
n .
Plate 7.8
—
able or warranted. Pulverized charcoal is just
one of several dry pigments used in the manufac-
ture of some chalks. It group types
is difficult to
of chalks because of the many possible combina-
tions of pigments, binders, and, sometimes, other
additives, and the particular formulas of the
various manufacturers. The term pastel has
come to be associated with the great variety of
colored chalks; but black pastel is generally made
of ivory-blackpigment and gum arabic, ball clay,
or other materials often found in other types of
black chalk. Adding to the difficulty of. defining
the realm of chalk media are those media that
possess a slightly waxy binder, but are, in use,
far closer to the more friable chalks than to
crayons. All chalks can be erased to some degree,
but those having a waxy base are far less erasable.
The popular conte crayon is such a medium.
Its slightly fatty, smooth flow (especially pro-
nounced in the sanguine, or earth red, color),
still retains some of the look and feel of the more
with as pronounced a tooth. Because of the vari- Jean Honore Fragonard (1732-1806).
ous types and colors of chalks available, the A Woman Standing with Hand on Hip.
student should experiment with several. Their Red chalk.
differences in behavior are often subtle. Today, COURTESY OF THE FOGG ART MUSEUM, HARVARD
UNIVERSITY.
an excellent choice of blacks, grays, browns,
BEQUEST OF META AND PAUL SACHS.
earth reds, and white is available, as are other J.
colors.
Fragonard's drawing (Plate 7.9) in red chalk (Plate 7.12) is a mixed media work in black,
shows a sensitive understanding of the broad, brown, tan, and white chalk, pen and
yellow,
painterly qualities that most softer chalks are ink, gray washes, and with some surface scratch-
capable Note, too, the calligraphic lines, well
of. ing to reveal lower layers of tone. Here, the
integrated with the broader chalk lines and tones. chalk's texture is revealed by the rough tooth of
Fragonard utilizes chalk's capacity for tonal the paper, the repeated applications of chalk,
nuance to convey his sensitive energetic responses. scratching through, and the use of washes, which
The rich texture of the softer, manufactured settle in the valleys of the surface, darkening
chalks apparent in Degas' "Jockey on a Rearing
is them and leaving the hills lighter.
Horse" (Plate 7.10). The rugged power of the As in the case of chalks, there is a wide range
softer chalks lends itself well to such bold state- of wax, or other fatty-based crayons available,
ments. Whistler's study for an etching (Plate 7.11) from those of a rather dry, chalk-like nature to
shows the resonant, mellow dark tones that chalk the greasy and viscous
ones, not unlike children's
can produce. crayons. The
type of binder used in the manu-
Chalks are often used in combination with facture of crayon media determines the degree
other media. Henry Moore's drawing of miners of viscosity. Those, like conte crayon, that retain
Illustration 7.5
some chalk-like characteristics,usually contain crayon lines. These tend toexceed the depth
soap, ball clay, and sometimes, very small and clarity of chalk lines. Because of the adhesive
amounts of beeswax. The most greasy ones con- strength of the binder, particles of crayon, unlike
tain high amounts of wax and tallow. Mo^t chalk, do not easily come off of a drawing. The
crayon media are available in stick and pencil more viscous ones are not at all erasable. Be-
form (Illustration 7.5), and are available in a cause of their permanent nature, the blending
wide assortment of colors. of tones is extremely limited, and must be op-
Lautrec's drawing (Plate 1.5), well illustrates ticallv achieved by line-groups. Note that the
the flowing, linear freedom possible with crayon. value-variations in Picasso's drawing result from
Picasso's drawing of a young man (Plate 7.13) cross-hatching. Because of this restriction, cray-
shows the rich blacks and the sharp focus of ons are more frequently used by artists who draw
Plate 7.10
5*r
MEDIA AND MATERIALS: THE TOOLS OF DRAWING 157
in a linear, rather than a tonal way. Many confusion in terms probably resulted from the
artists are attracted to crayon's sharp, rich lines, common, earlier use of the various metallic sty-
and to the challenge of its permanence, which, luses, of which lead and lead-alloy metals were
like pen and ink, demands a resolute handling. the most popular among the general public.
One group of fatty-based crayons in stick and The use of lead, and lead and tin mixtures
pencil form was developed for use in the graphic had the important advantage of not requiring a
process of lithography (Plate 2.5). Black lithog- prepared surface, usually a white lead base, as
raphy crayons and pencils come in varying de- was necessary for the use of silver, gold, brass,
grees of softness, but are, as a group, more fatty and other metals. This made dead a more popu-
than most other crayons. In addition to their lar medium for writing and record-keeping
use in lithography, they are a versatile and popu- purposes. But many artists often used the other
lar medium for both short and sustained draw- metals, especially silver, because of the darker
ing. lines that resulted through oxidization (Plate
Because the fatty-based media do not require 6.18).
fixative and do not smear in the sketchbook, Compared to graphite lines, metalpoint lines
they are a popular medium for drawing out-of- are lighter, finer, and cannot vary in width or
doors. But the presence of wax or other water- value. Although excellent for delicate, small
resisting binders makes them less compatible in drawings that do not depend on the variety of
certain mixed-media combinations. width, or value of line, metalpoint drawing has
There is another method of making a crayon- been largely superceded by the modern graphite
like medium. Unavailable in the art stores, it pencil.
can be easily prepared in the studio. Stick char- The graphite pencil is available in some
coal or the more friable chalks, when immersed twenty different degrees of softness. The harder
in olive-oil or acomparable nondrying oil for a pencils usually carry an H
designation, plus a
day, absorbs the oiland imparts to the medium number indicating the degree of hardness. The
a somewhat fatty, crayon-like character. Like 1H pencil is the least hard of this group, the 9H,
crayon, it blends poorly and cannot be erased. the hardest. The softer pencils are marked B,
In the case of charcoal, the lines become darker, and the higher the number, the softer the pencil.
will not dust off, and take on a smooth, flowing These extend up to 8B. There are three pencil
character that is rather unique. grades between the two categories, usually
Perhaps the most familiar writing and draw- marked (from softer to harder), F, HB, and H.
ing tool in use today is the graphite pencil (Illus- All the Hpencils can produce lines similar to
tration 7.6) erroneously called a lead pencil. The the sharp, fine lines of the metalpoint instru-
Illustration 7.6
Plate 7.12
Plate 7.14
Plate 7.13
Andrew Wyeth (1917- ). Beckie King.
Pablo Picasso (1881- ). Head of a Young Man.
Pencil, 28i/2 "
x 34". Grease crayon.
COURTESY OF THE DALLAS MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS. COURTESY OF THE BROOKLYN MUSEUM.
GIFT OF MR. EVERETT L. DEGOLYER.
H * ^'~
Plate 7.15
160
MEDIA AND MATERIALS: THE TOOLS OF DRAWING 161
"counterpoint" to wet media, make it a versa- the Oriental sumi ink. Made of carbon and a
tile member of almost any combination of water-soluble binder, it is formed into small
media. blocks or cakes which are rubbed on a slate ink-
stone containing a small amount of water, to pro-
duce either an ink paste or liquid, depending on
the ratio of pigment to water. Sumi ink is now
THE ABSORBEXT MEDIA also available in liquid ahd paste form, as well
as the traditional cake form. In a liquid state
The designation pen and ink is sometimes freely comparable contemporary black draw-
to that of
applied to drawings made with tools other than, ing inks, it produces a rich, black line as good
or in addition to, the pen. Twigs, or sticks of as the best of the contemporary ones (whether
various kinds, especially balsa wood, feathers water-soluble or waterproof) and better than
used as brushes, sponges, rolled paper, even some (Plate 7.18).
cocktail skewers or eye droppers, and other un- Another early drawing ink, sepia, is a dark,
likely objects have been used to produce cer- olive-brown ink, made inky substance
of the
tain textures and linear characteristics in a from the sacs of squid and cuttlefish. An ink
drawing. Such improvisations extend the range called sepia is available today, but most manu-
,of ink's uses. The wide selection of available facturers do not use the original material. One
pens and brushes meets nearly every kind of brand, Pelikan Drawing Inks, makes a particu-
graphic demand, but it is instructive to explore larly handsome waterproof sepia ink that is a
new means of using ink. blackish-brown at full strength, produces various
Some of these innovations, such as string shades of olive-brown through the middle values,
dipped in ink, may lack the control necessary to and golden-tans in the light washes. It is trans-
keep the tool from dominating a drawing's direc- parent in the lighter values, making it especially
tion, and harm rather than help it. Others, such desirable for wash drawings. Like another early
as raking the thumbnail or a stick across a ink, called bistre, a yellowish-brown ink, sepia
toothbrush dipped in ink, while difficult to con- ink was, and is favored for its suggestions of
trol, are sometimes usable tools. Any drawing color, and being a darker ink than bistre, offers
instrument can lead to mannered habits and a a wider range of color. Bistre ink is not available
fascination with unusual or superficial effects. commercially. 1
The user must decide whether a particular tool India ink is a generic term for a contemporary
serves or masters him.
For those interested in making bistre, and other inks,
1
Ink, applied with brush or pen, was used as a
see The
Craft of Old Master Drawings, James Watrous
drawing and writing medium in many ancient (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1957).
162 MEDIA AND MATERIALS: THE TOOLS OF DRAWING
not normally thinned out for use in this way. total opacity. Acrylic paint is extremely fast dry-
The process of diluting them is a tedious one, ing. This makes it necessary, while working, to
and their faster drying properties make their place brushes that are temporarily not in use in
use with pens difficult. When strong, colorful a container of water. Left lying on the palette,
lines are desired, colored inks (though many are the paint would dry on the brush within min-
of questionablepermanence) produce crisper utes. Dried acrylic paint is not soluble in water,
lines of richer hues. When heavy layers of paint and cannot be removed easily from the palette.
are desired, opaque, water-based media such as Its stubborn resistance to soap and water makes
casein, tempera, and acrylic paints should be it necessary to thoroughly wash any instruments
used. — especially —
brushes immediately after use.
Casein is a strong binder made of the curd of Should the need arise, an acrylic solvent is now
milk. Because of its gums and
brittleness, other available. Most manufacturers also offer an
additives are combined with it and dry pigments acrylic extender for thinning the paint. This is
to produce a softer paint film. Even so, casein is available in either a matte or glossy form, allow-
too brittle to use on any but the heaviest of paper ing the artist to control the degree of reflectivity
supports. When used transparently, it handles jf the painted surface. This material can, when
poorly and produces washes of a rather mottled, added to casein or tempera paint, impart some
unclear appearance. Even the thinnest washes additional pliancy to these paints, broadening
retain a slightly clouded look. Casein paint is their range of use and character.
perhaps the most opaque water-based paint avail- Acrylics can be applied more heavily than
able and surrenders this quality with reluctance. either casein or tempera paints with little dan-
As an opaque paint, its handsome matte finish ger of their cracking or peeling. Unlike any
and excellent brushing properties are suited to other water-based paint, acrylic paint films can
large, bold drawing, and make it a desirable com- be drawn upon with pen and ink without the
ponent in mixed-media combinations with the ink spreading, blotting, or mixing with the
drier abrasive media and others of a matte nature. paint, and with no danger of the paint chipping
When dry, the paint film is insoluble. Because off. This is so because the synthetic binder forms
of its powerful opacity, casein white is sometimes an impenetrable shield that permits no other
used to cover over unwanted lines and tones in absorbent medium to enter. However, for the
other media. If subsequent drawing is to be ap- same reason, no other wet medium, including oil
plied over thin washes of casein, the clouded paint, can physically bond with an acrylic paint
quality of such washes may matter far less than film. They can adhere to its surface but cannot
and good receptivity to
the rather pleasant tooth penetrate it for a firm hold. Acrylic paints, like
both abrasive and absorbent media that casein casein and tempera, are available in a wide range
offers. of colors.
The term tempera has been freely applied to Because of the listing here of media generally
many water-based paints. Today, it is often used associated with painting, we may seem to have
to describe poster-paint, but some manufacturers drifted from drawing media. But it is
listing
offer a tubed tempera paint that behaves some- impossible to say just where drawing ends and
what like casein, but has the advantage of pro- painting begins. Cezanne's "Standing Nude"
ducing clearer thin washes. On the palette, dry (Plate 6.9) is clearly a drawing, although it has
tempera paint is resoluble, but loses too much transparent washes in several colors. Nor is color
of its tinting and adhesive strength to be reused. the only criterion. Constable's wash-drawing
However, rewetting areas of tempera paint in a (Plate 7.19) in sepia ink is monochromatic, but
drawing does permit some adjustments to be seems to possess painterly qualities.
made. Manufactured temperas should not be con- It is often impossible to say whether a partic-
fused with egg-tempera, a medium popular be- ular work is a drawing or a painting because no
tween the twelfth and fifteenth centuries, which clear demarcation line between these two broad
used raw eggyolk as a binder with dry pigments. categories can be found. It is not surprising.
Because it spoils quickly, egg tempera is not avail- This is a natural result of the imperative of
able commercially. freedom in creativity. The freedom to pursue
Acrylic paints, a fairly recent addition to the any system of expressive order, extends to the
media now available, uses a synthetic resin as a free choice of tactical means. When the respon-
binder. This imparts a remarkable pliancy to sive demands of an artist require that he use
the paint film that prevents cracking. Somewhat materials and processes usually associated with
less opaque than casein and tempera, it never- painting (Plate 7.20) in a work which, in other
theless can be applied heavily enough to achieve respects, appears to be a drawing, no particular
Plate 7.19
Plate 7.20
164
rule been violated. To insist on precise
has
boundaries to keep these major media categories
from overlapping would be as partisan and limit-
ing as those codes which proscribe a medium's
usage. Although most drawings do omit color,
are small in scale, are made on paper supports,
and do tend to emphasize line, there are no com-
pelling reasons for accepting these traditional
characteristics as fixed barriers.
Thus, the several paints discussed here should
be considered as additional ways to increase our
options in drawing. Oil paints are omitted here
only because the addition of a medium requiring
its own thinner, varnishes, would
oils, etc.,
more daring approach, on a larger scale, that can Some pens. Clockwise, starting at bottom: goose-quill
act as a healthy corrective for those who tend to pen, crow-quill steel pen, Japanese reed pen with
make tiny drawings in a timid manner. squirrel-hair brush at opposite end (brush reverses
into handle whennot in use), felt-tip pen, stylus
type fountain pen for use with washable inks,
all-purpose drawing fountain pen for use with
THE DRAW IX G IXSTRUMEXTS washable inks, and India ink fountain pen with nib
that lowers into barrel when not in use.
Most of the abrasive media, except for the thin
and fragile compressed charcoal, crayon, and
graphite leads, do not normally require any
mechanical implements or holders. However, Illustration 7.8
some artists prefer holders or extenders for all Some brushes. Clockwise, starting at bottom of photo:
the abrasive media to permit them to stand fur- portable sable brush with cover which serves to
ther back from large drawings, or to extend the extend handle when in use, French quill brush
drawing life of a medium worn too short to be taped to a stick, number 2 round bristle, flat red
comfortably held in the hand (Illustration 7.7). sable, number 5 filbert bristle, Japanese squirrel-hair
Some mention has already been made of the brush, portable fountain brush, number 4 round red
sable, large flat red sable with a beveled handle tip
many improvised drawing tools that can be used
for incising lines and removing paint, common paste
with inks or paints. Here, we will examine the
brush of nylon "hairs."
various pens and brushes designed for use with
these media.
PEXS
Many artists use two or three reed pens, in as for a reed pen. To thumbnail
split the point, press
dozen hard at the point where slit is to end (about
rotation.
s/4 " from tip of quill), and forcing a brush handle
But the reed's ability to take up ink in its
into quill opening, press upward, toward the thumb
fibers has one advantage. When the pen is fully
(D). The quill -will not split beyond the point where
charged with ink, the lines will, of course, be the thumbnail presses against the quill. Sharpen the
dark and dense. But as the ink is used up, it is point to the desired angle and degree of fineness (£).
forced from the fibers by pressure on the pen,
and produces various tones of line (Plate 1.6).
These can be extremely light and dry-looking,
making possible very delicate tonal nuances.
Reed pens do not often work well for long or
complex curvasive lines. Their ink flow is usu-
ally too heavy to sustain such lines. Nor do they,
except when fully charged, glide along the sur-
face easily. The user feels a decided friction
between the pen and paper, and may tend to
make slower, shorter lines with a reed pen than
with any other. But many artists consider these
apparent limitations challenging and even de-
sirable characteristics that encourage a concise,
analytical, and bold approach to drawing. The
reed pen discourages clever facility (Plate 7.21).
Some localities provide sturdy reeds from
which pens can be easily made. Art stores offer
bamboo reed pens, sometimes with a brush at
166
Plate 7.21
The quill pen provides a delicate and orna- exactness. Some pens are made for use with a
mental counterpoint to the reed's blunt, terse holder, others are made to fit into a fountain
statements. In Rembrandt's "Cottage Beside pen (Illustration 7.7).
Canal'' (Plate 7.23), the bolder reed pen lines Even so, many lack the lively and warm char-
can be seen in the drawing of the boat, deck, acter of the reed and quill pens. Few will
and in parts of the buildings. It also seems to function as well on the rough-grained, handsome
—
have been used in the lighter, drier state to — papers that so well suit the reed and quill pens.
suggest the thatched roofs. The quill pen lines These older instruments make a more sensitive
appear in the drawing of the foliage, the contour union with such surfaces. That is, they are more
of the rise in front of the central house, and dart affected by, and accommodate themselves to, the
around in curvilinear sweeps on various de- paper's terrain than most steel pens. The stiffer
scriptive "duties." steel pens make their own flat road on rough
The steel pen appeared in the early 1800's. paper, denting it as they move, thus losing the
The several degrees of flexibility and styles for tactile and visual benefits of interplay between
use in a holder quickly superceded the reed and the tool and the terrain. The flexible steel pens
quill pens because of several obvious advantages. are more apt to become entangled in the fibers
Their uniform manufacture insures the avail- of such papers and splatter (Illustration 7.11).
ability of a particular type; they usually hold The wide selection of steel pens and types of
more ink; they never need sharpening; and they papers, and the differing needs of the user, make
167
'
Vftiffl
B
Illustration 7.11
itimpossible to recommend specific combinations tion 7.12). These instruments also take inter-
of pen and paper. In general, moderately flex- changeable nibs in several line widths.
ible steel pens —
on papers of a moderate tooth The ball-point pen is another serviceable addi-
—
and absorbency can approximate much of the tion to the range of drawing media. Its very
character of the earlier quill drawings. On harder limited line variation and the relative weakness
surfaced, smooth papers, the steel pen's free-flow- of the black ink, compared to the carbon blacks,
ing, incisive character has no equal (Plates 3.13, are considered as drawbacks by some. On hard
7.24). surfaces its easy flow and maneuverability are
The several kinds of fountain pens designed
to use drawing because they hold a gener-
inks,
Illustration 7.12
ous ink supply and can be easily carried about,
are a most convenient drawing tool (Illustration
7.7). Many are made to take a wide assortment of
—
treaded nibs which allows the user to change
the kind of point being used. Those used with
water-soluble inks work quite well if thoroughly
washed every few weeks. Anocher type of drawing
pen, used with India ink, is more prone to clog-
ging, but again, thorough, periodic cleaning will
keep them functioning. A completely trouble-free
India ink pen may not exist because of the drying
properties of the ink, but among the most durable
and versatile are the Ultraflex India ink pen and
the Higgins Pengraphic Universal India ink pen.
The latter has the helpful feature of the inter-
changeable nib, and wide assortment of
offers a
drawing and technical drawing nibs.
Still another type of fountain pen is often
used for technical or mechanical drawing pur-
poses, or where a line's width must be unchang-
ing. These have stylus-like nibs that are made
for use with water-soluble inks. The near
uniformity of the lines has an etching-like qual-
ity, unlike any other kind of pen line (Illustra-
168
/
4^-
Plate 7.22
ROSENWALD COLLECTION.
Plate 7.23
.- XL, )
/
IS m
1! .
l^fl •i.i'.i
'
' > ,
• s
t*
170 MEDIA AND MATERIALS: THE TOOLS OF DRAWING
colors are available for their use. The best pens ing in acrylics); and the soft-haired brush made
allow the artist to continue the feed of ink, or of various animal furs —
especially sable and
to let it run This produces a lighter, rough
dry. squirrel (see Illustration 7.8).
line, similar to that of the reed pen when its ink The term sable is sometimes applied to any
is almost expended (Plate 3.20). soft-haired brush, which can be confusing. When
The nylon-tipped pens are useful for some selecting a sable brush, be sure it is sable. The
drawing purposes and are favored by those who best sable brushes, sometimes called red sable,
like a bold, quick-maneuvering line. Their line have a golden-reddish color and are very springy
variety is quite limited and
incapable of the
is and resilient. Less expensive "sable" brushes may
fineness possible with most other pens. Even contain squirrel hair, which is not as reddish in
those claimed to make fine lines are heavy com- color, or as springy in use.
pared to all but the felt-tipped pens. Bristle brushes are used for painting and
drawing with any wet medium, but its use with
watercolor is rare. Avoid vigorous scrubbing
Plate 7.2-/
movements with a bristle brush on paper, be-
Auguste Rodin (1840-1917). St. John the Baptist. cause the bristles' stiff, scratching nature damages
Pen and ink. its surface —
unless the paper has been previously
COURTESY OF THE FOGG ART MUSEUM, HARVARD prepared with a foundation coat of paint, called
UNIVERSITY. a priming.
GRENVILLE L. WINTHROP BEQUEST. There are several classifications of bristle
brushes, determined by shape. Flats and brights
are square-ended brushes, usually available in
eighteen sizes, differing only in the somewhat
greater length of the flats. Filberts are rounded
at the ends, and somewhat fuller in body.
Rounds, of any size, are rather long, have
pointed tips, and round bodies. Filberts and
rounds are usually available in twelve sizes.
Bristle brushes are sized according to a scale with
1 as the smallest brush, and 18 or 12, depending
on the classification, the largest. Other stiff-
haired brushes sometimes used include the stencil
brush, helpful in producing certain textural
effects, and the common house-painting brush,
for preparing surfaces, and for very broad washes.
When used with opaque paints, bristle brushes
are stiff enough to push, spread, and pass through
heavy concentrations of paints without splaying
out, becoming bogged down, or wearing away
quickly, as any soft-haired brush will. The
round bristle brush works well as a line instru-
ment when used with thinned paint or ink.
But the soft-haired brushes have always been
preferred in drawing. Made from hairs of various
animals, these come in various shapes and sizes.
In the Orient, where the brush is also a writing
tool, the hairs commonly used are goat, rabbit,
and badger. "Wolf and horse hair is also used for
larger brushes, as is hog bristle. For writing and
drawing purposes, the hairs are set into a bamboo
shaft, the hairs coming to a point when wetted.
MEDIA AND MATERIALS: THE TOOLS OF DRAWING 171
Some larger brushes are set into wooden handles. other duties. hard to imagine a worn brush,
It is
The beautiful calligraphic results possible with however battered, that cannot be used in some
the Oriental brushes have long attracted Western way. Indeed, brushes can wear down to shapes
artists. Softer and somewhat less springy than the that suit an artist's needs better than new ones.
sable brush, they work best when held at a right Such wear and tear of usage ages a brush in a
angle to the paper. Very slight pressure is re- "healthy" way. But letting brushes dry without
quired for the release of ink. The variety of line washing them thoroughly, or standing brushes,
possible with the Oriental brush ranges from one especially soft-haired ones, upright in containers
at least as delicate as a fine pen line to very wide, of water, can damage them so they are less useful
painterly strokes. In this respect, Oriental for other purposes.
brushes rival the best round sable brushes. Both Brushes are fast-moving tools that take time
and quick release of ink discourage
their softness to learn to control. In the case of the soft
re-working of a line, and call for a concise and brushes, especially the sable, their sensitive re-
resolute approach. sponses record the slightest hesitations and idio-
The round sable brush is one of the most syncratic behavior of the user's hand.
versatile and popular instruments for drawing in
brush and ink or watercolor. It also works well
with casein or tempera, when these are slightly
thinned, but like all soft-haired brushes, it per-
forms poorly with acrylics. This medium must THE SUITABLE SURFACE
be applied with a stiff-haired brush, preferably
nylon.
All sable brushes come with short handles, The character of the paper support also helps
more often used for drawing with ink or water- form the drawing. As the artist transfers his re-
color, and long handles, for use in easel painting. sponses to the paper, its submission or resistance
Their sizes commonly range from the tiny 0, to a particular medium —
the paper's tooth, absor-
about y32 of an inch wide, to size 12, which is al- —
bency, and tactile properties influence the ar-
most y2 inch wide. Some manufacturers offer even tist's tactics and even the expressive nature of
larger sizes. Because the larger round sable brushes the work itself. The beginning student seldom
ably do any work the smaller ones can some- — reflects on a paper's physical composition, weight,
—
times better it is best to buy fewer, but larger absorbency, or surface character, although he is
brushes, than the other way around. A good, all sometimes amazed at a particular paper's influ-
purpose selection might be sizes 2, 4, 6, 9, and 12. ence on his drawing. He may also be amazed by
Good quality round sable brushes even the — the many sizes and kinds of paper in the art
larger ones — can produce lines finer than those stores. Some are permanent papers that will not
of any pen. Like the Oriental brushes, a single yellow and crumble with age; others will begin to
brushstroke can vary widely in width. darken and fall apart in a few years. Some are du-
Besides the round sable, there are full-bodied rable and can take rough handling; others are
oval shaped sables, and another group of flat, quite fragile. Each has certain uses, some quite
square-ended ones. Both are designed for broader specialized, others adaptable to a variety of ways,
—
handling the largest one for brushing in large and a variety of media.
washes of tone, or for wetting the surface. The most permanent papers usually the —
Brushes of the same shapes and sizes are avail- toughest and most capable of accepting the
able in squirrel hair, or in mixtures of various —
widest range of media are made of linen rag.
hairs that possess some of the qualities of the They are also the most expensive, particularly
sable ones. Other soft-haired brushes used in the handmade papers. The least permanent
drawing are the group call quill brushes. These papers are made of wood pulp, untreated by any
are long, round, squirrel hair brushes designed chemical preservatives.
for and various decorative purposes.
lettering Papers are classified according to weight and
Their longer bodies and pointed ends allow for surface character. The figures designating a
very delicate drawing. paper's weight refer to five hundred sheets, called
This hardly exhausts the types of brushes for a ream. Thus, a thirty pound paper is one whose
use in drawing. There are many more, coming ream weighs thirty pounds. Newsprint, the paper
in a wide selection of shapes, sizes, and materials, used in the publication of newspaper, is a thirty
used for sign writing, lettering, or other special to thirty-five pound paper. Some of the heavier
painting functions. papers, those used primarily for watercolor paint-
As brushes wear down, they can be assigned ing, but also very well suited to drawing, can
172 MEDIA AND MATERIALS: THE TOOLS OF DRAWING
weigh up to four hundred pounds, and are nearly made of an inexpensive backing of pulpboard,
as stiff as cardboard. upon which is mounted a thin sheet of drawing
There are three basic classifications of rag or watercolor paper. Some are made with all
paper surfaces: rag surfaces. The Strathmore Paper Companv
Hotpressed: the hard-surfaced, smooth, and markets an illustration board faced on both sides
sometimes even glossy papers; best suited to pen by an all rag paper. The completed drawing can
and ink drawing, especially very exact or delicate be stripped from the illustration board. Thus,
work. It is the least absorbent of the three types. the Strathmore board is really two illustration
Coldpressed: papers with a moderate tooth boards in one.
and absorbency; they accept all media well, and Oriental papers have a distinctive absorbent
are the most frequently used. They vary some- character. Often called rice paper, they are actu-
what according to the manufacturer's formula, ally made from the inner bark fibers of a type of
but it is hard to find a coldpressed paper that is mulberry plant. Oriental papers contain none of
not an appealing surface for drawing. the clay additives of many Western papers that
Rough: papers with the most pronounced are used to reduce absorbency, and are more
tooth; they are least accommodating to fine or prone to blotting. The steel pen can become
exact pen and ink drawing, although some artists enmeshed in such soft surfaces, but the soft-
enjoy drawing on such surfaces. They give ink haired brushes move smoothly on them (Plate
and watercolor washes a brilliance and sparkle 7.18).
not possible with other surfaces. The term bond refers to a wide assortment of
Rag papers are sold in single sheets and blocks. papers often used for writing and typing pur-
The sheets in the blocks are attached on all four poses. Bond papers vary in weight from thirteen
sides to assure the flattening out of a paper's to thirty pounds, and in surface from the slick
buckles when water-based media are used. Water, to the moderately grained. They may be made
by itself, or as part of ink or thinned paint, either of woodpulp, rag, or various mixtures of
swells the fibers, causing ripples in the paper. both. All are excellent for pen and ink drawing,
Although not generally noticeable in pen and and those manufactured for general drawing pur-
ink drawings, unless the lines are densely massed poses are receptive to most media. But their
on a lightweight paper, not much water is neces- light weight makes extensive use of water-based
sary to cause ripples on most papers. The heavier media impractical.
the paper, the more water it can tolerate before Many drawing pads and sketchbooks do not
buckling. Papers lighter than 140 pounds will identify the papers' ingredients. Advertised as
buckle even with a quite restricted use of water. "white drawing paper," or "all-purpose drawing
If heavily saturated, even 140 pound papers paper," many are like bond papers in character.
show some rippling. Papers of 200 pounds or Most are heavier, usually between twenty-five and
more will not buckle no matter how wet. forty-five pounds. Their qualities vary according
To
prevent buckling, soak the paper for a few to their price. At their best, they are made of
minutes. Secure it to a stiff board such as fiber- 100 percent rag.
board by taping it on all four sides with gummed A good paper for practice drawings with dry
tape. If a second paper is similarly stretched on media is the newsprint paper, mentioned earlier.
the back of the board, warping of the board is It is an impermanent paper of a warm, light
much less likely, and a second sheet is ready for gray tone and can be either smooth or moderately
use. rough. The rough-toothed paper has a more
For extensive use of opaque paints, only the interesting character and is generally slightly
heaviest papers should be used. Various kinds of heavier. Only the harder degrees of graphite do
posterboard, cardboard, illustration board, or poorly on newsprint paper, appearing rather
other stiff paper boards are more appropriate weak, and easily tearing into its surface. Here,
supports for large amounts of thick paint. Un- only graphite pencils of the higher B designa-
less, like illustration board, such supports are tions should be used.
covered with a facing of drawing or watercolor Bristol and vellum heavyweight papers,
are
paper, they may require priming to provide a often made of woodpulp, but available in 100
more receptive surface and to help hold the paint. percent rag of postcard weight, they offer espe-
An acrylic gesso, designed as a base for paints, cially fine surfaces forpen and ink, brush and
makes a good surface for both wet and dry media. ink, paint, and graphite. Often sold in pads of
Illustration board is available in the three various sizes, they are a most serviceable paper
designations for rag papers. These boards are for almost any medium. These papers are usually
MEDIA AND MATERIALS: THE TOOLS OF DRAWING 173
treated with preservatives and chemically ing on, we try things we would hesitate to try in
whitened. They are tough papers; all are long- a classroom, or on the large drawing pad which
lasting, many are permanent. The bristol paper feels more The
sketchbook is a place to
public.
has a hard, glossy surface and may take the experiment with whatever interests us in the
softer abrasive media less well than vellum, which subject —or in ourselves. These uses of the
has a subtle tooth. sketchbook help us develop a better grasp of
Charcoal paper, usually between sixty and what our strengths and susceptibilities are (Plates
seventy pounds, is a fairly substantial paper, 7.25, and 7.26).
capable of the rough handling that drawings in One useful form of the sketchbook permits
charcoal, chalks,and the other dry media often the user to with any combination of papers
fill it
entail. Its rough tooth and tough "skin"' takes desired and remove completed drawings. Sur-
erasures well. These papers always have some prisingly, this kind is not usually found in the
rag content, the best ones are all rag. It is art stores, but in the larger stationary stores.
available in light colors as well as white. These are called spring binders and are available
Tracing paper is a semi-transparent, very light- in several sizes. In effect, it is really a permanent,
weight paper used for drawing or for developing spring operated book cover, filled and changed as
a drawing placed underneath it. It is sometimes needed (Illustration 7.13).
useful to place a sheet of tracing paper over a
work in progress, to experiment with drawing
ideas. There are, of course, many
other types of Illustration 7.13
paper available. The various kinds used in the
Filling spring-binder sketchbook. Any combination
printing of etchings and lithographs, the clay-
of drawing papers are cut to size and placed in the
coated papers such as cameo, and more recently, black folder. Cox'ers are folded backward, as in A.
papers made of spun glass, plastics, and re-cycled Folder is inserted and covers released. This type of
paper are some that artists have found useful. sketchbook has the additional advantage of lying
At first, the student need not extensively ex- flat when open, as in B.
^.
;r
•si
Plate 7.25
I
i
174
\
—
MIXED MEDIA will promptly crack; oil-based media can rot the
fibers of unprimed papers; charcoal media, and
some chalks, drawn upon dense layers of graph-
As mentioned earlier, some mixed media draw- ite, will not adhere; ink lines drawn upon any
ings are planned, and some evolve from the dried water-based paint film except an acrylic
interactions, between the artist, subject, and paint, will spread and blot. There are other in-
materials. When planned, the media should be compatible mixtures. Unfortunately, most are
used to help convey responses and intensify the learned the hard way. Often, only two or three
drawing's visual and expressive meaning. They media are used in the same drawing. More than
should not be combined for mere caprice, or for three are hardly ever necessary. Considering what
a show of technical facility as ends in them- any one medium can do, to use more than three
selves. Earlier, too, it was pointed out that limi- suggests inexperience, not need.
tations imposed by custom or tradition on the The thick brushstrokes of -tempera in John
use of media are unnecessary restrictions. These Bageris' "Infanta (After Velasquez)" (Plate 7.27),
—
two extreme attitudes about media freewheel- interacting with the lean, fast-moving graphite
ing show, or unquestioning obedience to past lines, are basic to the drawing's theme. Lines or
practice —
both restrict responses that extract and paint strokes alone could not convey the over-
intensify a subject's meaning. If, in Emile Zola's lapping, darting, "hide and seek" quality that
words, "art is life seen through a temperament," the artist's responses to the Valesquez painting
then it is our perception, our intellect, and our demanded. This interplay between thick and
intuition, not our attitudes of play with, or duty thin, fast and slow, and the drawing's overall
to the tools of drawing through which life shimmering immediacy conveys the impression of
—
nature is interpreted. We should use those the Infanta forming and fading. The way we
media that help us make our responses clear, are teased by the forms welling-up and subsiding
gaining from them any influences that enhance into the background's light values, is part of the
our meaning. Only when we recognize that a artist's interpretive aim. Here, the choice of
medium's inherent limits keeps us from realizing media and the way they are used is not arbitrary,
—
our goals before or after a drawing is under- it is essential.
—
way should we turn to other media. Similarly, Lyonel Feininger's drawing (Plate
For some artists, a medium's limits are an 7.28) in chalk,and black and gold washes, con-
exciting challenge. Some very notable artists veys very economically the fusion of a group of
have achieved deeply expressive work in a single houses with their cloud-like surroundings. Ap-
medium. Such artists accept the medium's plied to a wet surface, the washes fuse into each
limits (not the man-made "rules'' concerning other and into the fibers of the paper, making a
media) as if they were working in a form such soft contrast to the rough chalk lines. Here,
as a sonnet in poetry, or a sonata in music. Their again, the choice of media and their use intensi-
interest in drawing is, to a degree concerned with fies the artist's interpretation.
seeing what a particular medium can be made Today, the possible combinations of media,
to do. This is a valid and even praiseworthy tools,and surfaces, are almost endless. Any
goal, as long as it does not stifle responses that group exhibition of drawings shows a wide
cannot be expressed by the medium in use. variety of mixed media. Some are unusual, such
The student should also try to explore and as: lithographic crayons and water color on col-
push each medium to its limits, and he mu'st ored paper; brown wax-based pencils and sepia
be slow to decide its limits have been reached. ink; casein, graphite, and conte crayon; fatty-based
He should use it in every possible way before crayon, turpentine (as the crayon's thinner), and
turning to other media. The effect the limits of a ink; white chalk and white ink on black paper;
—
medium has on our drawing what it will and white acrylic and compressed charcoal on gray
will not do —
stimulates meaningful innovations paper. Others are familiar- combinations, such as
in its use. But,when certain visual, expressive, or ink or graphite, and watercolor washes; or char-
intuitive impulses demand more than a medium coal and ink. Some combinations are not of mixed
can give, other media should be used to complete media, but instruments, as in Whistler's gentle
the drawing. drawing of a seated woman (Plate 7.29). Here,
As mentioned earlier, any combinations of me- the light and dark tones in the woman's head, the
dia and materials can be used together, except tone of her shawl, and the light tones in the
those incompatible for chemical or technical rea- background and on the chair, are broadly
sons. Acrylic paints cause some inks to curdle brushed in with ink washes, to contrast with the
when mixed with them; casein on thin supports ink lines. These tones soften the figure, and they
(
) -x \
Plate 7.27
Plate 7.28
hold the drawing together. Whistler could have acrylic paint around with a soft-hair brush is
achieved most of these results with just the pen, quite different from using a bristle or nylon
but not the contrasts of wet and dry, of actual brush. To fully appreciate their differences, al-
and optical grays, or the splashy treatment of ternate media and tools every few- minutes.
the woman's left arm enabled by ink washes. Do not attempt to draw anything during this
Experiencing the feel of a medium, instru- manipulation period. Just try to observe their
ment, or surface is best accomplished in the act tactile and the kinds of lines and
differences,
of drawing itself, but some free exploration helps tones they produce. Draw long lines and strokes.
to become familiar with many of their charac- As you do, change the pressure to feel the kind
teristics, limits, and combinations. The follow- of response the tool makes. Pens and brushes
ing exercise is intended as a general approach to will react more to changes in pressure than abra-
the study of these matters. sive media, but all media show the effects of such
—
pressure each in a different way. Try erasing
some charcoal, pencil, and crayon lines. Cross-
EXERCISE 7 A hatch with each medium. Draw the smallest
circle with each (without filling the
possible
Here, you will use only a few media, surfaces, center hole). At this stage, it is not necessary to
and tools. The several exercises described suggest mix the media, but it is often hard not to experi-
a style of media exploration adaptable to the
study of virtually any medium, tool, and surface.
Plate 7.29
Even so, possibilities for extensive exploration are
too numerous to examine here, but the several James Abbott McNeill Whistler (1834-1903).
exercises offered should point the way to fuller Study of Mrs. Philip.
experimentation. Pen and wash.
COURTESV, MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS, BOSTON.
Here are three exercises, requiring the follow-
HELEN AND ALICE COLBLRN FUND.
ing papers: one sheet of bristol paper (or any
comparably smooth support of the same weight, V
or heavier) approximately 14" X 20"; one sheet
of 18" X
24" white charcoal paper, the heavier
the weight, the better; and one cold-pressed illus-
tration board, 20" X 30".
In addition, you will need:
merit with one medium over another. Let your media. Use your imagination freely. The orig-
curiosity guide you. inal medium of each box may be partially or
These first few experimental efforts are im- completely covered by such additional drawing.
portant. Just playing with these materials is in- You may wish to draw some simple volume or
structive play. You will have already made some texture in each, or try to establish some gradual
judgments about them. transitions in value with differing mixtures.
Continue until you cannot think of any other
Drawing 1. Divide the sheet of charcoal combinations or drawing tests to put these
paper into four, even, horizontal parts, and three media to.
vertical ones, making twelve divisions as in Illus- In IB, using graphite, start with the darkest
tration 7.14. In box 1A, use the 6B pencil to tone the pencil can produce, and gradually
draw an even tone of approximately a 50 percent lighten it as the tone moves across the box
gray. Drawing lines adjacent to each other from left to right, ending just short of the box's
should produce an optical gray that needs no edge, leaving a bit of the white paper on the
smudging. But it will be instructive to blend far right side. This should be a very gradual
one-half of the lines in the box to study the value change. any abrupt changes in value
If
effects on value and texture. Do the same with are visible, rework the tones until the strong
the stick charcoal, in box 2A, also blending the dark on the left appears to fade away at an
lines in half of it. You may blended
find that the even rate and end just short of the right side
half has become lighter. Rework the blended of the box. Do the same in 2B, using charcoal,
half until it reaches the tone of the other half. and in 3B, with crayon. Do not erase to establish
these graduations. Notice the differences in the
value and character of the three dark areas, and
Illustration 7.14
that each medium requires a different handling
to produce these tones.
In 1C, make a tonal drawing of any simple
object, such as an apple, shoe, glove, etc., using
the 6B Draw the same object, from the
pencil.
same view, in 2C using charcoal, and again in
B
3C with crayon. Again, notice that each medium
suggests a different handling. Because the 6B
pencil cannot produce darks as easily as the
crayon, more pressure is required. Because the
crayon so easily produces strong blacks, less pres-
sure must be used for lighter tones than with
graphite. Because stick charcoal is a broad tool,
small details are not as easily drawn as with the
In 3A, use the wax-based medium, again establish other two media. The crayon's resistance to era-
exactly the same value as now appears in 1A and sure sets up still another condition of handling.
2A. Here, you will not be able to blend or erase, Take advantage of what each medium offers. If
and this should be borne in mind when you try crayon can produce bolder values, use this to
to match the value of the other boxes. show a more dramatic range of lights and darks.
When you have filled the three boxes, use If charcoal can be manipulated on the page in
these media freely to draw other lines in these ways that the other two media cannot, do so to
boxes. For example, you should use the charcoal extract from the subject qualities that charcoal
and crayon in 1A, and so on. These lines may can state by these manipulations. If the graphite
mix with each other, as well as with the original pencil can state details more specifically than
lines in any given box. Some of the mixtures the other media, use this to explain the smaller
will work better than others. The order in which planes and tones. Let their limits and character-
they are drawn is important. Graphite may do istics guide your tactics.
well over charcoal, but charcoal may do poorly Leave the bottom D row blank. You will com-
over graphite. In part, it depends on how much plete these boxes after the next drawing.
the paper fibers have been filled. You may erase,
or continue to add layers of line, in any order. Drawing 2. Using the bristol paper or its
You can even try to scrape some of the crayon equivalent, again divide it as in Illustration 7.14.
off with a pen-knife or razor blade, and rebuild In 1A, draw a value of about 50 percent, using
the tone of 3A with a combination of these pen and ink. The lines can go in any direction
MEDIA AND MATERIALS: THE TOOLS OF DRAWING 179
or can be cross-hatched. You can use the box to spread. The more water, the more the ink will
try several pen and ink textures, varying the lines —
spread and the harder it will be to control.
as you wish —so long as its overall value is main- Therefore, do not lay in any washes until the
tained. In 2 A, draw the same value with the box is only faintly damp. If an area becomes
sable brush and ink diluted in water to produce too dark, a clean brush can pick up much of
a dark gray, but fill only one half of the box. the tone while it is still wet. In 3B, draw the
In the other half, use the number 5 flat bristle same kind of value transition, using opaque mix-
brush and undiluted ink. Dip just the tip of tures of Chinese white and ink. This time, use
the bristle brush in the ink, with light
and, only the sable brush, and draw fine lines with
back-and-forth brushing on a scrap of nonabsor- the thinnest opaque mixture. If the mixture is
bent paper, remove almost all the ink from the of the correct consistency, the paint should easily
brush. When the brush is nearly dry, it will flow off the brush with no sense of "drag." Dry-
produce a stroke of very fine, black lines that brush will work well here.
can be brushed into the other half of 2A, pro- In 1C, using pen and ink any way you wish,
ducing an optical gray. This is called dry-brush. make a tonal drawing of any simple object. Using
The wide brushstrokes of fine lines so produced, brush and water, draw the same object in 2C.
look somewhat like chalkstrokes. They allow for This can be done in the wet-in-wet manner used
a gradual building up of values (Illustration in 2B, or in any combination of wet and dry
7.15). It can also be done with soft-hair brushes brushstrokes. In 3C, the same subject should be
drawn in any opaque manner with ink, Chinese
white, and brushes. The experience of the first
Illustration 7.15 two rows should help you decide how you wish
to handle these three drawings in the C row.
Examples of drybrush. The strokes in A were made
with a bristle brush; those in B, with an Oriental, Again, leave the D row blank.
squirrel-hair brush. Now, return to the D row of Drawing 1. In ID,
using brush and ink and Chinese white, try to
imitate the drawing in 1C exactly. That is, your
drawing in ID should look as if it had been done
with the 6B pencil. In 2D, use brush and ink
(and water, if you wish) to reproduce the drawing
in 2C exactly. Again, you want to imitate the
medium used in 2C. In 3D, use only pen and
ink to reproduce the drawing in 3C. If you are
working with other students, drawings can be
exchanged at this point, so that you can try to
reproduce someone else's row of C drawings.
When the D row of Drawing 1 has been com-
pleted, return to the D row of Drawing 2. Again,
drawings can be exchanged in this last part of
Drawing 2. Now, use only the crayon to repro-
us with a sense of its nature, its range, and its po- volume-summary and primary planes of another
tentialities, for use. observed object. This should be done within five
minutes. Continue to develop the drawing in any
Drawing 3. Turning the illustration board one of the abrasive media used earlier. In 2C,
vertically, divide it into three horizontal sections using any combination of media, but omitting
of ten inches each. Divide it vertically in half acrylics, and any tools except brushes, try to
(Illustration 7.16).Using black acrylic, the num- duplicate the drawing in 2B exactly. In place of
ber five flat bristle brush, and water, make a brushes, you can use your fingers, rolled up
gradual tonal change from black to white, allow- paper, cotton swabs, sponges, etc. You may want
ing the white board to be visible on the far right to try duplicating 2B with abrasive media alone
side of 1A, as in the earlier tonal changes. Thus, — perhaps using only charcoal.
as the tone lightens, you will use less paint and Again, you have explored some materials by
more water. In 2A, do the same, but use both going with and against their character. But this
black and white acrylics. When completed, both still does not exhaust the possibilities. Acrylics
should be smooth graduations of tone. This will can be used to imitate the various abrasive media,
be less easily accomplished in 1A. Once they one combination can be made to duplicate the
have dried, dark areas cannot be removed. There- texture and character of another, different sur-
fore, adjustments in 1A must be made before the faces would effect the behavior of both the media
paint dries. Here, it is better to start with the and the tools, different tools would affect the
lightest tonesand work toward the darks on the media, etc. The possibilities are endless.
left. If, 1A or 2 A need further tonal
after drying, At the beginning, it is better to probe fewer
adjusting, use both Chinese and acrylic white, media and materials and go deeper. Here, a sug-
and notice the difference in the covering power. gested approach for the study of any media, tool,
After completion, use both of these boxes for any or surface is offered to help you when, as your
further experiments with any of the other media. studies progress, you seek them out. Although
all our materials continue to unfold their nature
as we use them, the few hours spent in testing,
1 2
forcing, probing —
in discovering —
can provide an
A understanding that may only come in bits and
pieces over a long period of time. It may be
months or years before a student tries to mix
B in one drawing —
casein, ink, and chalks, only to
find works better than anything else he has
it
Visual Issues
THE
FORMING OF ORDER
A DEFINITION
We have seen that responsive drawing concerns Some cultures have always understood draw-
drawn and how it is drawn, and that these
io hat is ings as systems of design. The single Italian term,
concepts are complemental. Each mark on the disegno, describes both drawing and design, as
page not only helps define our interpretation of does the French, dessin. In fact, it is impossible
a subject, but also, by its physical characteristics, to regard any drawing as only descriptive, even
conveys a particular kind of action, or energy. when nothing more was intended. Seeing and
However, these lines and tones do more. They sensing other relationships and the forces they
affect each other in ways that create the relation- generate unavoidable. Design is intrinsic to
is
ships and forces that give a drawing its own order, any collection of marks, and is thus, a given con-
character, and, consequently, its worth. To ex- dition of drawing. How well integrated the marks
pand an earlier observation about line, all the are determines the quality of the design.
marks that constitute a drawing define, act, and In a good design, the marks produce relation-
interact. Each mark is a part of the drawing's or- ships and forces that convey a sense of balance or
ganization and expression. equilibrium between its parts, and between them
This chapter concentrates on those factors that and the page. Additionally, all of the design's
influence a drawing's organizational aspects, that components have strong, interacting bonds of
is, composition or visual design. To separate
its dependence and affinity that create an overall
a drawing's organization from its expression risks sense of oneness, or unity. But both of these con-
distorting our understanding of both. Generally, ditions can exist in very dull drawings. A draw-
each mark simultaneously affects a drawing's vi- ing of a brick wall or a venetian-blind, unless the
sual and expressive meaning. Indeed, the best overall sameness is relieved by some variety, is
drawings are those in which design and feeling boring. A drawing's stability and unity must
are fused. Therefore, we must recognize that this emerge from the stimulating action of contrasts,
chapters emphasis on visual matters, and the as well as the union of similarities. We need di-
next chapter's emphasis on expressive ones are versity as an antidote to monotony. General prin-
temporary stresses to help clarify our understand- ciples in art are best approached cautiously, but
ing of each, and deepen our realization of their it seems safe to assume that whatever else art is
interrelated nature. or may be, it will never allow disorder or bore-
181
182 visual issues: the forming of order
dom as goals. In drawings where stability and forces are as unlimited as the relationships that
unity are achieved by interesting contrasts, simi- create them. Being so much a matter of intuited
larities, and energies,we sense that any change impressions, they elude verbal descriptions of
will destroy their balanced resolution. more than their general kind of behavior.
Relationships are always based on similarities
of some kind, but depend on contrasts to be ef-
fective. Where everything is bright, nothing is.
RELATIONSHIPS AND FORCES
We do not usually regard a white sheet of paper
as being bright, we regard it as blank. Not until
The preceding chapters examined the measurable dark tones appear on the page does its tone have
relationships of shape, volume, scale, direction, any visual meaning.
placement, line, texture, and value. These mea- A single vertical line drawn upon a page cre-
surable relationships helped us analyse a subject's ates a contrast. The line is unlike any other part
physical properties. Although compositional mat- of the paper (though it is similar in direction
ters were touched on, our main concern was in to the vertical borders of the page). When a
learning to see the subject's actualities, to more second line is drawn parallel to the an ob-
first,
fully respond to its volumes and its immediate vious similarity is created between them. Two
spatial environment in a personal and inventive more lines drawn at right angles to the first pair,
way. Now we will investigate relationships that are like them as but contrasting in their
lines,
stabilize and unify volume and space within the position. If the four lines form a square, the
bounded limits of a page in ways that engage the lines are related to the page and each other by
entire page. the shape they make (Illustration 8.1). Thus,
We have seen that all of a drawing's marks
must be made of line, value, or both, and that
these in turn form the several graphic factors of
shape, volume and space, and texture. All of the
visual issues that concern composition result from
the behavior of these five basic factors. They are
collectively called visual elements. In discussing
the relational possibilities of visual design, we
will to examine these elements further. As
need
Illustration 8.1
we remember that the term "element" refers
do,
to anything from a line to the volume of a house.
In the preceding chapters we also examined units canshow contrast on one level of relation-
some visual forces: the sense of gestural move- ship and similarity on another. When, as in Il-
ment within a form, or between forms, some of lustration 8.1, similarities overpower contrasts,
the plastic activities of the elements, the actual or the result is boredom. When contrasts overpower
inferred forces of structural masses, and the sense similarities, the result A drawing's final
is chaos.
of forms being related by some enveloping flow resolution as a successful design must avoid both
or plan. Our main concern, then, was the way of these extremes. Its contrasts may threaten, but
such forces could increase our options for re- should never succeed in destroying balance and
sponse to volumes in space. As we shall see, unity. The artist must resolve the confronting
there are other kinds of forces that, like these, are contrasts into some coherent system of relation-
powerful factors in visual design. Unlike the visi- ships.
ble relationships between elements, the various
We saw in Illustration 8.1 that elements can
plastic or sensory (and emotive) forces that these relationships simultane-
participate in several
relationships generate are themselves invisible.
ously. Although unlimited in their visual inter-
We only sense or intuit them. actions, relationships can be roughly grouped into
The possibilities for relationships of similarity ten discernably different categories. These cate-
or contrast between the elements are vast. In
gories of relationships and the general kinds of
fact, in the greatest drawings, the visual activities
forces they generate are:
of the elements seem capable of endless interac-
tions. Great drawings are never "used up." Re-
1. Direction:
lationships can be obvious or very subtle. Each movement, when like or
The sense of gestural
line or tone in a drawing participates in at least unlike elements relate because of a discernable
a few, and sometimes many different relation- continuity of their positions in the picture-plane.
ships, producing different visual forces. These Such elements seem to move in various straight
or curved paths, and even suggest their speed. Ele-
ments can "amble" along or they can convey
powerful velocity. The more unlike elements are,
the weaker and slower the sense of movement;
the greater their similarity, the stronger their
directional thrust. For example, a widely varied
collection of bottles and boxes unevenly placed
on a shelf, because of the marked contrasts in
scale, shape, and placement between the objects,
suggests a slow, weak sense of movement. But
identical bottles uniformly lined up on a shelf,
suggest a faster, stronger force of movement (Il-
lustration 8.2).
3. Shape:
The similarity or contrast of shape between ele-
ments. In Illustration 8.4, the shapes form one
set of relationships because of their similarity of
scale, and another set because of their similarity
of shape.
4. Value:
The similarity or contrast of value between ele-
ments. In Illustration 8.5, the shapes form one
set of relationships because of their similarity of
scale, another because of their similarity of shape,
and still another because of their similarity of Illustration 83
value.
Scale. Relationships of size are more clearly
5. Rhythm: discerned between like forms.
The sense of a common movement between sev-
eral like unlike elements. Rhythm relation-
or
ships are often similar to those of direction. Usu-
ally, rhythms are sensed among a group of
elements repeating a similar movement. The
more often lines, shapes, etc., repeat the same
curve or tilt, the stronger the sense of rhythm.
Rhythm also occurs when elements appear at
more or less regular intervals, generating a sense
of beat. The repeated folds in a long, flowing
dress, or the uplifted limbs of a tree, are examples
of moving rhythms; a row of glowing street lights
at night, or the buttons of a coat are examples of
a "beat" rhythm. The sense of rhythm is one of
the stronger forces in unifying a drawing, and
can weave together many otherwise unrelated
elements (Illustration 8.6).
6. Proximity or Density:
When like or unlike elements are seen as belong-
ing together because they are closer to each other
than to other elements in the pictorial field. In a
drawing of forms as unlike as leaves, locks, and Illustration 8.4
cups, they will appear as related when one or Shapes related by similarity and scale.
183
1 8 I visual issues: the forming of order
10. Tension:
When two or more elements, or parts of the same
element, opposed or attracting in some way, sug-
gest some kind of impending action. The par-
ticipants of a tension often share strong similari-
ties in other respects, but seem poised and about
to attack or pull away from each other. They
may appear about to tug at, pull away from, or
press against each other. Elements in tension
suggest a dynamic "awareness" of each other.
B Although opposition is often their basic stance,
they always suggest a magnetic attraction. This
Illustration 8.6 dual relationship makes elements in tension seem
Rh\thm. In A, moving rhythms relate the leaves, chair, to pulsate. Often, the members of such a relation-
gown, hair, and curtain. In B, the boats, paddles, and ship are roughly equal in impact in the
their
poles create beat rhythms as well as moving ones. pictorial Tension can be sensed between
field.
Illustration 8.7
Closure. Although dots and do not connect, we
lines
complete the connection to understand their
Proximity. Unlike objects can be related b\ collective configuration.
placement.
B
Illustration 8.10
A drawing's balance depends on the relational gression in their scale, their several directions
forces of its elements. Although relationships of and abutments offer interesting variety, and the
weight are important to the balance of any draw- design of the two larger shapes embracing six
ing, its final resolution as a successful design is smaller ones form a discernible theme. Regarded
not, as sometimes assumed, primarily a balancing as blocks in space, the abutments between their
act of weights. Its equilibrium is determined as planes and the containing borders of the spatial
much by the forces of direction, rhythm, tension, field, as well as the abutments between them-
by gravity.
etc., as selves, weaken the impression of volume in space.
The balance between a few elements can be Such tangential connections make it difficult to
readily judged, but as more relationships and • know which of the blocks is ahead of the other,
forces enter the configuration, they generate still or which is larger.
others by geometric progression. The artist does The six little shapes in Illustration 8.1 IB are,
not see or even sense them all. He is guided from the standpoint of two-dimensional design,
toward equilibrium by an overall sensitivity to a too small to relate to the large shape of the pic-
—
drawing's "rightness" of balance as much a mat- ture-plane. Instead of the interaction between all
ter of intuition as intellect. As with any other the shapes, as in Illustration 8.1 1A, here the little
aspect of responsive drawing, its design results shapes form two small clusters, and the shape of
from the negotiations between facts and feelings. the picture-plane remains passive. Additionally,
the senses of tension and direction between the
two clusters of shapes creates a diagonal "tug"'
that disturbs the vertical-horizontal orientation of
THE CONFIGURATION the picture-plane. This kind of tug is far less
AXD THE PAGE disturbing when it runs parallel to the vertical or
horizontal directions of the picture-plane because
then it repeats one of those directions. Similarity
When the artist begins to draw, force-producing
of direction is a strong visual bond, and one that
relationships begin between the elements and be-
tween them and the page. These relationships any vertically or horizontally placed element in a
drawing shares with the page. The first diagonal
exist as two- and three-dimensional events simul-
taneously. Sometimes, relationships that are two-
mark or force in a drawing is obviously "alone."
dimensionally complemental with the drawing's
There are no "friendly" directions to relate with.
187
the figure on the left. This force is continued
in the neck and chest of the horse, and in the
lines near the man on the right. The release of
.
such explosive force warrants the thick, surround-
ing buffer of space (Illustration 8.12A). We can
sense an "implosion," too. The empty area ab-
sorbs the "shock waves" and sends them back
again. These sensations keep alternating as we
\ look at the page. Both the drawn and empty areas
\i contribute to, and share these pulsations. Had
Rembrandt continued to draw the entire horse,
the empty area would have been cut in two, de-
stroying the surrounding buffer and possibly the
h radiating force as well. Had
on a larger sheet of paper,
he made this drawing
the impact of the ex-
~ plosion would have been greatly reduced and
the subject overwhelmed by the scale of the
empty area. No
"echoes" would return from the
limits of the page, because they would be beyond
the range of the drawing's forces, and no rapport
K^ between the drawn and empty areas would exist.
The configuration would be isolated in a sea of
paper.
All of the ten general types of relationships are
present in this drawing. We see how powerfully
direction is and how it pervades the entire
used,
Plate 8.2
composition. The rhythm resulting from the
many "spokes" of direction that radiate from the
Simone Cantarini (1612-48).
drawing's center adds force to that action. An
Studies of an Infant in Various Poses.
almost equally powerful visual theme that also
Red chalk.
THE PIERPONT MORGAN LIBRARY. moves through the drawing is generated by di-
rections, rhythms, and tensions (Illustration
8.12B).
demands of a full-scale compositional scheme. Beginning with the near man's lower leg, a
But this does not mean that such drawings are vertical movement spreads left and right in a
less united with the page than are those which fan-like manner. The angle of the near man's
fill it entirely. It means only that the encircling, lower arm, and the repeated lines of his waist-
undrawn area is assigned the less active, but no coat convey one half of the fan's spread; the other
less important role of containing and modifying half is conveyed by the lines in the far man's
the visual dynamics of the configuration. coat, by the several brushstrokes defining the
In Rembrandt's drawing, "The Mummers" horse's mane, and by the lines of the background
(Plate 8.3), the configuration is well within the
188
r
Plate 8.3
189
190 VISUAL ISSLES: THE FORMING OF ORDER
near the man on the right. This fan-like action drawing's relational life could be fully and objec-
createsone tension between its two halves, and tively probed, a key, if impalpable ingredient
another between it and the inverted "Y"-shaped would still be missing. This "mysterious" in-
counterforce formed by the directions of the tangibility certainly concerns a drawing's expres-
sword and the reins. The 'V -shape is reen forced sive aspects, but it is not limited to them. It is a
by some lines in the near man's saddle, and some quality that permeates the drawing, transforming
of the lines between the legand the reins. Ten- the means into meanings. If we regard responsive
and brushstrokes
sions between the various lines drawings as works that can create graphic equiva-
of the horse make these marks seem to attract lents of living organisms, then whatever gives the
each other. These tensions, and the sense of graphic organisms "life" is as mysterious as those
closure between the marks, help us to "see" the powers that animate and sustain living things in
largely nonexistent animal. The proximity of nature. Therefore, intellectual dissection can no
and the dominant dark value be-
the two figures, more determine this "something plus" that sep-
tween them, unite the men into one great dia- arates art from competence than the character of
mond-like shape that is centrally placed on the a man can be learned by surgery.
page. Weight, too, is centrally balanced in this What can be learned about design strategies
composition. Notice how Rembrandt's handwrit- and the uses of relationships makes analyzing
—
ing its consistent, animated energy reenforces — drawings an important source of information and
the power of the actions described above, and insight. Although the beginning student rightly
helps to unite the drawing. The diffuse sense of senses that drawing is not a wholly conscious
overall balance, involving every component, is activity, a more pertinent question would be: Are
less easily described, but can be "tested" by cover- these relationships really present? In the analysis
ing any segment of the drawn area by a small of Plate 8.3, the several relationships and forces
piece of paper, or by reducing the size of the discussed occur too consistently and are too criti-
page by covering one or more of its edges with cally established to be mere chance. Moreover,
black or gray paper. Doing either will destroy the the absence of visual discords —of elements not
drawing's stability. engaged in the several actions discussed, or not
But these are only some of the relational ac- otherwise contributing to the drawing's order-
tivities. There are many more in the drawing. is, again, beyond chance. Whatever an artist's per-
Indeed, each of the marks has some function that sonal "formula" is, between reason and instinct,
contributes to the drawing's design and unity. the fact remains that in great drawings, a great
Each defines, acts, and interacts. many questions and needs have been well an-
Beginning students often question whether or swered.
not an artist consciously intends each of the force- Although very different in style, mood, and
producing relationships in a drawing. They subject, Diaz de la Pena's drawing, "Landscape"
doubt that the visual dynamics always represent (Plate 8.4), shows a use of the empty areas of the
deliberate judgments, and suspect that many of page similar to that in Rembrandt's drawing.
the relationships pointed out in a particular draw- Here, a "ground burst" of radiating directions
ing never entered the artist's mind — and they are spread out upon the horizontal plane of the field
right. Itwas observed earlier, that after a draw- almost fades away at the edges of the page, retain-
ing is well under way, there are just too many re- ing the encircling, single shape of the rest of the
lationships and forces for the artist to see and page. Again, the plan is the use of the outer por-
sense them all, and that the drawing's resolution tions of the page as a force-absorbing belt of
depends on intuition as much as intellect. Again, space. The from the center
trees, lifting vertically
the character and goal of a responsive drawing is of the burst, take on more contrasting force from
partly determined by subconscious interests. The it. Butunlike the vigorous energy in Rem-
content of any drawing contains certain intangi- brandt's drawing, the forces in la Pena's drawing
bles that are not only subconscious expressions of are of a more muffled kind. The overall compact-
the artist, they are resistant to any attempt at ness of the configuration, the pronounced texture
analysis by others. of the chalk medium, the restricted value range,
As we examine other drawings in this chapter, and the soft edges of the forms make this a
we should remember that any analysis of a draw- "quiet" design, compatible with the subject's
ing's design reveals only some of its relational restful mood. The surrounding space, especially
activities (probably those reflecting the analyst's that above the landscape, which reduces and ab-
own instincts for organization) —and that many sorbs the forces, helps to convey this idea.
of these may well reflect the artist's intuitive im- The surrounding buffer in Kenneth Callahan's
pulses. Also, we must recognize that even if a drawing, "Summer Bug" (Plate 8.5), does have
< i*
<
I.
a :'.
ft*
Plate 8.4
?,„„.?<<//./,
Plate 8.5
191
192 visual issues: the forming of order
Plate 8.7
trally located columns that curve to the left and Hopper's use of bold contrasts of direction,
right near the top of the page. To the columns' scale, value, and rhythms intensify the tensions
left,the theatre boxes tilt down toward the left; between suspended forms to either side of the
to the columns' right, the curtains and stage tilt central columns. Note that some of the force of
down toward the right. Together, these tilting the various directions gains momentum from
forms —
and the shapes, lines, and values of which Hopper's consistently loose, energetic handling of
—
they are comprised act like chevron-marks cross- the charcoal.
ing the page. This action of the chevron-marks,
and the rising, double-arching vertical direction Perhaps because most artists turn to drawing to
that counters it, is the drawing's basic design state linear, rather than tonal ideas, to plan, ex-
theme. The design works with the shape of the plore, and note down essential actions and edges,
page, and is as much a part of the drawing's con- direction and rhythm are two of the relational
tent as the page is part of the design. forces more often important in depicting and de-
194
signing. To more fully experience direction and
rhythm at work within and among the forms of
drawings, be helpful here to analyze a few
it will
of the drawings in the book by making some
drawings that extract these relationships. is
EXERCISE |
8A
195
Illustration 8.14
Beat rhythms.
196
1
i *.
~t
Plate 3.9
•
t
' •
3
0P&-
a
198 VISUAL issues: the forming of order
their use. The analysis of these forces tells some- that strategy. And, as we have seen, relationships
thing about the artist's visual (and expressive) in- begin with the few marks. Perhaps that is
first
terests; they also indicate the amount and power why so many artists, even in the briefest of prepa-
of such forces necessary to create the various direc- ratory notations, not only intuitively organize
tional and rhythmic qualities in these drawings. independently drawn sketches into some system
The Third Phase: Now, with the reproduc- of design, but also have an awareness of each
tions nearby as models, using the graphite pencil mark as a unit of energy. It is as if these artists
continue to develop the drawings somewhat fur- cannot help responding to the intrinsic forces
ther. It will not matter that you may be using a within a mark as well as those that spring up be-
medium different from that of the original. You tween marks. They seem unable to accept the
need not go on to make an extended, accurate imbalance and disunity that such unresolved
copy of these drawings, but just far enough to forces insure. The sensitive artist reacts to a
"flesh out" the skeleton of your analysis of each. drawing's disorder with anxiety-producing ten-
As you do, compare the interrelated nature of the sions. Such drawing's do not "feel right." When
drawing's what, its representational dynamics, stability and unity are achieved, there is a release
'with these two relational aspects of the drawing's of tension. Drawings developed without an or-
how, its design. In good drawings, all of the rela- ganizational strategy, or even an intuitive ten-
tional factors that form the design form the dency toward some plan for the disposition of
image. parts on the page, always produce disorder and
For an additional, helpful exercise, analyze ambiguity. When an overall strategy is absent,
some of your own drawings this way, to see how the interrelating and unifying activities of the
you have used these forms. You will probably elements are absent. Whatever else such drawings
find afterward that returning to strengthen the may convey, disharmony is always part of the mes-
interweaving, animating, and unifying roles of sage.
direction and rhythm in your drawings can im- Here, we will examine a group of drawings
prove them. that provide opportunities to consider some of
Analyzing the drawings of master artists for the elements' design activities not yet discussed, or
these, orany other relationships, helps to more only touched on earlier. As previously noted,
fully understand the necessary union between the their possibilities for visual activity are unlimited,
perceptual and conceptual aspects of drawing. but seeing some of the ways in which they relate
Two common hazards of such analyses are the and act may stimulate the search for others.
assumptions that all of the artist's responses to his Drapery" (Plate 8.11) shows
Ingres' "Study of
constant subject and his evolving drawing are his sensitivity and interest in second- and
to,
conscious and deliberate, when, as we have seen, third-dimensional matters at the same time. We
many are essentially intuitive actions; and that are as aware of the structural nature of these
—
such analyses explain a drawing or an artist. forms as of the swirl of black, gray, and white
However, not until we have first fully experienced shapes forming them. They are simultaneously
the existence of such forces as universal, integral, seen as planes and shapes. Ingres' main strategy is
and inescapable participants in the act of draw- to organize the drawing by stressing the animated,
ing, will these insights become a subconscious voluptuous swirls with rhythms that result from
part of our comprehension, and of our means. repetitions of line and shape. Many
some lines,
of them really thin shadows, follow the same
routes, each adding to the sense of direction.
Most of the drawing's black, gray, and white
THE ELEMENTS shapes are strongly related to the lines in their
AS AGENTS OF DESIGN action. Note that a majority of them are varia-
tions of a boomerang shape. They range from
narrow "V"-shapes, to very open, rounded "Vs."
The central theme of
this chapter is that the Most of these below the horizontal midline are
quality of a drawing's design, and the visual placed right-side-up; above the midline, most are
dynamics that express it, are never expendable inverted. The more we look at the drawing, the
niceties, but fundamental to its meaning and more evident it is that almost every line, shape,
worth as a system of expressive order. If we re- and tone is a variation of this "boomerang" idea.
gard a drawing's design as the artist's strategy The main thrust of the volume where it seems —
for organizing his visual and expressive responses, headed — and where it is heaviest, is toward the
then the relational activities of the elements can lower right corner of the page. Ingres has built
be regarded as the tactical means used to effect up quite an energetic sense of weight moving in
Plate 8.11
that direction. He checks its action by the strong omous action. That is, each reflects Ingres' sensi-
tension at the knotted section on the drawing's tivity to the medium and his attraction to their
left, and by the strongest concentration of black visual dynamics as satisfying events in their own
in the drawing, below the knot, in the lower left. right. Finally, each element participates in car-
This "tug-of-war" between the pulling to the rying out an overall design plan.
left by the knot and the black tones on one side, How very different from Ingres' powerful ac-
and the movement of heavy volume straining to tion is Sheeler's "Barn Abstraction" (Plate 8.12).
the right on the other, creates a balance based on Here, there is a firmly stabilized balance of forces.
the most tenuous resolution of forces. The draw- The image is lean and sharply focused. Each
ing is continuously and almost simultaneously be- mark counts. The organizational plan depends
ginning and stopping its action. It no sooner on a system of vertical and horizontal directions,
achieves a balance than it is set going again. conveyed by deliberate, diagrammatic lines, and
Note that the five rather thick shadow-lines in rectilinear shapes. The impression of volume is
the lower right swing up toward the drape's knot subdued, being conveyed mainly by the overlap-
to help "return" the energy to its source. Note, ping geometric shapes. There is movement here,
too, that the most inclusive shape we can find, but it is stately and restrained. Even the textures,
the one that takes in almost every mark on the variations on the density of massed lines, move
page, is again a large, almost page-filling boo- across the page in three deliberate steps. The pic-
merang shape. Ingres' overall strategy can be seen ture-plane moves subtley back and forth, convey-
as motivating the action of the elements at every ing a sense of deep space above the buildings, be-
level. Reinforcing the intensity of the action, the coming the facing planes of the building's walls
manner of applying the chalk is boldly emphatic, and then moving forward to become the fore-
its character giving a final, unifying note to —
ground without a mark being drawn in the sky,
the drawing. Here, the elements of line, shape, on the walls, or upon the foreground. Openings
value, and volume all function at the three levels in the roof and walls, and around both sides of
referred to earlier. Each, in addition to depicting the grouped buildings enables the picture-plane
the impression of a drape, has its own semi-auton- to imply these different spatial functions. Note
Plate 8.12
those responses that intensify a subject's essential clared. This is not to suggest that these are
meaning to us. weakly presented, but, rather, that Picasso's plan
Compare Sheeler's drawing with Tiepolo's requires such teasing suggestions. There is the
drawing of a similar subject (Plate 8.13). Here, exact degree of volume present to convey Picasso's
volume is a more active element. It counter- visual theme: the simultaneous life of a line as an
balances the drawing's overall tilt to the lower edge in space, and as a line on paper. Again, as
left by the massive weight of the building on in Sheeler's drawing, the picture-plane occupies
the right. Notice Tiepolo's use of value to create several positions in space at the same time that
tonal accents of white within the grays of the it continues to exist as a flat surface. This dual
buildings. These do more than convey volume; impression of the second- and third-dimension is
they relieve the sameness of the gray tonesand insistently conveyed by the fact that there is not
202 visual issues: the forming of order
I i
Plate 8.15
Plate 8.16
EXERCISE B
arrangement. Your completed drawing of the Drawing 6. Using only ink and brush (thin-
still-life should suggest the same directional ac- ning with water as necessary), make a tonal draw-
tion of the original drawing's design. ing that is as active two-dimensionally as it is
Lautrec drawing "Equestrienne" (Plate 8.19). that each mark adds a unit of energy to the
Turning your tracing over, you will notice the drawing's representational and abstract meaning,
reversed view is no longer balanced on the page. and that the resulting configuration's design is
The drawing now seems to race down toward the dependent, in part, on the dimensions of the
lower right corner. Taking any liberties you page. To disregard these fundamental given con-
wish, make any necessary changes, additions, or ditions of drawing prevents our seeing the ways
deletions that you feel will balance the drawing by which compositional order and unity are
and maintain its unity. achieved. But self-consciously planning the visual
function of each mark is impossible. As we have
seen, both judgments and feelings must negotiate
Drazving 4a. Arrange any subject in a way
the drawing's final form. The exploration of
that you feel suggests an interesting design strat-
force-producing relationships can extend the re-
egy for a horizontal format. The drawing should
sponsive options we can call on in developing
fill the page, as in Plates 5.7 or 8.18. Plan to
this final form. If a drawing's visual resolution as
develop a drawing that will show each of the ten
a system of expressive order is as much the result
basic types of relationship engaged in forming
of subconscious knowledge and need as of in-
the drawing's design.
tentional strategy, then a study of the visual
means that can stimulate such knowledge, need,
Drawing Without changing the subject,
4b. and strategy, informs both our intellect and our
or your view of it, draw it again to make an intuition.
equally good design in a vertical format. Now, To broaden the options of both is essential
you may need to increase or decrease the scale of because our responses to the relational life of the
the parts in the second drawing to help you de- elements on the page involves the same kind of
velop a workable composition. Therefore, the comprehension that determines our responses to
only permissible change is the inclusion of a little the subject. Expanding our understanding of
more of the subject, or a little less, in the second drawings as designs expands our perceptual and
drawing. Again, plan to include examples of all conceptual skills and interests. It also adds to the
ten relational categories. range of expression of those intangibles of tem-
perament and idiosyncracy that meet the last re-
Drawing 5. Using only a calligraphic line, quirement of a good drawing: the sense of a
make a drawing that is just as active two-dimen- —
genuinely personal and thus genuinely original
sionally as it is three-dimensionallv, as in Plate — view of what it was about a subject's actual
8.14. and inferred qualities that made us draw it.
CHAPTER
Expressive
Issues
THE
FORMING OF MEANING
A DEFIXITIOX
Here, let us define responsive drawing as the helped form the design. Here, we will explore
personal ordering of perceptions. How and what ways elements convey feelings and moods. But
we draw results from the quality of our percep- we should remember that the same relational
tual comprehension and the ways our aesthetic forces that organize our responses to the subject
concepts and temperamental attitudes govern and the emerging drawing express our feelings
both our perceptions and responses. For some about the overall meaning and character of both.
artists, these concepts and attitudes may be Like the expressive use of line, all the elements
mainly concerned with visual considerations; for can convey predominantly emotive themes not —
others, with expressive ones. But all the interests only by what they depict, but through their em-
we bring to a subject are concerned, to some de- pathic nature. That is, they can be expressive at
gree, with both. Some affect the way we see the the representational and abstract levels simultane-
subject. Others influenced by the subject's
are ously. Expressively motivated lines can be sen-
affect on them. others affect, and are in
Still sual, aggressive, shy, sluggish; they can create
turn affected by the emerging drawing. That is, relationships with other lines or other elements
we bring understanding to, and gain under- that stress such expressive characteristics through-
standing from each drawing. In responsive draw- out a drawing. The other elements can, between
ing, perception and conception are interdepen- them, also convey such feelings, both by their in-
dent and mutually supporting considerations, trinistic character, and their relational activities.
and consequently, so are the design and the emo- Again, a drawing's expressive dynamics, its emo-
tive character of the resulting works. tive theme, like its visual dynamics or organiza-
As mentioned in Chapter Eight, to separate tional theme, are produced through the relational
the deeply interrelated issues of organization and behavior of the elements, beginning with the very
expression ri-,ks the misunderstanding that they first marks. Therefore, to the responsive artist,
are independent, when, in fact, every mark that whether a drawings dominant theme is visual or
adds to a drawings design, adds to its expression. expressive, neither theme can have aesthetic
In Chapter Eight our attention focused on the meaning except in the presence of the other. For
ways elements triggered relational forces that him, these are fundamentally interlaced concepts.
208
expressive issues: the forming of meaning 209
Cezanne's drawing (Plate 9.1) is primarily con- further unify and animate the drawing. Note
cerned with analyzing and organizing volumes how the light tones, flowing down through both
through the selective use of planes. Visual in- figures toward the lower right corner, enter the
terests are emphatically dominant. But the search foreground and sweep to the left, rising along the
for, and satisfactionthe discovery of struc-
in left side of the page to begin the cycle of action
tural keys to the economical presentation of the again. This is not a placid design. Its overall
subject's volumes is a major source of Cezanne's stability is based on barely contained forces of
excitation — and the lines express this. The au- considerable power.
thority and urgency of the lines reveal both the Expressively, the design is no less powerful.
depth of commitment to
artist's his visual theme, The energies forming the visual issues are, of
and his feelings about it. course, themselves expressive forces. But there is
Guercino's drawing, "Head of a Man" (Plate also another pervading emotional quality. An
9.2), is not visually less active than Cezanne's. ordinary domestic scene is here transformed by an
Indeed, the drawing of the head has. something expectant atmosphere. The light does not merely
of the same interest in planar construction, but it illuminate the women, it dignifies and graces
is more expressively active. Here, the lines and
lllustration 9.1
Plate 9.3
ness and the density of their clashing assaults on occurs, even a simple straight line can evoke
each other form tones. Group D are gentle, powerful expressive meaning. In Kathe Koll-
caressing lines. Not as slow and specific as witz's drawing, "Woman Seated With Folded
Group A, or as animated as Group B, they move Hands" (Plate 9.4), the slight, short charcoal
gracefully, as in Picasso's drawing (Plate 3.10), stroke depicting the woman's mouth more elo-
or in the late Kamakura Period drawing (Plate quently conveys the woman's purse-lipped, intro-
7.18). spective mood, than any extensive rendering of
But any kind of line can be used for expressive the lips could. The "knife-slit" nature of the
purposes. This is especially so in combination line intensifies the artist's expressive meaning. It
with other types of lines, such as those described not only depicts the gesture, it enacts it.
above, or when used in drawings that are mainly The Kollwitz drawing also shows its mood
tonal. Depending on the context in which a line through shapes and values that evoke feelings.
211
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expressive issues: the forming of meaning 213
Plate 7.18
Plate 3.10
Directions and moving rhythms lead from all finallygrouped into two basic categories: geo-
parts of the figure to the cast shadow's "head," metric and organic. But these categories are
while the dominance of the shadow unifies and too general in discussing expressive uses. Illus-
speeds up the figure's implied movement toward tration 9.2 shows five subdivisions that typify
it. The sense of the woman's fragility, relative the most frequently used shapes. Group A are
to the massive shadow, gives the shadow more stately, usually stabilized shapes that suggest a
visual strength. This tension in their visual sub- dignified, calm air, as drawing (Plate
in Seurat's
stantiality and in the contrasting light tones of 4.12). Group B are active, agitated, and some-
the figure with the dark tones of the shadow, all times quite complex. Sometimes their action is
serve expressive, as well as organizational dy- directional, but often it is contained within the
namics. animated behavior of the shape itself. Tiepolo's
Like line, shapes conform to general types. (Plate 2.3), Rembrandt's (Plate 4.5), and Guardi's
In Chapter Two, we saw that all shapes can be (Plate 8.9) drawings show the intense activity of
214
Illustration 9.2
&
Plate 2.2
Plate 4.12
5ujt
Plate 8.9
Plate 2.8
Plate 8.10
Illustration 9.3
IS
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Plate 7.7
218
expressive issues: the forming of meaning 219
Plate 9.5
Plate 8.11
220
Plate 3.3
:
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519).
Five Grotesque Heads.
V; Pen and ink.
:
Plate 9.7
other and the page, lessening the impression of emphasizes the indignity and tragedy of Man as
volume and creating angular "shards" of positive a thing. Here, the expressive meaning appears
and negative shape. This produces an active to point to Man's universal inhumanity. The
of harsh planes and dark shapes with a
field man's isolated, labelled, and broken body is felt as
"raw," torn quality. The overall pattern of angu- an obscene violation, a precious loss rather than a
larity expresses the drawing's shocking message. repellent sight.
The woman's grim state conveyed by the
is also Vespignani intentionally keeps the divisions
intense light, and the bold shadows it produces, of the page simple. There is even some am-
matching the harshness of the shapes and vol- biguity between the second- and third-dimen-
umes and of the interior. sional state of the background. The absence of a
The sense of a volume's weight can be a strong single white tone casts a gloomy pall over the
expressive force. We are not usually consciously entire scene, its stillness conveyed by the simple,
aware of the force of gravitational pull unless we block-like character of the divisions. The only
sense its absence, or when it suggests danger. movement is in the oblique edge of the shadow,
Vespignani relies on our appreciation of the pulled away like a curtain. Both lighter and
meaning of its force in his drawing, "Hanged darker in value than any other part of the draw-
Man" (Plate 9.9).The artist does not abuse our ing, the figure's overall lighter tone, and the thin
sensibilitiesby emphasizing the victim's agony, dark tone surrounding it, isolate it in space.
or by a strong impression of heavy volume. Vespignani contrasts the simple purity of the
Here, to our relief, volume is somewhat subdued. man's forms with the clothing's tangled state, and
The image is clear enough. Instead of a tasteless with the harsh, scarred and lettered poster. The
description of one man's execution, the artist awful stillness of the figure is intensified by this
Plate 9.8
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224 expressive issues: the forming of meaning
Plate 4.1
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Plate 6.8
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Plate 9.10
drawn with abrupt changes between them, as in impact because of the overall tone of the
Mazur's drawing (Plate 9.8). They convey more page-
dramatic and even brooding moods when such Again, in drawing, "Landscape"
Courbet's
changes involve large areas of dark tones, as in (Plate 9.12), intensity of light has dramatic im-
Rembrandt's drawing (Plate 9.3), or when forms pact. The drawing's value-variations are gradual,
emerge from dark or black backgrounds, as in but the framing of a large square of light tones
Lebrun's drawing (Plate 9.7). When a drawing's by the darker trees and their shadows makes the
overall tones are light, as in Cezanne's drawing light on the trees and field within this frame
(Plate 9.1), or when the values change gradually, radiate an intense glow. Indeed, in this stage-like
as in Durer's drawing, "Hands in Adoration" scene, light, not volume, appears to be the
(Plate 9.11), they are usually less bold or active. central attraction.
Slower value progressions such as those in Durer's Just the opposite overall tonal arrangement is
drawing, by their subtle nuances of change, used by Goya in his drawing "La Mercado"
suggest a calmer mood. Note the volume's great (Plate 9.13), but the child's upturned face is made
clarity conveyed by the black and white line- to radiate light by the surrounding dark tones.
groups. In addition to their incisive structural The virtual absence of moderating gray tones
use, these lines build gradually to a crescendo of drawing an air of intensity and drama.
gives this
light tones on the lower part of the left hand and Here, the shapes match the values in boldness,
sleeve. This emphasis of light has dramatic adding to the sense of expectancy.
226
j Albrecht Diirer. (1471-1528). Hands in Adoration.
Black and white tempera on blue paper.
ALBERTINA MUSEUM, VIENNA.
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Plate 9.14
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but also in the broader sense of any kind of em- term isgenerally used to describe obvious changes
phatic exaggeration, addition, or deletion of a in a subject's proportions, surfaces, or other phys-
To some extent, all respon-
subject's properties. ical characteristics, or in its perspective, illumina-
sive drawings can be regarded as "distortions" tion, or clarity. The figure in Mullen's drawing,
of the subjects they depict. As we saw in Chapter or those in Lebrun's, would be regarded as dis-
Five, even when a high degree of accurate repre- torted, but the figures in the Rembrandt and
sentation is intended, the transposing of real Kollwitz drawings (Plates 9.3, 9.4) would not.
volume and space into marks upon a flat surface Mullen's treatment of the figure's head distorts
makes some distortion unavoidable. But the it into a threatening, mask-like form. The arms
230 expressive issues: the forming of meaning
and legs are reduced to hard, tubular volumes; ments contribute almost as much to its emotive
hands and feet almost disappear; the torso is force as do the figurative surprises they produce.
reshaped into a heavy "battering ram." These This becomes evident by turning the drawing
distortions intensify the artist's interpretation of upside down. Now, even with the figurative
the figure as a menacing, powerful creature. aspects subdued, the drawing's spidery, brooding
Poised to attack, its threatening stance is height- mood can be sensed in the relational activities
ened by its facelessness and by the harshness of its of the elements, and in the character of the
forms. Even when the drawing is turned upside handling.
down, it conveys aggressive action.
Any of a subject's measurable or emotive as-
pects can be distorted. In the Mullen drawing,
the proportions, perspective, values, and clarity
ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES
OF EXPRESSIVE RESPONSE
of a human figure are all affected by the artist's
expressive theme.
A very different kind of distortion occurs in The possibilities for response are
expressive
Tchelitchew's drawing, "Tree Into Hand and unlimited. Not only does every responsive artist
Feet With Children" (Plate 9.16). Here, distor- tend toward some general personal style of ex-
tions not only add to, they constitute most of the pression, but also in each of his successful draw-
drawing's expressive message. In this largely ings, some original variant on the possibilities
imaginative drawing, the "realistic" metamorpha- for expression occur. The several types of expres-
sis of a tree into human form is, of course, impos- sive attitudes to be discussed here are offered as
sible without resorting to distortions. But the helpful examples from the unlimited possibilities
artist does not only depend on figurative depic- available to a searching, sensitive artist. Explor-
tion to convey the drawing's ominous and mys- ing some of the vast possibilities for conveying
terious mood. The expressive nature of the ele- expressive meaning encourages a more daring
Plate 9.16
\
exploration of the elements, media, and the de-
vice of distortion in our own drawings.
Sometimes distortions are so well integrated,
subtle, or consistent, that we are not at first aware
of them. They are, in fact, only slight exaggera-
tions, and are not apprehended as distortions.
But the emotive power of these subtle amplifica-
tions can be considerable. Manet, in his drawing
"A Man on Crutches" (Plate 9.17), only slightly
exaggerates the figure's bulk by subtlely stressing
the balloon-like nature of the sleeves and coat.
These rounded forms seem even fuller and more
weighty by their contrast with the rather weak-
looking and spindly crutches. Manet's emphasis
on the figure's heavy bulk gives added meaning to
the empty space alongside the right leg. The
artist shrewdly guides our attention to this space
by using a roughly symmetrical pose and view.
Because we see two roughly even halves of the
figure, two arms, and two crutches, only the
missing leg upsets the completion of this simple
system of paired forms. Additionally, the figure
is placed in a position on the page where the
231
Plate 9.18
Plate 9.19
same. Even the volume-summary of all of the the direction of the movement of the head back-
four men forms a monumental, rounded, half- wards. Such eloquently expressed human actions
sphere, its curved edge conveyed by the arc of the do not emerge merely from patient scrutiny, but
heads. from perceptions guided by humanistic interests.
Daumier's mastery of facial expressions is Such interests lead Rembrandt in his draw-
evident in these four faces. The lines and tones ing "Girl Sleeping" (Plate 9.22), to include a bold
of each not only model the form, they also enact darkening of the upper left corner of the page,
the gestures that animate the features of these to fuse the figure's forms with those of the bed,
men. Note especially the pulling action of the and to simplify drastically many of the forms,
eyebrows and wrinkles of the forehead of the especially in the lower half of the drawing, in
man on the far right. Indeed, there is not a line order to convey a sense of a supernatural pres-
or tone in the drawing of the head that does not ence. Here, the brushstrokes appear to hover
help convey the drinking action. The shapes, between a linear and tonal role, their semi-auton-
volumes, and directions of the head even suggest omous and largely two-dimensional activity trans-
Plate 9.21
Plate 9.22
forming the girl and her bed into swaying, restless Claude Gellee (also called Claude Lorrain), in
lines and shapes that contradict her passive state. his drawing "Study of a Tall Tree with a Man
This contrast between the inaction of the figura- Climbing up It" (Plate 9.23), stresses scale differ-
tive information, and the agitated energy of the ences and a sense of movement to convey the
elements, suggests that the forms are being acted quiet drama of a climbing to a great
figure
on by some force. This sense is further strength- height. The difference between the size of the
ened by the dark tone's retreat before a strong, man and the tree is emphasized by the artist's
pervading light. Together, these qualities trans- selection of a view far enough back to include the
form the scene of a sleeping girl into something entire length of the tree. Also, considering the
with deeper significance. size of the leaves, it appears the artist has some-
.
;
HI EXERCISE 9A I
what reduced the scale of the man to the tree. Drawings 1 and 2. Using a nude model as
Gellee conveys the windblown movements of the your subject, make two drawings of the same
leaves and branches by stressing the roughly bell- pose, from the same position. In Drawing 1, use
shaped forms of the leaf-clumps, and by locating pen and ink and any suitable paper about
them in positions and tilts that cause relation- 10" X Your expressive goal is to depict the
14".
ships of rhythm among them. Its movements are model as passive, at rest. Try to convey a sense
further conveyed by oblique line-groups along- of tranquility and stillness. Here (and in all of
side and upon the trunk that the man is climbing, the drawings in Exercise 9A), consider an overall
and upon the clumps of leaves to the man's right. design strategy before you begin to draw what
Though hardly intense or powerfully dramatic, you feel your meaning. Because ex-
will stress
Gellee's drawing is not less successful in convey- pression is conveyed by the elements as well as
ing its expressive meaning than others we have the character of the forms they produce, think
discussed. The sense of gentle swaying move- about their use here. A tentative, general plan
ments, and the underplayed human drama is should, of course, be based as much as possible
supported by the graceful, easy handwriting and on responses to the subject. In all of the draw-
the consistent avoidance of strong value con- ings from the model, the subject should include
trasts. his or her immediate environment. Once you
Although in examining these drawings we have begin, do not feel bound by any prior strategy,
been concentrating on expressive factors, it must should visual or expressive events or opportuni-
by now be evident that the artist's visual and ties suggest a new plan for achieving your ex-
expressive interests are deeply interrelated, and pressive goal.
236
expressive issues: the forming of meaning 237
result from utilizing line, value, texture, etc., to stillother drawings, expressive meaning, if dis-
express your meaning rather than pronounced regarded, makes the drawing's emotive character
additions, deletions, or other drastic changes in confused. There may be conflicting meanings, or
the subject's actualities. a lack of expressive focus, and these characteris-
tics are expressive. They reveal an aimlessness of
In this chapter we have emphasized examples meaning, a wandering of purpose. There are
by artists who are strongly expressive in order to —
drawings that are largely bravado bold flour-
more easily recognize the expressive factors at ishes that are without solid fact or feeling—and
work. But it is really impossible to imagine a draw- drawings that are timid, uncertain, and bored.
ing without some expressive meaning. This may All drawings reveal something of the artist as
be subconscious and unintentional in some; in a person: his greatness or smallness of character,
others, the desire to express may be held in check his view of what worthwhile, even glimpses of
is
to help unselectively duplicate a subject. But his philosophy. To disregard the given condition
this restriction is itself expressive of holding of expression as part of every drawing's content
back intuitions that permit the genuine satisfac- dissipates forces that could give greater purpose,
tion of released feelings in the act of drawing. In meaning, and impact to our drawings.
CHAPTER
10
Pathologies of
Drawing
SOME SYMPTOMS OF DEFECTS
A DEFINITION
A responsive drawing reflects the graphic equiva- to its artistic well-being. It also helps us apply
lent of certain of a subject's qualities that are the same analytical honesty to our examination
essential to the artist's intellectual and intuitive of the results that the act of drawing demands
interests. It also reflects his judgments and feel- because we expect "diagnostic" objectivity when
ings about the design and expression of these examining any organism's soundness. In fact, one
qualities, within the fixed boundaries of a flat of an art teacher's most essential skills is just this
surface. This graphic equivalency is a different ability to objectively analyze a student's work,
but parallel state of a subject's significant quali- based on its visual and expressive nature — that is,
ties,and consists of the relational activities of its content. Such constructive analysis, not the
the marks that convey it. Together, they create a unselective rejection of the student's intent, is
system of expressive order that can be thought of the teacher's primary responsibility. Total objec-
as a graphic "organism," one whose actions and tivity is not possible, involving, as it must, the
energies convey a sense of "life" within and teacher's own aesthetic persuasion and tempera-
among the marks. Like living organisms, graphic ment, but it is a goal of a conscientious teacher.
organisms depend on the successful and inter- The teacher whose evaluation is directed less at
related function of their parts for life. They can a drawing's particular weaknesses and strengths
be organizationally and expressively "healthy," than toward its general aesthetic thrust and
or "suffer" various disorders that weaken and whose advice refers to stylistic directions other
limit their effectiveness. than that of the drawing under examination, is
To regard drawings as organisms that roughly like the doctorwho prescribes a favorite medica-
parallel some of the qualities and frailties of tion, whatever his patient's ailments.
living ones permits a useful analogy. This helps But there are drawings that show such ex-
us better understand how important the behavior treme disorder and/or innocence that the stu-
and character of all a drawing's components are dent's problem is not merely inconsistencies and
239
—
misconceptions in drawings basically showing a But both students can and must engage in the
sound approach. Rather, such drawings show an equally important examination of the drawings
underlying innocence towards the fundamentals of every period and culture with a view to
of perception, organization, and expression. In grasping the universal values and goals of artists
such cases, the teacher should rightly be less con- as far removed in time and culture as cave
cerned with correcting each symptom, than with artists and contemporary ones.
curing the problem itself. The teacher then does All great examples of drawing show the qual-
not direct a student's development toward a par- ities of expression and order, and do so with
ticular aesthetic ideology, but turns him away great economy and authority. But all should be
from concepts in which perceptual, organiza- studied primarily as manifestations of creative
tional, and expressive failure is certain. experience, rather than displays of skill. They
We are all by the quality of our
limited can teach us much about drawing and about
perceptual comprehension, and by the kinds of Man. Both students must measure their own
responses they stimulate. The beginning stu- drawings against their own goals, and against
dent's comprehension and range of response will those universal qualities that all great drawings
expand greatly as he develops. If he is devel- reveal.
oping his skills with little or no professional An approach is not altogether freely
artists's
guidance (and some great draughtsmen such as chosen. Part of what motivates the way we draw
Rembrandt, Van Gogh, and Cezanne had little is determined by our instinctive need to have
formal training) the experiences and insights that certain undefinable qualities present in the draw-
expand ability must come through his own efforts ing. Such intuitive, idiosyncratic needs are as
to study drawings, to continuously keep drawing, insistent as they are intangible. Though we can-
to learn about the materials and the history of not point to the places in a drawing where they
drawing, and to sustain his commitment to draw- manifest themselves, we reject those of our draw-
ing during the inevitable periods of little forward ings in which these qualities are absent. These
progress. If the student is in a program of art unique and necessary influences are rooted in our
study, some, perhaps much of his abilities will subconscious reason and need, and, as mentioned
reflect good instructional guidance. But like the in Chapter Eight, are sensed rather than seen
student working alone, the responsibility for his — they permeate a drawing. Examples of great
artistic growth is, finally, his own. It is developed drawings show the artist's acceptance and utiliza-
through the same initiative to search out his own tion of these intuitive needs.
experiences, information, and interpretations. But students or artists whose drawings are
Both students, during their period of study, and heavily influenced by other artists may largely
certainly afterwards, must continually develop mask these qualities because they are "speaking"
their own aesthetic sensibilities and diagnostic in another's "voice." If these intangibles that
skills. convey a personal and original presence are sub-
The level and nature of the student's creative merged in their drawings, whatever else the draw-
goals, and his ability to analyze the factors that ings may have gained through such influences,
hinder achieving them, are usually more sharply they will lack a certain natural conviction and
formed and more wisely based by students in a spirit. These intangibles cannot make a drawing
formal art program. The abrasive exchange of great,but their absence rules out greatness. They
ideas between the art student, his fellow-students, cannot be measured, analyzed, or altered.
and teacher, and the teacher's own excited in- But many other factors in our drawings can.
volvement in art help stimulate the formulation We now examine some of the "ailments"
will
of good creative attitudes and challenges. Too of drawings. The more we learn about graphic
often, the student who is developing his abilities defects — —
why drawings fail the more we can do
on his own cannot discriminate between the pro- to avoid them and diagnose their presence when
cesses of drawing, which are universal; and the they occur.
techniques of drawing which are personal. With- However, there is a danger here. We should
out the guidance of a knowledgeable teacher not pursue the impossible goal of perfection
to help him overcome perceptual and technical assuming that a drawing has failed because one
problems, and to help him understand the con- part or one aspect of it has failed. There is no
ceptual matters of design and expression, the individual without some blemish or flaw, nor is
student may lose much valuable time developing even the greatest drawing flawless. Many fine
superficial expository skills instead of analytical drawings show some minor waverings in organi-
responsive ones. zational or expressive continuity, or some minor
PATHOLOGIES OF DRAWING: SOME SYMPTOMS OF DEFECTS 241
failure in perception or handling. The wonder is other forms. The several lines from the top of
not that a drawing can be great despite its im- the page to the figure's head seem to define a
perfections, but that so much eloquence and tree's edge, but their collective tone brings the
strength is ever achieved with so few flaws. lines forward where they can also be inter-
In fact, works of art are incredibly durable, preted as descending into the figure's head. De-
even when fairly pronounced problems exist. spite these ambiguous passages, the drawing's
In Millet's drawing, "Shepherdess Knitting" gentle charm and the seemingly effortless way
(Plate 10.1), the figure's right foot is, at first, that Millet conveys volumes and the character
difficult to find. We are provided with no clues of the shepherdess is impressive.
that explain how it came to be positioned on The durability of a work of art can also be
the figure's left side, or why it is at so marked realized by seeing the fragments of drawings,
an angle. In the context of the drawing's overall paintings, and sculptures from antiquity. The
structural and spatial clarity, this appears to be expressive order of many of these is so much a
an inconsistency. The dark form upon the fig- part of every segment, that even surprisingly
ure's shoulder is also somewhat indepen-
left small fragments seem able to overcome the ab-
dently stated, and unaccountably dark. Togther, sence of the rest of the work to convey their
these two departures from the representational aesthetic meaning.
"pace" of the rest of the drawing make the form But in the following examination of common
at the shoulder seem only weakly related to the defects in responsive drawing we should recognize
that what may be a failing in one drawing's
context, may be a vital function in another.
Plate 10.1
More often than not, a response is right or wrong
Jean Francois Millet (1814-75). in relation to the nature of the rest of the draw-
Shepherdess Knitting. ing, and not in relation to any established con-
Crayon. ventions. The following defects, then, do not
courtesy, museum of fine arts, boston.
refer to any particular- aesthetic ideology, but
rather to the universal aesthetic principles of
unity of a drawing's abstract and representational
aspects, and of a consistency economy,
in its
PERCEPTUAL DEFECTS
or for searching out the subject's gestural charac- In the Augustus John drawing of a woman's head
ter (Illustration Sometimes volumes are
10.1A). (Plate 10.4), the features of the eyes, nose, and
drawn in positions that would have them occupy mouth are tonally stronger and more fully realized
the same space (Illustration 10. IB). That this can forms than that of the head, of which they are
occur in the works of gifted artists is seen in parts. The hair and forehead, and those more
Claude Gellee's drawing of cattle (Plate 10.2), "open" areas of the front of the face, as well as
where parts of the two cows at the far left seem the neck, are left more broadly stated and lighter
to exist in the same space. Here, too, the place- in tone. Here, the strong relationships between
ment of the cow at the top of the page makes it the rhythmic curves in every segment of the draw-
appear to be standing on the back of the large ing considerably help to subdue the discrepancy
cow in the foreground. Yet, Gellee's ability to between the strongly modelled features and the
relate the various elements and analyze the struc- weakly stated head and neck.
ture of the cow in the foreground show him to Sometimes, as we saw in Chapter Eight, such
be perceptually sophisticated. studies of particular forms are preparatory notes
for a work in another medium (this appears to be
a study for a portrait). Even so, the fullest under-
standing of the nature of a larger volume's small
Plate 10.2 parts is better achieved in the context of their
Claude^ Gellee (Claude Lorrain) (1600-82). structural and organizational relationships to it.
A Herd of Cattle. 5. Weak sense of volume: when not due to an over-
Pencil, sanguine and wash. emphasis on details, surface textures, or sequen-
courtesy, museum of fine arts, boston. tial assembly suggests an inability to analyze and
relate the subject's components in order to extract
the direction of their forms, their volume sum-
maries, the interlockings of their parts, and the
forces of pressure —
and tension all of which, as
we have help convey structural volume.
seen,
Sometimes, too, it is due to a timid use of value,
or an over-dependence on the volume-producing
ability of delineating outlines.
6. Hard, monotonous outline: suggests a belief in
the ability of the outlined limits of a form to con-
vey everything about a subject's volumetric char-
acter. The
reluctance to leave the "safety" of the
delineating edge to model the interior of a form
/ r, nh/fil, i f
Plate 103
William Hogarth (1697-1764).
Satire on False Perspective.
Engraving.
COURTESY, MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS, BOSTON.
HARVEY D. PARKER FUND.
"
Plate 10.4
makes some of these drawings look ghost-like. In the excited involvement with the many in-
Usually, when interior modelling does occur, the terlaced factors of response to the subject and the
use of single lines to suggest subtle changes in evolving drawing, overlooking a scale relation-
terrain, such as occurs in a figure, produces "scars" ship, the misjudging of an angle, or any other
on the white shape of the interior, rather than an unintended change is an understandable oc-
impression of undulating surfaces.
currence. Viewed later, unintended exaggerations
7. Stiff, wooden drawings: suggests an over-cautious
of scale, placement, value, etc., are often glaringly
concern for error, and a bypassing of gestural
evident; but overworked, monotonous outlines,
drawing. Ironically, the fear of error of making — formula solutions, or an over abundance of detail
—
a mess has probably ruined more drawings than
will remain "invisible" defects, if not critically
any other single attitude. It is virtually certain
investigated. Their reappearance in our subse-
to produce drawings that suffer the grave defect
of stilted, dead forms. In responsive drawing,
quent drawings is certain unless we objectively
there is safety only in perception, analysis, and examine the concepts and procedures of our over-
uninhibited response. Here, caution is dangerous. all approach to drawing. Here, the emphasis is on
Stiff, wooden forms also frequently occur as a the need to perceive and analyze a subject's mea-
result of an overuse of straight lines and hard, surable actualities for any kind of graphic goal,
right angles, sometimes to the exclusion of all and on some of the common perceptual defects
curved lines, as is sometimes seen in some man-
that indicate faulty procedures and judgments.
nered techniques.
How we perceive is not the same as what we do
8. Tonal "anemia": occurs in tonal drawings when about our perceptions. In analyzing the per-
there a fear of using dark tones, especially
is
ceptual defects of our drawings and working to
over large areas, even though a drawing's vol-
overcome them, we should also be gaining in-
umes, composition, or expressive meaning re-
sights into our general approach that lead to
quires it. Beginning tonal drawings on a toned
artistic (and personal) growth.
surface (either a tinted paper, or one that is
given an all over coating of charcoal or graphite)
is useful in overcoming a reluctance to use bold,
deep, values.
ORGANIZATIONAL DEFECTS
9. Formula solutions: when remembered cliches
replace responses to any of a subject's actualities.
There is a failure to respond because of disinter-
The way we order our responses conveys our
est in various parts of the subject, an inability to temperamental interests. It reveals
aesthetic and
visually comprehend them, or a preference for
our understanding of the relational life of the
familiar solutions. Such drawings do not seem con-
vincingly in toucli with nature. In part, they are
marks that constitute our drawing. Sound per-
not. When memory replaces perception, formula ceptual skills require sound organizational sensi-
replaces nature. tivity if they are to have any creative worth.
10. A breezy, sketchy manner: usually The following organizational defects are those
false flourishes
that imitate the economical, authoritative, and most often seen in student drawings. Some are
always fully engaged lines and tones of master some are insidious and subtle, all
easy to spot,
These
artists. convey little or nothing
usually diminish a drawing's design and consequently,
more about a than loose generalities.
subject its meaning.
Often symptomatic of a superficial understanding
of perceptual skills, such drawings are generally 1. The labored drawing: often results from fussy
ambiguous about volume and space, design, and embellishments of parts with unnecessary details
expression. At best, they are interesting "promis- and "finish," isolating them and reducing their
sory notes," at their worst, and more frequently, relational activity. It can sometimes be traced to
they are displays of flashy pretension. a poor choice of media, where numerous attempts
to force a medium to react to the artist's needs
rather than felt responses. Such drawings often Inconsistency in the role of the third dimension:
reveal only a passing interest in visual issues, and like any other random factor, suggests a lack of a
a fascination with deft solutions to figurative sustained, overall visual or expressive attitude or
illusions. When facility makes a drawing a system confusion over the drawing's goal. Many draw-
of clever representational mannerisms, instead ings do have transitions of emphasis between the
of helping to articulate an organized personal second and third dimension, but the random dis-
and penetrating interpretation of nature, the appearance of volume and spatial depth shows an
drawing becomes illustrative rather than pictorial, unawareness of the fundamental need to convey
exhibition rather than experience. one overall frame of reference in a drawing.
5. Lack of unifying directions and rhythms: suggests When elements in one part of a drawing convey
a sequential approach. Completing parts one at three-dimensional impressions, and those in an-
a time seldom permits their being freely woven other do not, there must be some general design
together by directional and rhythmic forces. This strategy that relates and unites these parts. In
stilted approach is not relied upon by artists who Plate 8.12 and in Illustration 10.4A, the interrela-
are sensitive to the movements or beats between tionships of the second and third-dimension are
elements and the forms they create. Again, lack clearly intended of both designs. But
aspects
of such relational forces usually comes from an Illustration 10. 4B
seems merely an incongruous
over-emphasis on representational aspects. combination of the second and third dimension.
245
Illustration 10A
In part A, two and three
dimensional considerations are
integrated; in B, the second
and third dimensions are unrelated
and suggest conflicting goals.
7. Random placement of the configuration on the drawing, "Figure of a Woman" (Plate 10.5). In
page: suggests an indifference to their relational what is otherwise an excellent drawing, the lack
influences. As we saw in Chapter Eight, a draw- of "breathing space" around the figure, especially
ing's design consists of the configuration and the at the top where the head touches the edge of the
page. Disregarding the visual role of the page's page, produces a slightly claustrophobic impres-
shape and scale in a drawing's design bypasses a sion (although the drawing may have been cropped
fundamental means of amplifying the configura- by another hand at a later date).
tion's visual and emotive character. In Illustra- 8. The divided drawing: when strong vertical, hori-
tion 10.5, the active, dark shape in A overwhelms zontal, or diagonal lines, values, or forms cut and
the several white shapes and seems crammed into thus isolate one part of the drawing from the
the picture-plane, straining for release. The same rest, destroying its unity, as in Illustration 10. 6A.
shape in B appears less active,and not at all In Cheruy's drawing of a church interior (Plate
crammed in. In fact, it appears somewhat isolated 10.6), the group of columns on the far right cut
in so large a field of space. In has been
C, it the drawing vertically. But they are joined to the
located in a position on the picture-plane that rest of the drawing in several ways. One of the
creates imbalance. Besides destroying the equilib- strongest connections is the unseen —
but clearly
rium of the design of the page, this can sometimes suggested — archspanning the interspace between
weaken the overall nature of the configuration. them and the center group of pillars. The sim-
An image that is itself stable, if placed badly on ilarity of value and texture between the two mas-
the page, becomes part of an unstable design. sive pillar groups, and their relationship with
Anincompatible relationship between the con- the third group on the left, as well as with the
figuration and the page sometimes occurs in the smaller pillars and arches behind them, all form
work of capable artists, as in Vigee Lebrun's strong visual bonds of association.
Illustration 10.5
246
Plate 10.5
Plate 10.6
When a section is unintentionally "severed" respects to their counterparts across the page.
from the rest of a drawing, the two parts can be Villon repeats the diagonal lines in the sky with
strongly joined through direction, rhythm, value, the lines in the foreground.
and texture, as in Cheruy's drawing, or by placing Asecond way to cancel out strong visual forces
one or more forms in a position that crosses the is toanswer them with different but equallv
boundary to join the parts together, as in Illus- strong forces, as in Illustration 10. 7B. This is an
tration 10.6B. asymmetrical solution. Because asymmetry is the
9. Imbalance: results from the visually uneven place- more prevalent state in nature, and because it
ment direction, density, and weight of the ele- offers unlimited design possibilities, asymmetry
ments, and of the forms and spaces they create: more frequently occurs in responsive drawings,
also from the relationships that exist between as a glance at the drawings in the book show. In
them. It sometimes results from such an exclusive Ingres' drawing, "View of St. Peter's in Rome"
concern with a drawing's representational aspects (Plate 10.9), the placement of the cathedral to
that its intrinsic visual issues go unheeded. Bal- —
the left of center its great facade and dome pro-
lance is partly guided by intuitive reason, but ducing the strongest vertical directions in the
cannot be consciously ignored. The artist's design —
drawing is answered by the encircling sweep of
strategv should include a tentative judgment the buildings, and by die forceful curve of the
about the scale and placement of the configura- roofed colonnade in the foreground. The single
tion on the page that will assist the drawing's vertical direction of the obelisk on the right adds
its energy to the drawing's balance, and serves as
balance.
To create a balanced drawing, the artist must a unifying echo of the vertical forces of the
ways of cancelling out such forces. One answers many drawings where imbalance occurs, the fail-
a strong force on one side of the drawing with a ure to establish the design's basic gestural premise
similar force on the other side, as in Illustration prevents their balanced realization.
10. 7A. This symmetrical solution, if too evenly- 10. The generalized drawing: suggests the artist's
established, can be rigidly formal, dull, and ob- doubts about how to realize some of the smaller,
vious. But when subtly used, it is a dependable more specific aspects of the subjectand the design.
way of producing equilibrium. In Rembrandt's Often, students establish quite handsome draw-
drawing, "A Cottage among Trees" (Plate 10.7),
and Villon's drawing, "Etude Pour Cour de Feme
Cany Stir Therain" (Plate 10.8), balance is Illustration 10.7
achieved through roughly symmetrical forces. In
both, a gentle curve, horizontally oriented and Balance through symmetry (A), and asymmetry (B).
248
Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-69).
A Cottage Among Trees.
Pen and bistre.
THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART.
BEQUEST OF MRS. H. O. HAVEMEYER, 1929. Plate 10.8
THE H. O. HAVEMEYER COLLECTION.
Jacques J'illon (1875-1963).
Etude Pour Cour de Ferne Cany Sur Therain.
Pen and ink.
PRINT DEPARTMENT, BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY.
250 PATHOLOGIES OF DRAWING: SOME SYMPTOMS OF DEFECTS
ings of the subject's generalities, and a good, as major aspects of a subject, and their design
equally generalized design, but seem unable to on the page.
apply or sustain the attitudes and commitment All student drawings need not be extensively
that brought these broad states about in establish- developed to include a host of small, specific ob-
ing the drawing's smaller units. Of course, many servations. But students need to develop the abil-
artists intend a simply stated image that avoids ity to state any specific detail to overcome
specificities, and some of the best drawings show unselective generality. They must, from time to
an impressive economy; but all are concise rather time, reinforce the experience of applying the
than general. They may be simply stated, but same degree of analysis and commitment to
they are rich in visual and expressive meaning. smaller units that is given to major ones. This
In contrast, the generalized drawing only is important for another reason. Just as the
suggests possibilities and hints at conclusions. Its search for the broad essentials of a subject's
simplicities are often vague and seem more like differing parts helps the student to see relational
tentative assumptions than convictions. Some stu- similarities between them, in drawing the smaller
dents (and artists) make simple and general forms he comes to see the subtle differences be-
drawings in admiration of the economy of master tween similar parts. For example, while it would,
drawings— and some do bear a superficial sim- at the outset, be important to see the similarity
ilarity to such drawings. But it is perceptual and between the twigs of a branch and the fingers
organizational sensitivity, and not simple solu- of a hand holding it, it is also important, later
tions for their own sake, that leads to concise in the drawing, to be able to discern the differ-
drawing. For the student, these sensitivities are ences between each twig and between each finger.
heightened by making drawings that probe, ana- Ironically, the insights that come from perceiving
lyze, and declare conclusions about small as well and responding to a subject's smaller actualities,
Plate 10.9
'\
"-
- . - .
:
- **
\
'
J
I : -
* *
-f
PATHOLOGIES OF DRAWING: SOME SYMPTOMS OF DEFECTS 251
and controlling them in a system of expressive inside the sleeves. For all the concentration on
order, is the fastest and surest way to meaningful individual volumes, many volume relationships
economy. do not convince. For example, in the middle
drawing on the far left the structural means by
which the forearm interlocks with the hand is
unclear. Gradually, the surfaces of the hand are
EXPRESSIVE DEFECTS emphasized, rather than their structure, weight,
power, and overall expressive character. Instead
of a sense of each hand's essential character an
Although, in the act of responsive drawing, per-
accumulation of surface characteristics results.
ception, organization, and expression are inter-
These hands "describe," but they do not "enact."
dependent considerations, the expression of our The artist is skillful. Some passages, such as the
genuinely personal responses to a subject's ab- hand in the lower left corner do begin to "live."
stract and representational meanings is the funda- But the drawing's stance basically comes from the
mental role of these considerations. Drawings in scrutiny of small forms, rather than the perceptive
which our own expressive responses are stifled or and empathic comprehension of large ones. A
disregarded, or fail to touch on important visual clue to the artist's thinking occurs in the begin-
facts or inferences in the subject or organiza- ning stage of the pointing hand in the upper
tional ones in the drawing, are either impersonal, right half of the page. It is already a carefully
or inhibitions towards the intuitive and emotive at work here. In the upper left and right corners
responses that modify perceptions. But, as ob- of the page and even in the more developed
served in Chapter Nine, even this reticence is an drawings in the lower right, lines search for the
expression of a felt attitude. The beholder senses actions, pressures, and tensions of the forms of
a restraining of impulses that both empathy and the animals. In these beginning stages, Rubens
intuitive knowledge demand. is not concerned with careful delineation, but
If the artist doesn't
risk commitment to his responses at their deepest with the rythmic flow between the forms, their
level, the beholder feels this hesitancy. structural nature, and the feel of their move-
All art teachers are familiar with the student ment. The benefits to both the structural and ex-
who makes conscientiously observed drawings that pressive clarity of the drawings which include
carefully avoid responses to the subject's visual the intensifications that feelings demand is clear
and expressive potentialities. At one time the art in the drawing of the three large cows. The
academies insisted on just this kind of disciplined artist's responseto their ponderous bulk and
concentration on measurable matters. It consti- weight, their slow movements, and to the power-
tuted the main and sometimes only area of per- ful pressures and tensions created by the inner
ceptual awareness. But such student drawings structural forms supporting and straining against
often appear leaden, lifeless. Drawings that avoid the walls of the supported forms, has created con-
the abstract and emotive energies that create vincing, living images of visual and expressive
the graphic equivalent of life in responsive draw- significance. All this is more than the result of
ing are lifeless. scrutiny — it is the result of perceptions selected,
Here, it is helpful to compare two figurative altered, and ordered by feelings.
drawings. They suggest the differences in attitude It is feelings, too, that causes Rubens to select
and between an almost exclusively repor-
result (however subconsciously) an overall design that
torial approach, and one that utilizes expressive fans out toward the beholder: strong, curved
impulses and impressions. The anonymous Dutch movements sweeping to the left and right. Note
or German drawing, "Study of Ten Hands" the emphatic clarity of the forms. Heavy, inter-
(Plate 10.10), shows a great concentration on locking, but rhythmically related masses, and
recording the observed changes in the terrain of line groups that move almost sensually upon the
each part, with little evident concern for the changing "topography" of the animals' forms,
gestural, rhythmic flow within or between them. convey Rubens' emphatic understanding. These
Here, each finger is drawn rather independently, qualities, like the design itself, are strong, delib-
with hardly a clue to its participation with others erate, and graceful. Compare Rubens' design with
in forming greater units of form
in pointing, gripping, or
—
or as engaged that of Plate 10.10. is a kind of
Again, there
supporting actions. In restrained arrangement of the
quality to the
almost every instance, there is no convincing hands and arms. They form an overall checker-
impression that the arms really continue to exist board pattern, somewhat mechanical and monot-
252 PATHOLOGIES OF DRAWING: SOME SYMPTOMS OF DEFECTS
&
Plate 10.10
onous. Unlike the design of the Rubens' drawing, aesthetic worth depends on the artist's ability to
this design seems rather unrelated to the character govern two quite different kinds of expression. As
of the subject. we have seen, some artists actually need an
In the drawings that appear expressively con- essentially nonvisual theme. For them, conveying
strained, more than a comfortable expression of a social, spiritual, or other kind of message, far
felt responses is absent. They appear diminished from competing with the demands of expressive
in the clarity and force of their responses to the order, stimulates it and is, in turn, enhanced by
subject's measurable matters as well. it. When there is such an interwoven relation-
2. The literary or illustrative look: occurs when an ship between graphic expression and nonvisual
more concerned with storytelling, or with
artist is meaning, the results (as many of the drawings in
conveying some social, political, or religious mes- Chapter Nine show) do not appear illustrative.
sage through a drawing's figurative matter than It is only when a literary theme overpowers the
with creating a system of expressive design. Any artist and compromises his aesthetic sensibilities,
literature or storytelling message can be a valid or when its demandsare incompatible with them,
property of any drawing (Plates 3.8, 9.9, 9.20), that responses to both the subject and the draw-
but should never reduce the creative depth of a ing become less abstractly expressive, and more
work. illustratively so. When pictorial and literary fac-
Whether or not it does diminish a drawing's tors clash, the result may be an illustration with
PATHOLOGIES OF DRAWING: SOME SYMPTOMS OF DEFECTS 253
some redeeming artistic worth, or a drawing subject. Often such subjects do not belong to the
weakened by the burden of nonvisual issues, but artist's past or present environment. He comes
in either case, the result is a lessening of aesthetic to them because of their popularity, their exotic
depth. or unusual nature, or their literary interest.
To some extent, many of our responses to a Sometimes these subjects are symbols of earlier
subject's meaning, or mood are not
character, societies. There are still windmills and covered
directly visual issues. We cannot visually measure bridges. And it is difficult to see them objectively
dignity, melancholy, or danger. But when such — no longer connected to the lives we lead.
as
influences on response expand to become a draw- They have been drawn and painted countless
ing's dominant theme, emphasizing representa- times, often for illustrative purposes. We have
tional issues at the expense of its abstract graphic all seen works that sentimentally praise such
life, the result is illustration, not art. As men- pastoral scenes. Any subject may always be
tioned earlier, some artists' creativity is stimu- valid, but it is harder to respond to those we
lated by nonvisual ideas. Others, who may feel have no real familiarity with, or those which
just as deeply about social, religious, or any have been used so often, so sentimentally. But
other nonvisual issue, create works which do not almost any subject will appear picturesque when
address these issues through the figurative aspects an interest in its illustrative and sentimental pos-
of their drawings. If such "messages" appear, sibilities displaces an interest in its potentialities
they are intangible qualities of the draw-
felt as to stimulate and influence a system of expressive
ing's content. order.
The picturesque air: is often sensed in works 4. The influenced drawing: usually lacks the con-
that, like illustrative ones, are more concerned viction and daring felt in those drawings that
with depiction than with expressive order. It caused the influence. Here, we are not discussing
results from a usually sentimental or romantic drawings that show a faint influence of an artist
interpretation of a quaint, strange, or spectacular or a stylistic period. An artist, who by tempera-
Plate 10.11
.'
,- ...s^mIIk'
254 PATHOLOGIES OF DRAWING: SOME SYMPTOMS OF DEFECTS
ment and aesthetic disposition finds a point of But, as mentioned earlier, strong influences
view "adjacent" to that of a colleague, master, or will not permit the expression of personal re-
stylistic period, is bound to reflect some superfi- sponses. An adopted manner is usually an imita-
cial similarities. Sometimes, such "influences" tion of a technique rather than a concept, but
are merely coincidence. Artists whose drawings whichever it is, its presence always prevents the
bear some similar characteristics may not ever development of genuine creative ability.
have seen each other's works. But even when an The deeply influenced drawing is often un-
artist is influenced, his work is essentially original selectively dependent on the techniques and
if it not restricted by, or imitative of the
is idiosyncracies of the admired artist. In his draw-
influencing works. It is not uncommon in the ing, "Degradation of Haman Before Ahasuerus
history of art for some artists to expand and and Esther" (Plate 10.12), de Gelder combines
develop concepts stimulated by the innovations many of Rembrandt's characteristics to summon
of others. up a Rembrandtesque image. But he only succeeds
Plate 10.12
in imitating a number of Rembrandt's personal pects of a subject. But changes in goals and
graphic devices. The marks are strongly reminis- handling after a drawing has begun, for whatever
cent of Rembrandt's handling, but the image reasons, can easily produce conflicting results.
they add up to fails to convey Rembrandt's per- Such drawings suggest a weak grasp of those
ceptual skill, or the relational and expressive factors that establish unity. The freedom of re-
nature of his drawings. In short, the image does sponse to a subject, and to its organized expres-
not convey a Rembrandtesque content. How sion on the page does not extend to arbitrary
could it? The lines and tones that are necessities changes in attitudes toward it or to its manner of
for Rembrandt — that result from his negotiations presentation within the same drawing. For ex-
between perception, feeling, and intent — all ample, in a landscape drawing that is primarily
serve to amplify his unique and deeply felt tonal and concerned with aerial perspective,
responses. No one can summon up another's atmosphere, and mood, a sudden switch to a lin-
sensibility, and no sensibility can create and sus- ear, diagrammatic exploration of the structural
tain the results of another. and spatial aspects of a house in one corner of
De Gelder's understanding of volume and de- the drawing is a glaring inconsistency (Illustra-
sign does not support the kinds of daring that tion 10.8).
are natural and necessary for Rembrandt. Note Such conflicting goals are not uncommon in
the evasive ambiguities in the forms of the figure. student drawings. This understandably results
None of the heads or hands convey the weighty from experiencing the many new ideas and chal-
mass, the volume summary, the design or expres- lenges a good program of art study provides. But
sive force of comparable forms in a Rembrandt conflictual meanings violate one of the most
drawing. Compare the bold control of the heads fundamental ideas and challenges of any art form:
and hands in Rembrandt's drawing, "Three Stud- the organizational and expressive need to sustain
ies of a Child and one of an Old Woman" (Plate a single overall meaning. This does not mean
10.13), with those in the de Gelder drawing. that multiple goals are impossible in drawing. In
Note, too, that where Rembrandt creates a tran- the example above, both tonal and diagram-
sition between broad and precise kinds of han- matic ideas can be quite compatible, if an interest
dling, de Gelder's changes in handling are abrupt in both is made an integral and consistent aspect
inconsistencies that serve no visual or expressive of the drawing's expressive order.
purpose. Where Rembrandt's washes of tone are Conflictual meanings may sometimes be sensed
emphatic, conveying the impressions of light and when a drawing's figurative expression is at vari-
volume, de Gelder's are uncertain sometimes — ance with the expressive nature of the handling
rather tightly encased by line, sometimes obscur- and design. For example, in a drawing of a figure
ing volume, and sometimes simply inconclusive performing some dramatic action requiring strong
and weak. They appear somewhat unrelated. The physical exertion a delicate, deliberate handling,
evenly-spaced diagonal lines that cross the center and a design that stresses horizontal and vertical
of the drawing, unlike the lines behind the
seated child in Rembrandt's drawing, do not
stay well back, but come forward and hover in
space somewhere between the figure of Ahaseurus Illustration 10.8
and the pillars in the background. De Gelder is The linear, diagrammatic handling of the house
uncertain about the perspective and the archi- is an isolated and inconsistent departure from
tectural forms on the far left, and some of those the tonal character of the drawing.
in the center background are left unclearly stated
as volumes in space.
These are some of his drawing's defects. They
suggest the limits of his perceptual, organizational,
and empathic comprehension. No technique, or
imitation of technical mastery can camouflage
such limits. The attention and energy focused
on the imitating of another's point of view ob-
structs those abilities the artist does have, and
further weakens the results. But the heavily
influenced student or artist who begins to trust
and respect his own responses soon finds a satis-
fying natural freedom that imitation will never
allow.
P/a/e 10.14
directions or otherwise appears tranquil or stately, cupied with techniques and disregard the general
will tend to weaken or contradict the figurative responsive direction of their statement. Or, busy
action.
learning how to see, they lose sight of what it is
they intend to convey. But techniques and per-
Expression and order are the dimensions of an ception are servants that perform best to the
approach to drawing that will yield works that best demands. And the demands of a sensitive,
live. Beginning students so often become preoc- analytical, and empathic sensibility, perceiving
257
258 PATHOLOGIES OF DRAWING: SOME SYMPTOMS OF DEFECTS
and ordering in a personal way, creates original sive drawings evolve. Although expressive re-
style. Style, in fact, is the key to our priorities. sponses are among the first we make, we must
We have examined many symptoms of basic first perceive. But we continue to respond, in a
weaknesses in responsive drawing. There are visual-expressive way, as we organize those per-
others, but those discussed should provide a basis ceptions on the page. This is when
a drawing
for the evaluation of our drawings that further begins to have an organic life of its own. This
experience will broaden. In responsive drawing, synthesis of organized, empathic perceptions be-
the most pernicious, underlying cause of so many comes a responsive drawing.
defects is the faulty perception that results from What engages our thought and participation
a sequential approach. As Michelangelo's draw- — as w ell as our admiration
T
—
in a responsive
ing, "Studies of Figures" (Plate 10.14) so well drawing is the activities that suggest choices and
demonstrates, beginning with a search for a sub- energies contending with each other. Their reso-
ject's visual and expressive essentials provides the lution into a system of expressive order invites
comprehension and the control that lead to sound us into the drawing —not merely but
to admire,
drawing. to participate in the negotiations that organized
The order in which the problems was discussed them into this living system.
roughly reflects the order in which many respon-
CHAPTER
Conclusions
SOME
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS
Of feeling take shape. Design pret what we do not see. Whatever the personal
Curves with the gestures of time. ordering of our perceptions intends as a goal,
The slow hand works to catch the more penetrating our perceptual inquiry, the
A heart quick in its choice more creatively effective our drawings will be.
Of meanings. What firm marks As e.e. cummings wrote: "always the beautiful
Reveal and order, the mind answer who asks a more beautiful question."
Feels while the drawing forms Perceiving a subject's actualities objectively is
Those inward places opened important. But perception, as we have seen, in-
By the line as it moves. volves more than the ability to measure. First,
the artist must grasp a subject's visual and expres-
Martin Robbixs sive essentials and organize them into some chal-
lenging graphic theme. In this sense, our per-
ceptual sensitivity finds subjects attractive to our
aesthetic and temperamental working as
interests,
We have shown the content of a responsive draw- a kind of visual detector. It scans our environ-
ing to be the overall character of its representa- ment for a significant "contact." Our aesthetic
tional and abstract behavior —
the total impact and temperamental "receiver" seeks specific stim-
of its depictive, organizational, and expressive uli. Drawing a subject that it does not find at-
meaning. Content, then, is both the summary of tracting usually produces weak results.
and the character of his in-
the artist's interests When a contact is made, a state of excitation
sightsand responses. The quality of the artist's occurs. The artist sees potentialities for creative
perceptual awareness, and the concepts, feelings, expression in the subject's actualities and infer-
and intuitions that influence and shape his re- ences, and is stimulated to draw. For some artists,
sponses, determine the quality of a responsive almost any subject can trigger creative activity.
drawing's content. Others, although just as perceptually sensitive,
259
260 conclusions: some general observations
are attracted by only a few subjects. But, not four heads. Starting on the left, each seems more
surprisingly, as the perceptual awareness of most involved with movement. This is a good example
students develops, the range of subjects they find of the union of representational and abstract
attracting, increases. actions. The idea of movement is suggested at
An artist's interests are stimulated because of a both levels.The increasing tilt of the figures and
rough, general kind of perceptual analysis. Some the directional thrust of the lines that comprise
general ideas and impulses have formed in his them add to the sense of impending movement.
mind. These perceptions will have included gen- Note that the figure nearest to the right side is
eral information about most or all of the follow- "committed" to the moving action by being in
ing: the subject's measurements and structure, an off-balanced position.
its spatial behavior, the visual and expressive Because these visual ideas dominate the draw-
character of its representational and abstract ing, they reveal that the artist's primary interest
actions, and its design potentialities. These con- is the sense of movement
described above. Ex-
siderationsoverlap because they are not seen pression also occurs here at both the figurative
independently in the subject. For example, per- and abstract, relational level. We can
understand
ceptions of a subject's measurements are simul- the human and plastic gestures. This drawing
taneously perceptions of its spatial behavior and stresses what the figures and the elements that
its representational and abstract action. These, form them do, not what they look like, or stand
additionally, become factors in the drawing's de- for.
sign. For Baglione image, he had to
to create this
Whichever of these perceptual interests first perceive in the subject's actualities, the poten-
stimulates the artist to draw, the interrelation- tialities for the actions just discussed. In turn,
ships between them soon lead to responses to the these perceptions were possible because he had
others. Their order of priority in the completed pre-set interests and instincts that responded to
—
drawing how much attention and development the group's movement. The
scope of ideas and
—
each of these considerations gets determines an impulses that produce the stimulus to draw feeds
artist's style. Students who try to affect a style upon our perceptions. But we can only perceive
reverse an important order. Style should result in the subject and in the emerging drawing
from our aesthetic and temperamental sensibili- what seems relevant to our intellectual and in-
ties; it should not be imposed on them. As tuitive interests.
mentioned earlier, style is the key to our priori- By drawing continually, and in examining
ties, and our priorities, the key to our content. other's drawings, we can deepen our appreciation
It is not altogether a matter of choice, but of for the need to see the relevant abstract and
aesthetic and temperamental necessity. One of representational essentials in a subject, and in
the characteristics of great drawings is the artist's the drawing based upon it. If we do not consider
wholehearted acceptance of his own style and the direction or length of an edge we do not
character. It is as if the drawing says for the really see it; if we disregard the relational pos-
artist, "here I am." sibilities in a subject or a drawing they remain
Sometimes, the first general perceptions and invisible to us, and if we do not respond to the
responses are themselves the artist's goal. This is issues of balance and unity our drawings are
often so in quick, preparatory drawings where the not likely to possess either quality.
artist concentrates on a subject's essential visual Baglione's quick drawing is profuse in the
—
and expressive themes to use them in a major visual and expressive considerations of the re-
work in another medium. sponsive process, but he is responding only to
The perceptions that stimulated Bag-
initial the most general of the subject's properties and
lione's quick sketch, "Group of Four Figures" design potentialities. Baglione extracts these gen-
(Plate 11.1), appear to be the abstract visual eral essentials to establish the general essentials
energies of massed forms that generate the move- of an expressive design.
ment of the forms towards the right side of the But Snyders, in drawing, "Study of a
his
page. This sense of movement is further con- Boar's Head" (Plate 11.2), probes and analyzes
veyed by the tight enclosure of the picture-plane. his subject's forms and forces more deeply. He
Its "squeezing" pressure on the forms suggests emphasizes an almost symmetrical design. Part
their being forced toward the only open area of the design's great energy comes from the sub-
within its boundaries, the space on the right. ject's smaller forms. Snyders emphasizes the
The sense of forms beginning to advance is also rhythmic curving of forms to the left and right of
conveyed by the positions and gestures of the an invisible border which is the vertical midline
»
Plate 11.1
W iii- — ..
Plate 11.2
\*.
261
262 conclusions: some general observations
of the boar's head. Tusks, ears, and fur "rush" on its left side, Snyders modifies the symmetry,
away from unseen axis with a force that
this establishing a more interesting compositional
energizes the image. As in Baglione's drawing, idea.
movement is a strong theme; but here, volume is The forms in this drawing are more fully
also conveyed with emphatic clarity and force. realized than those in Baglione's. It is clear that
Were the boar's head drawn on a horizontal Snyders' initial stimulation here results mostly
axis, the sense of symmetry might appear obvi- from perceptions of the visual-expressive
his
ous and monotonous. By tilting the head to the actions we
see in the completed drawing. Prob-
right and counter-balancing it with dark tones ably, Snyders began by establishing these actions
in the larger forms, as Baglione did. As we have
seen, most responsive drawings begin with some
Plate 11.3
kind of gestural search.
Had Baglione developed his drawing further,
Paul Cezanne (1839-1906). Page from a sketchbook.
it would not have evolved in a way that would
A Corner of the Studio.
deny the general responses already established.
Pencil.
It would have been developed by the inclusion
COURTESY OF THE FOGG ART MUSEUM, HARVARD
UNIVERSITY. of smaller relationships, supporting and strength-
BEQUEST MARIAN H. PHINNEY. ening the general responses. When we begin to
draw, the initial perceptual grasp the general—
—
interpretation usually determines the kind and
range of responses to follow.
To advance a drawing past the first, broad
essentials does require perceptions different from
those used to establish the first general responses.
The initial responses depend on the ability to
summarize our perceptions. Developing a sub-
ject'ssmaller specifics requires an ability to see
those differences that support the summary.
Snyders is fairly specific in explaining the differ-
ences between shapes, forms, values, and textures;
but the marks that explain these differences are
all simultaneously engaged in developing the
drawing's expressive design. They do not merely
render.
To perceive relationships between unlike
forms, and contrasts between like ones, requires
an ability to differentiate between a form's mea-
surable facts and its visual-expressive behavior.
Obviously, good perceptual skill must be sensi-
.
-~^ tive to both of these considerations.
Good perceptual skill must also be sensitive
to the needs of the emerging design. Chapters
Eight and Nine pointed out that responses to the
subject, once translated to the page, stimulate
—
new responses those which meet the organiza-
tional and expressive needs of the subject on the
page. Sometimes, the initial stimulus comes not
only from qualities perceived in the subject, but
also to their potentialities in an expressive de-
sign. Baglione's first impulse, as we have seen, is
to establish a general system of visual and ex-
pressive forces. Unlike Snyders, who emphasizes
the relational aspects within the configuration,
Baglione stresses the configuration's relationship
with the page. But both artists respond to both
considerations.
conclusions: some general observations 263
: i
•-.--.
—
and stresses that our emotions can become en-
gaged. Only then do the lines and tones and the
activity they convey effect our empathic sensibili-
ties —as Cezanne's were. The patient, critical ad-
justments of movements and edges, of tones and
shapes, the delicate overall balance of the ele-
Plate 11.4
ments comes from a profoundly acute and deeply
committed perceptual skill. The nature of the Pierre Bonnard (1867-1947). Nude Standing.
marks, as well as the nature of the activities they Charcoal.
relate, suggest Cezanne's concerned involvement. THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, HARRIS BRISBANE
DICK FUND.
The artist's interests are focused on a balanced
resolution of visual forces, but expression, even if
subconscious and muted, is part of the drawing's
content. the foggy texture of the charcoal medium all
Bonnard's sensitivity to the visual-expressive promote an impressionistic air. It is even hard to
design needed to convey his meaning in "Stand- tell whether this is an interior or outdoor scene.
ing Nude" (Plate 11.4), guides him to a strategy Bonnard's attitude to the visual-expressive de-
that does not rely on bold relational activity. sign is consistent with his interpretation of the
Bonnard wants an unfocused image. The figure's figure and is an extension of his responses to the
forms are shown as fluid and soft, their structure figure. These are not the kinds of ambiguity
is only lightly suggested. The gentle changes in that come from innocence or indecision. Each is
value, the soft, curving lines of the figure, and a felt, and —
if we can use the term in describing
Plate 11.5
k
% *
Plate 11.6
265
—
a deliberate generality
— "precise'" response to a be masters of as much as we understand. But
design where a hushed, gentle air is intended. artistic growth comes from an open and flexible
The easy stimulation of our creative instincts attitude to any changes suggested by our ex-
by things in nature, the ability to apprehend a periences in responsive drawings that question
subject's general and specific characteristics, and and risk, and by our educational, cultural, and
the ability to order our responses into a visual- social experiences.
expressive design are all determined by our per- One of the inevitable characteristics of good
ceptual awareness. Again, we cannot see what we perceptual and conceptual growth is the increas-
do not regard or know. ing economy of the means which convey mean-
The development of both our perceptual ings. In responsive drawing, as in any other
acuity and our level of response is best achieved creative process, organizationally unengaged or
by drawings that push the limits of our ability repetitive elements are illogical because they are
to see and to act. Increasing perceptual under- unnecessary, and weakening because they are a
standing and responsive options is a necessity to burden on the completed system.
the growing creative personality. The best ar- But the meaning of economy is not limited to
tists have always been engrossed students all of these two factors. In art, economy reveals pro-
their lives. Tiepolo's drawing, "A Sheet of found understanding. As the architect Mees Van
Sketches" (Plate 11.5), contains an anatomical der Rohe said, "less is more." Of any two draw-
study of a leg, several studies of strongly illumi- ings of a subject, alike in every respect but that
nated heads, and several fragmentary, gestural of the means used them, the simpler of
to state
explorations of parts of the figure. Here, there the two is universally felt to be more aesthetically
is no attempt at picture-making he has no — satisfying. It reveals a more inclusive grasp of
"product" in mind. Rather, Tiepolo is searching the subject's structural, relational, and expressive
for perceptions about volume, light, anatomy, character, permitting bolder summaries. "When
and the general characteristics of human forms. a subject's essence is as economically expressed
And, responses are being affected. Note the simi- and temperamental inter-
as the artist's aesthetic
larity and differences between the two centrally ests permit, the magnitude of his perceptual and
placed heads looking to the right. The upper, responsive powers is revealed. As Henry James
more carefully developed of the two, shows val- observed, "In art economy is always beauty."
ues used sparingly in the face. Here, lines carry But economy, like any other quality in art,
the major responsibility for conveying volume. when it becomes a conscious goal an effect —
Below, the same forms are boldly brushed in by- obstructs the sensitive perceptual and responsive
dark washes and there is almost no use of line. behavior necessary to its natural emergence in
In these heads, the artist seems to be testing the context of an artist's creative interests. And
different responsive solutions to the same forms. economy must always be judged in the context
Sketchbook studies such as Tiepolo's, inwhich of a drawing's overall meaning. What is an eco-
no conscious compositional design is intended, nomical grasp of the necessary issues for one
or preparatory drawings, such as Matisse's artist could be excessive elaboration for another.
"Seated Woman with Hat and Gown" (Study In Bloom's drawing, "Landscape #14" (Plate
For the White Plume) (Plate 11.6) which are 11.7;, the subtle transforming of limbs and
conceived as designs, are, like all good drawings, branches into wraith-like animals and humans,
attempts to expand perception and response. But and the straining or windswept action of other
because these are both preliminary studies for branches, hand-like in their movements, conveys
other works, they show more clearly the searching, a bereaved, spirit-haunted mood. Bloom seems to
changing nature of drawings that are meant to intend the choked, intertwined forms to be
deepen the artist's own understanding. Note the everywhere engaged in movement and change.
changes in the hat, shoulder, and chair in the The sense of these foreboding interactions and
Matisse drawing, and also the probing diagram- transfigurations as emerging from and subsiding
matic lines of the underdrawing. into the matrix of limbs and branches benefits
Settling for standards that fall just short of the from the amount and complexity of these forms.
limits of our comprehension and control helps But within the context of the artist's intent, this
to consolidate what we know —
and certainly is an economically stated drawing. The form and
there is a time to do that. We may, on occasion, space are as directly and simply stated as the
wisely choose to explore the possibilities of as artist's visual-expressive needs permit. Although
much as we can see and do. We should strive to a complex drawing, there are no irrelevant
conclusions: some general observations 267
' s
(*•
X.
y^ :
m
r
(-» '
z*
'*
f '
NTE
CoRoT
Plate 11.8
Plate 11.9
(Plate 11.10), shows how much can be suggested shrubs, fields, and rooftops. He even sug-
road,
with a few bold w ashes of tone. Here, delineat-
r
gests the quality of the light, and the feel of a
ing lines are absent altogether. Turner conveys silent, still, winter day. Such a limitation of
the impression of a dawn landscape in a broad, means strengthens, rather than restricts the ar-
painterly handling guided by powerful percep- tist's visual-expressive intent. Such self-imposed
tual skill and a determined goal. Note how limitations should not be hurdles but necessary
clearly this "simple" handling depicts grazing confines that intensify meanings. Goethe may
sheep, coach and horses, and a sense of vast space. have had this in mind when he observed, "It is
Rembrandt's drawing, "A Winter Landscape" in self-limitation that the master first shows him-
(Plate 11.11), is a masterpiece of economy. The self." Economy such Rembrandt's demands ex-
as
drawing's design of fast and slow directional quisite perceptual apprehension and responses
movements, enacting the same undulations as shaped by a lifetime of analytical and empathic
the snow covered surfaces, is completely fused interest in nature and in the relational life of
with the character of the representational matter. marks on a flat surface.
In a drawing of about one hundred lines and a Obviously, the best and fastest way to heighten
few washes of tone, the artist conveys impressions our perceptual and conceptual powers is to draw
of linear and aerial perspective, snow-laden as much as possible. But our drawings should
Plate 11.10
~\J»Sr*
\
'6*
/f
1
i
n
4 t-s*—i -
270 conclusions: some general observations
not repeat old inadequacies. If drawings are not they mayaccept the logic that a cautious collec-
formed by a demanding level of analysis and tion of parts cannot succeed, the familiarity of
response, if they do not reflect the visual-expres- this old habit seems preferable to the anticipated
sive life of the image, or if they are not balanced "chaos" of a free, penetrating search. And some-
and unified, they only strengthen the grip of old times, the first few attempts at gestural drawing
habits. are chaotic. It is natural to falter in an un-
familiar process. Here, a trust in the basic prin-
This book has been largely concerned with ciple that governs any
building process, the
concepts that broaden the range of responsive emergence of large essentials before small specif-
options, and thus with the breaking of older, ics, may help the student over his first crucial
restricting concepts. A final suggestion to deepen barrier to responsive drawing. Once experienced,
our grasp of drawing is appropriate here. Courses the many dividends of the gestural approach
in sculpture, to more directly experience the described in Chapter One make a retreat to a
issues of structural volume, and in two- and three- sequential approach unlikelv.
dimensional design, to more fully explore the re- We began with gesture, and we return to it.
lational life of the elements and the organizational Its importance cannot be overstressed. Even if,
possibilities they hold, are most useful. They pro- as we develop our individual approach to draw-
vide the student with information and insights ing, the gestural aspects are reduced to a few,
about responses to the subject and the design, too faint suggestions, or even mostly just held in the
often obscured in the study of drawing. And mind, to accept the principle of drawing from
because our attitudes toward sculpture and design generalities to specifics is the symbolic as well as
are less likely to be encased in our early old the actual reversal of the cautious, accumulative
habits of procedure or prejudice, their study helps approach. In whatever way we adjust the search
to hasten the breakup of old notions about draw- for gestural expression, beginning with the
ing. And old habits are insistent. Beginning a broad essentials before arriving at our own neces-
drawing by the search for the subject's gestural sary particulars is the best mode of entry into
character, is for most students, an uncomfortably the world of responsive drawing.
daring step. Many hesitate and resist. Although
Bibliography
GENERAL TEXTS
ON PERSPECTIVE
Anderson, Donald M., Elements of Design. New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1961. Ballinger, Louise, Perspective, Space and Design.
Blake, Vernon, The Art and Craft of Drawing. Lon- New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company,
don: Oxford University Press, Inc., 1927. 1969.
Chaet, Bernard. The Art of Drawing. New York: Burnett, Calvin, Objective Drawing Techniques.
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1970. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company,
Collier, Graham, Form, Space and Vision (3rd ed.) 1966.
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1972. Cole, Rex V., Perspective: The Practice and Theory
De Tolnay, Charles, History and Technique of Old of Perspective as Applied to Pictures. New York:
Master Drawings. New York: H. Bittner & Co., Dover Publications, Inc., 1927.
1943. Norling, Ernest R., Perspective Made Easy. New
Hayes, Colin, Grammar of Drawing for Artists and York: The Macmillan Company, 1939.
Designers. Studio Vista, London: Van Nostrand Watson, Ernest W., How to Use Creative Perspective.
Reinhold Company, 1969. New York: Reinhold Publishing Co., 1960.
Hill, Edward, The Language of Drawing. Englewood White, John, The Birth and Rebirth of Pictorial
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966. Space. London: Faber and Faber Ltd., 1957.
271
OX MEDIA AXD MATERIALS Kay, Reed, The Painter's Guide to Studio Methods
and Materials. Garden City, New York: Doubleday
& Company, Inc., 1972.
Doerner, Max, The Materials of the Artist and Their Mayer, Ralph W., The Artist's Handbook of Mate-
Use in Painting, Eugen Neuhaus, trans. New York: rials and Techniques (rev.). New York: The Viking
Harcourt, Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1934.
Press, Inc., 1970.
Dolloff, Francis W. and Roy L. Perkinson, How to Watrols, James, The Craft of Old Master Drawings.
Care for Works of Art on Paper. Boston: Museum Madison, Wise.: University of Wisconsin Press,
of Fine Arts, Boston, 1971. 1957.
Index
Acrylics, 163 Bull Resting, Bonheur, 160, 161 The Card Player, 39, 40, 50, 187
After the Bath, Degas, 15 Burlesque Theatre, Times Square, Study of a Nude Figure, 128, 129,
After the Bath, Degas, 26, 27, 31 Hopper, 193, 194 146, 161, 163
After the Bath, Degas, 137, 144 Bushman Painting of a Dance, 92, 93 View of Gordanne, 32, 34
Alcalay, Albert, Times Square, 95 Chalks, 151, 153-55
Altman, Harold, Matriarch, 58, 59, 170 Charcoal
American, anonymous, 19th century, Callahan, Kenneth, Summer Bug, 190, compressed, 151-53
Silhouette of Nathaniel West, 21 191 stick or vine, 149-51
Angler, The, Klee, 28 Cambiaso, Luca, The Martyrdom of St. Cheruy, Germaine Rouget, Vezelay, la
Architectural Capriccio, Guardi, 231, Lawrence, 110, 112, 128 Madelaine, The Nave, 246, 247
232 Campagnola, Domenico, Buildings in a Chiaroscuro, 70-71
Architectural Fantasy, Piranesi, 49 Rocky Landscape, 101, 103, 193, 207 Child Seated in a Wicker Chair,
Artist's Studio, The, Dufy, 12, 13 Cano, Alfonso, Study for the Figure of Homer, 117, 118
a Franciscan Monk, 7 Chou Ch'en (1st half 16th century),
Cantarini, Simone, Studies of an In- The Northern Sea, 116, 118
Bageris, John, Infanta (after Velaz- fant in J'arious Poses, 187, 188 Chrysanthemum, Mondrian, 151
quez), 175, 176 Card Player, The, Cezanne, 39, 40, 50, Clearing Autumn Skies over Moun-
Baglione, Cavaliere Giovanni, attrib- 187 tains and Valleys, Sung Kuo Hsi, 85
uted to, Group of Four Figures, Carnegie, Rachel, Study of Back and Composition, 8-12, 89-90 (see also
260, 261, 262 Shoulders, 160, 161 Visual issues)
Bank of a Pond, Bresdin, 56 Carpeaux, Jean Baptiste, General in Connoisseurs, Daumier, 148, 149, 153,
Barn Abstraction, Sheeler, 200, 202, Court Dress, 12, 13 161
217, 218, 224, 225, 245 Study for Ugolino, 121, 123, 124, 133 Constable, John, Stoke by Nayland, 163,
Base-tones, see Elements of light Carracci, Annibale, or studio, Frontis- 164
Bathers, The, Renoir, 31, 187, 216, 217 piece, from the Illustrations of the Conte cravon, 155, 156
Beckie King, Wyeth, 159 Life of St. Paul, 97, 100 Content, 187, 190, 259, 260
Block Houses, Feininger, 175, 176 Studies for a Portrait, 6, 187 Corot, Jean Baptiste-Camille, Distant
Bloom, Hvman, Fish Skeletons, 86, 88- Casein, 163 J'iew of the Palazzo Chigi at Ariccia,
89 Cast shadows, 50-51, 53 267
Landscape #14, 265, 266 in perspective, 107-108 (see also Ele- Cottage Among Trees, A, Rembrandt,
Bonheur, Rosa, Bull Resting, 160, 161 ments of light) 248, 249
Bonnard, Pierre, Nude Standing, 263 Caterpillar, Seligman, 217, 219 Cottage Beside a Canal, Rembrandt,
Bookshelves in Duranty's Library, Cecily Heron, Holbein, 153, 154, 217, 167, 169
Degas, 203, 204 218 Cottage Window, Dickinson, 68, 73
Bresdin, Rodolphe, Bank of a Pond, Cesare da Sesto, Study for a Tree, 68, Courbet, Gustave, Landscape, 226, 227
56 70 Self -Portrait, 70-71, 74
Brushes, 170-71 Cezanne, Paul, 28, 57 Crayons, 155-57
Buildings in a Rocky Landscape, Cam- Page from a Sketchbook, 262, 263 Crowd in a Park, Goya, 64, 65
pagnola, 101, 103, 193, 207 Sketchbook page 21 (recto), 209, 226 cummings, e.e., 259
273
1
Cypress and Rock, Wen Cheng-ming, Fish Skeletons, Bloom, 86, 88-89 Her Place (2); Study for Closed Ward
202, 203, 217, 218 Five Grotesque Heads, Leonardo da #12, Mazur, 221, 223, 226
Vinci, 38, 50, 51, 58, 111, 221 Highlights, see elements of light, 68-77
Fixative, 151 Hogarth, William, Satire on False Per-
Da Empoli, Jacopo, Young Man Seen Flaxman, John, Woman Seated on the spective, 242, 243
from the Back, 120, 121, 123, 133 Floor, 228 Hokusai, Katsushika, A Maid Preparing
Daumier, Honore, Connoisseurs, 148, Follower of Leonardo da Vinci, Head to Dust, 192
149, 153, 161 of a Woman, 143, 144, 157 Holbein, Hans, The Younger, Cecily
The Lawyers, 233, 252 Forepart of a Lion, Delacroix, 231, 232, Heron, 153, 154, 217, 218
The Song, 233, 234 233 Homer, Winslow, Child Seated in a
Two Barristers, 10, 11, 56 Foreshortening Wicker Chair, 117, 118
Degas, Edgar, After the Bath, 15 perspective aspects of, 109-118 Hopper, Edward, Burlesque Theatre,
After the Bath, 26, 27, 31 role of shape in, 20 Times Square, 193, 194
After the Bath, 137, 144 Fragonard, Jean Honore, A Woman The Locomotive, 79, 82, 89
Bookshelves in Duranty's Library, Standing with Hand on Hip, 155 Sketch for Manhattan Bridge Loop,
203, 204 Frontispiece, from the Illustrations of 151, 152
Jockey on a Rearing Horse, 155, 156 the Life of St. Paul, Carracci or Horse-Guard, Londres, Toulouse-Lau-
Standing Xude, 126, 127, 133, 142, studio, 97, 100 trec, 47, 50
146
Three Dancers, 202, 203
Infanta (after Velazquez), Bageris, 175,
De Ghevn, Jacques, Three Gypsies,
Gaudier-Brzeska, Henri, Standing 176
120, 121, 123, 124, 131
Woman, 46 Ingres, Jean Auguste Dominique, Por-
Woman on Her Deathbed, 51, 53, 54 Gelder, Aert de, The Degradation of trait of a Lady Seated, 59, 60, 146
Degradation of Haman before Aha- Haman before Ahasuerus and Esther, Study for Drapery, 198, 199, 200, 219,
suerus and Esther, The, Gelder,
254 220
254 Gelee, Claude (Claude Lorraine), A View of St. Peter's in Rome, 248, 250
Delacroix, Eugene, 94
Herd of Cattle, 242 Inks, 161-62
Forepart of a Lion, 231, 232, 233
Study of a Tall Tree with a Man Interior, An, Giacometti, 36, 37, 49
Nude Woman, 130, 131, 132, 133,
Climbing up it, 235, 236 Interior with Stove, Sheeler, 88, 89
142-13
General in Court Dress, Carpeaux, 12, Italian 17th century, Venetian School,
Studies of Arms and Legs, 124, 125,
13 A Triumphant General Crowned by
130, 133-34
Genoels, Abraham, A Harvest Still-Life, a Flying Figure, 63, 224, 225
Delmonico Building, Sheeler, 97, 118
267, 268
Dickinson, Edwin, 89
Gericault, Theodore, Study of Horses,
Cottage Window, 68, 73 James, Henry, 266
173, 174
Diebenkorn, Richard, Reclining Xude, Jan Cornelius Sylvius: Posthumous,
Gestural expression, 1-15, 270
204, 205, 207 Rembrandt, 167, 169
definition of, 1-2
Distant View of the Palazzo Chigi at Jockey on a Rearing Horse, Degas,
dividends of, 6-1
Ariccia, Corot, 267 155, 156
in pen and ink, 45-46
Distortion, 228-30 John, Augustus, Head of a Young
Giacometti, Alberto, An Interior, 36,
Dog, The, Toulouse-Lautrec, 163, 164 Woman, 242, 243
37, 49
Donkey Driver, The, Picasso, 153, 154 Portrait of Woman in a Hat, 9, 10
Girl in an Armchair, Pascin, 43, 44, 50,
Dry-brush, 179
196, 197, 210
Duchamp Villon, Raymond, 130
Girl Sleeping, Rembrandt, 234, 235 Klee, Paul, The Angler, 28
Dufy, Raoul, The Artist's Studio, 12, 13
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 268 Trees Behind Rocks, K.6, 146, 147
Durer, Albrecht, Hands in Adoration, Kokoschka, Oskar, Portrait of Mrs.
Goldstein, Nathan, Ellie, 87, 89
226, 227
Mother and Child, 135 Lanyi, 14
Dutch or German School, anonvmous, Study of the Artist's Mother, 37, 41
Gouache, 162
Study of Ten Hands, 251, 252
Gova, Francisco de, Crowd in a Park, Kollwitz. Kathe, Self-Portrait, 27
64, 65 The Mothers, 24, 25
La Mercado, 226, 228 Woman Seated with Folded Hands,
Eilshemius, Louis M, Old Saw Mill,
Sad Presentiments of What Must 211-13, 214, 219, 229
146, 147
Come to Pass, from The Disasters Kneeling and Standing Figures,
Elements of light, 68-77
of War, 40-41, 42, 43, 56, 57, 252 Lebrun, 221, 222, 226, 228, 229
application of, 79-85
Graphite, 157-61 Kuo Hsi, Sung, attributed to, Chinese
Equestrienne, Toulouse-Lautrec, 206, Autumn
Group of Farm Buildings, A, Tiepolo, 11th century. Clearing
207
201 Skies over Mountains and Valleys,
Elite, Goldstein, 87, 89
Group of Four Figures, Baglione, at- 85, 86-89
Etude Pour Cour de Feme Cany Sur
tributed to, 260, 261, 262
Therain, Villon, 248, 249
Grove of Cypresses, Van Gogh, 55, 56,
Expressive aspects of perspective, 118 Lady with a Pink, Rembrandt, 90, 91
57, 210, 212
Expressive Issues, 208-38 La Pena, Virgile Narcisse Diaz de la,
Guardi, Francesco, Architectural Ca- Landscape,
definition of, 208-10 190, 191
priccio, 231, 232
Expressiveness La Mercado, Goya, 226, 228
A Venetian Scene, 196, 197, 214, 216 Landscape #1-1, Bloom, 265, 266
of line, 210-11 {see also Line, ex-
Guercino, Giovanni Francesco Barbieri,
pressive) Landscape, Courbet, 226, 227
Head of a Man, 209, 210
Landscape, La Pena, 190, 191
of shape, 214—19 (see also Shape,
character of) Landscape with Cottage, Rembrandt,
of texture, 224 68, 71, 214, 216
of values, 85-89, 211-14, 224-28 Half-tones, see Elements of light La Pere Cotelle, Toulouse-Lautrec, 37,
of volume, 219-24 Hands in Adoration, Durer, 226, 227 49, 193
Eye-level, see Perspective, the horizon Hanged Man, Vespignani, 223, 224, 252 Late Kamakura Period, ca. 1200,
line in Hanest Still-Life, A, Genoels, 267, 268 White-Robed Kannon from Kozan-
Hazlitt, William, 57 Ji-Temple, 161, 162, 172, 211, 213
Head of a Man, Guercino, 209, 210 L Athlete de Duchamp (Torso of
Fantastic Interior, Piranesi, 117, 118 Head of a Woman, follower of Leo- Young Athlete after Sculpture by
Feininger, Lyonel, Block Houses, 175, nardo da Vinci, 143, 144, 157 Duchamp-Villon), Villon, 32, 34
176 Head of a Young Man, Picasso, 156, Lawyer, The, Daumier, 233, 252
Figure of a Woman, Vigee-Lebrun, 159 Leaf Cluster, Ruskin, 173, 174
246, 247 Head of a Young Woman, John, 242, Lebrun, Rico, Kneeling and Standing
Figure Study, Matisse, 77, 78, 85-88, 243 Figures, 221, 222, 226, 228, 229
210-11, 212 Herd of Cattle, A, Gellee, 242 Reclining Figure, 86, 88-89
274
Leonardo da Vinci, A Storm over a Studies of her Right Hand, A, divisions of, 120-36
Picasso, 43, 45, 211, 213 light upon, 73-76, 81
Mountain and a Valley, 224, 226
Mothers, The, Kollwitz, 24, 25 Plowing, Seurat, 68, 74, 155
Five Grotesque Heads, 38, 50, 51, 58
Mountain Landscape, Rothbein, 68, 72 Pontormo, Jacopo, Striding Xude, 135,
111, 221
Outcrop of Stratified Rock, 128, 129, Mullen, Michael, Study for Sculpture, 136, 137
228, 229 Portrait of a Lady Seated, Ingres, 59,
133, 135, 224, 225
Study of Drapery for a Kneeling Mummers, The, Rembrandt, 188, 189, 60, 146
190, 204, 209, 217 Portrait of a Man, Rembrandt, 9, 10,
Figure, 70-71, 75, 77, 162
Light-tones, see Elements of light Munch, Edvard, Self-Portrait with a 166
Cigarette, 219, 220 Portrait of Baudelaire, Villon, 130, 131,
Line, 35-61, 210-11
Calligraphic. 36-37, 39-40, 46-48, 56- 132, 133, 221, 222
Portrait of Colette, Segonzac, 56, 57
57, 155
Northern Sea, The, Chou Ch'en, Portrait of a Woman, Modigliani, 56,
contour, 57-61 116,
definition of, 35-36 118 58
diagrammatic, 36-37, 48-50, 56-57 Xude Half-Figure with Arm Raised, Portrait of a Woman in a Hat, John,
expressive, 36-37, 40-43, 53-56, 57, Watteau, 79, 80, 89, 221 9, 10
for Closed Ward #12, 221, 223, 226 as an agent of expression, 118 Rosa. Salvator, Study of a Soldier, 8
Media cast shadows in, 107-109 Rothbein, Renee, Mountain Landscape,
abrasive, 145, 148, 149-61 definition of, 92-94 68, 72, 89
absorbent, 145, 148, 161-65 foreshortening in, 93, 105, 109-18 Rubens, Peter Paul, Study for Daniel
definition of, 145^19 linear, 92-93 in the Lion's Den, 33, 34', 124
expressive aspects of, 228 principles of, 94—95 Studies of Arms and Legs, 110, 113,
Medium, 36 one, two, and three point, 97-105 116, 124
Mervon, Charles, Study for the Etching, some clues to exact location in, 104- Studies of Cows, 251, 253
La Pompe Xotre Dame, 100, 101 105 Study of a Male Figure Seen from Be-
Michelangelo Buonarroti. Seated Xude the circle in, 105-107 hind, 28, 29, 124
and Head Study, 126, 131, 134, 142 the horizon line in, 95-97 Ruskin, John, Leaf Cluster, 173, 174
Standing Xude, Seen from the Back, vanishing point in, 96-100, 102-103,
38, 39, 50, 51, 58 107-108
Studies of Figures, 257, 258 Picasso, Pablo, A Mother Holding a Sad Presentiments of What Must Come
Millet, Jean Francois, Shepherdess Child and Four Studies of Her Right to Pass, from The Disasters of War,
Knitting, 241 Hand, 43, 45, 211, 213 Goya, 40-41, 42, 43, 56, 57, 252
Young Mother Preparing the Eve- Head of a Young Man, 156, 159 St. John the Baptist, Rodin, 168, 170,
ning Meal, 130, 131-32 Sketch Page with Xude and Classic 187
Miners at Work on the Coal Face, Heads, 51, 52, 168 Saskia Asleep, Rembrandt, 2, 3, 8, 37
Moore, 155, 158 The Donkey Driver, 153, 154 Schiele, Egon, Two Girls Embracing,
Mixed media, 148, 153, 155, 161, 163, Three Female Nudes Dancing, 201, 196, 197, 217
175-77 202, 207 Satire on False Perspective, Hogarth,
Model Xizzavona, The, Toulouse-Lau- Picture-plane, 16, 25, 30, 36, 186, 200 242, 243
trec, 151, 152 Piranesi, Giovanni Battista, Architec- Seated Xude and Head Study, Michel-
Modigliani, Amedeo, Portrait of a tural Fantasy, 49 angelo, 126, 131, 133-34, 142
Woman, 56, 58 Fantastic Interior, 117, 118 Seated Woman, Seurat, 77, 79, 155, 214,
Mondrian, Piet, Chrysanthemum, 151 Planes 215
Moore, Henrv, Miners at Work on the and contour, 57 Seated Woman with Hat and Gown,
Coal Face, 155, 158 and volumes, joining of, see Volume Matisse, 264, 266
Mother and Child, Goldstein, 135 definition of, 19 Segonzac, Andre Dunoyer, de, Portrait
Mother Holding a Child and Four directions of, 51-53, 62, 124-31 of Colette, 56, 57
275
Seligman, Kurt, Caterpillar, 217, 219 Study of a Male Figure Seen from Be- Tree in a Meadow, 166, 167
Self -Portrait, Courbet, 70-71, 74 hind, Rubens, 28, 29 Venetian Scene, A, Guardi, 196, 197,
Self -Portrait, Kollwitz, 72 Study of a Xude Figure, Cezanne, 128, 214, 216
Self-Portrait with a Cigarette, Munch, 129, 146, 161, 163 Vespignani, Renzo, Hanged Man, 223,
219, 220 Study of a Soldier, Rosa, 8 224, 252
Seurat, Georges, Plowing, 68, 74, 155 Study of a Tall Tree with a Man Vezelay, La Madelaine, The Xave,
Seated Woman, 77, 79, 155, 214, 215 Climbing up it, Gellee, 235, 236 Cheruy, 246, 247
Shadows, see Cast shadows Study of Back and Shoulders, Carnegie, View of Gordanne, Cezanne, 32, 34
Shape 160, 161 View of St. Peter's in Rome, Ingres, 248,
character of, 30-34 Study of Drapery for a Kneeling Figure, 250
definition of, 16-17 70-71, 75, 77, 162 Vigee-Lebrun, Louise Elizabeth, Figure
direction and energy of, 29, 30 Study of Horses, Gericault, 173, 174 of a Woman, 246, 247
expressive aspects of, 214—19 Study of Mrs. Philip, Whistler, 175, 177 Villon, Jaques, Etude Pour Cour de
in foreshortening, 20 Study of Ten Hands, Dutch or German Feme Cany Sur Therain, 248, 249
negative, 16-18, 21, 25 School, 251, 252 L Athlete de Duchamp (Torso of
positive, 16-18, 25 Study of the Artist's Mother, Ko- Young Athlete after Sculpture by
relationships, 183-86 koschka, 37, 41 Duchamp-Villon), 32, 34
types of, 16, 214-19 Study of Trees, Titian, 131, 133 Portrait of Baudelaire, 130, 131, 132,
value-divisions of, 21-22, 24-28, 63, Subjective, see Expressiveness 221, 222
89-90 Summer Bug, Callahan, 190, 191 Visual elements
Shape and volume, the interdependence Style, 260 as agents of design, 198-204
of, 28-29 as agents of expression, 210-26
Sheeler, Charles, Barn Abstraction, 200, definition of, 182
202, 217, 218, 224, 225, 245 Tempera, 163 Visual issues, 181-207
Delmonico Building, 97, 118 Texture, 64, 72 balance of, 186
Interior with Stove, 88, 89 expressive aspects of, 224 between configuration and page, 186—
Sheet of Sketches, A, Tiepolo, 264, 266 Tchelitchew, Pavel, Tree Into Hand 94
Shepherdess Knitting, Millet, 241 and Foot with Children, 230 definition of, 181-82
Silhouette of Nathaniel West, Ameri- Three Dancers, Degas, 202, 203 Visual relationships and forces, 182-86,
can, anonymous, 21 Three Female Xudes Dancing, Picasso, 188-90
Sketchbook Page 21 (recto), Cezanne, 201, 202, 207 Volume, 119-145
209, 226 Three Gypsies, de Gheyn, 120, 121, 123, and planar joinings, 131-36
Sketch for Manhattan Bridge Loop, 124, 131 definition of, 119-20
Hopper, 151, 152 Three Studies of a Child and One of an direction and geometric summary of,
Sketch Page with Xude and Classic Old Woman, Rembrandt, 255, 256 124-31, 138-41
Heads, Picasso, 51, 52, 168 Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista, A Group of effects of light on, 67-73, 76-85
Snyders, Frans, Study of a Boar's Head, Farm Buildings, 201 expressive aspects of, 219-24
Two Magicians and a Youth, 25, 26, in space, 136-38
260, 261, 262
Song, The, Daumier 233, 234 214, 215
planar divisions of, 120-36
shape of, 19-34
Standing Male Figure, Rembrandt, 121, Tiepolo, Giovanni Domenico, A Sheet
three basic approaches to, 120-24
122, 123, 245 of Sketches, 264, 266
Standing Xude, Degas, 126, 127, 133, Times Square, Alcalay, 95 Volume and shape, the interdepen-
142, 146 Titian, Study of Trees, 131, 133 dence of, 28-29
Standi?igXude, Seen from the Back, Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de, Equestri- Volume-summary, 127-31, 138-41
Michelangelo, 38, 39, 50, 51, 58 enne, 206, 207
Standing Woman, Gaudier-Brzeska, 46 Horse-Guard, Londres, 47, 50 Watercolors, 162-63
Stoke by Xayland, Constable, 163, 164 La Pere Cotelle, 37, 49, 193 Watteau, Jean Antoine, Xude Half-
Stonehenge at Daybreak, Turner, 267- Study for Paintijig, La Comtesse
Figure with Arm Raised, 79, 80, 89,
68, 269^ Xoire, 9, 156
221
Storm over a Mountain and a Valley, A, The Dog, 163, 164 Wen Cheng-ming, Cypress and Rock,
Leonardo da Vinci, 224, 226 The Model Xizzavona, 151, 152 202, 203, 217, 218
Striding Xude, Pontormo, 135, 136, 137 Tree in a Meadow, Van Gogh, 166, 167
Whistler, James Abbott McNeill, Study
Structural mass, see Volume Tree Into Hand and
Foot with Chil-
for Weary, 155, 158
Studies for a Portrait, Carracci, 6, 187 dren, Tchelitchew, 230
Study of Mrs. Philip, 175, 177
Studies of an Arm, Passarotti, 142, 143 Trees Behind Rocks, K.6., Klee, 146,
Winter Landscape, A, Rembrandt, 268,
144 147
269
Studies of an Infant in Various Poses, Triumphant General Crowned by a
White-Robed Kannon from Kozan-Ji-
Cantarini, 187, 188 Flying Figure, A, Italian, 17th cen-
Temple, Late Kamakura Period, ca.
Studies of Arms and Legs, Delacroix, tury, 63, 224, 225
1200, 161, 162, 172,211,213
124, 125, 130, 133-34 Turkey Buzzard, Wyeth, 160, 161, 187 Woman on Her Deathbed, de Gheyn,
Studies of Arms and Legs, Rubens, 110, Turner, J. William, Stonehenge at Day-
51, 53, 54
113, 116 break, 267-268, 269
Woman Looking Through Window,
Studies of Cows, Rubens, 251, 253 Two Barristers,Daumier, 10, 11, 56
Rembrandt, 90, 91
Studies of Figures, Michelangelo, 257, Two Girls Embracing, Schiele, 196, 197
Woman Seated on the Floor, Flaxman,
258 Two Magicians and a Youth, Tiepolo,
228
Study for a Tree, Cesare da Sesto, 68, 70 25, 26 Woman Seated with Folded Hands,
Study for Daniel in the Lion's Den,
Kollwitz, 211-13, 214, 219, 229
Rubens, 33, 34 Woman Standing with Hand on Hip,
Study for Drapery, Ingres, 198, 199, Value A, Fragonard, 155
200, 219, 220 as an agent of composition, 89-91
Wyeth, Andrew, Beckie King, 159
Study for Painti?ig, La Comtesse Xoire, as an expressive force, 85-89, 211-14, Turkey Buzzard, 160, 161
Toulouse-Lautrec, 9, 156 224-28
Study for Sculpture, Mullen, 228, 229 definition of, 62-64
Study for the Etching, La Pompe Xotre disguises of, 64—65, 67 Young Man Seen from the Back, da
Dame, Meryon, 100, 101 Value-divisions, 22-28 Empoli, 120, 121, 123, 133
Study for the Figure of a Franciscan variations of, 24-28, 65-67, 77, 81, Young Mother Preparing the Evening
Monk, Cano, 7 89-91 Meal, Millet, 130, 131-32
Study for the Parnassus, Raphael, 187 Value-scale, 22 Young Woman at Her Toilet, Rem-
Study for Ugolino, Carpeaux, 121, 123, Value-shapes, 21-22, 24-28, 63, 77, 84, brandt, 209-10, 211, 226, 229 (see also
124, 133 89-90 frontispiece)
Study for Weary, Whistler, 155, 158 Van der Rohe, Mees, 266
Study of a Boar's Head, Snyders, 260, Van Gogh, Vincent, Grove of Cypresses,
261, 262 55, 56, 57, 210, 212 Zola, £mile, 175
276
i-
(continued from frtriTjutp)
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