Pressure transmission:

a) Pneumatic measurement system

Pneumatic measurement system use compressed air as a signaling medium
rather than electrical signal . The standard pneumatic signal range is 0.2 to
0.1 Bar (1 Bar=105 Pa) . These pressures are gauge pressures i.e. pressure
relative to atmospheric pressure .

b) Flapper /Nozzle device:

This is used as a basic component of pneumatic and hydraulic measurement

, control and transmission as well as precision gauging device. It consists of a
fixed restrictor (orifice) in series with a variable restrictor (flapper and nozzle) .
Altering the separation x of the flapper and nozzle alters the resistance to air
flow and the output pressure P. An increase in x causes a reduction in
resistance and a fall in pressure . the volume V represents the capacity of the
transmission line connecting the sensor to an indicator . the equivalent
electrical circuit is a potentiometer consisting of a fixed resistor in series with
a variable resistor and a capacitor load across the variable resistor.
The input-output relation is given by the equation : m  m o  mN

wV dP wV
m  , where mass of the air is given by : m  ( )P
1000 R dt 1000 R
[ since assuming ideal gas , PV  nR , for n moles of an ideal gas occupying
1000 m
volume V at absolute temperature  , n  ]
w
wV dP
and mass flow rate : m  ( )
1000 R dt

Now mO  C Dd O x [2  ( PS  P )] , and m

N  C Dd N x 2 ( P  Pa )
where d N =Diameter of nozzle

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 d O =Diameter of orifice
Ps = Supply pressure
Pa =Atmospheric pressure
P =Output pressure

CD =Coefficient of discharge
 = density of air

d O2
The area of orifice hole is and the effective area of the nozzle is
4
assumed to be the surface area of a cylinder diameter d N and length x . this
dP
assuption is true only for small displacement x . In steady state and m
dt
d2
are zero , so that m N , i.e. ( O ) PS  P  d N x P since PO  0
O  m
4
PS
Thus P 
d N2 x 2
1  16 ( 4 )
dO

The normalized response curve is plotted . The characteristic is non linear

P
d( )
Ps
and high sensitive . The response slope is approximately linear for
dx
P
short x and ( ) ranges. The maximum slope or sensitivity is obtained by
Ps
P
d2( )
Ps
making  0 such that
dx 2
The relation between dynamic changes in input displacement and output
pressure can be approximately described by a first order transfer function .
the corresponding time constant is exteremely long , typically several minutes
. this is because , the orifice and nozzle diameters are very small so that they
present a high resistance to flow . If x decreases , air must be brought in via
the orifice

c) Relay amplifier:

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The flapper / nozzle device can not be directly connected to pneumatic
transmission line , but via a device which gives increased air flows and
therefore a reduced time constant . The device is called relay amplifier , which
constists of double valve with low resistance path , which bypasses the orifice
and allows a high flow rate of air into the line . There is also a low resistance
path, again via the double valve , connecting the transmission line to a vent
port . This bypasses the nozzle and allows a high flow rate of air out of the
line when the line is being depressured . A change in nozzle back pressure P
causes the center of the diaphragm and the double valve to move . This
adjusts the relative values of supply flow MS and vent flow MV , thus
changing the relay output pressure PO . For example if P increases , the
diaphragm and double valve move upwards . This reduces M but increases
V

MS and the netflow M into the line. The output pressure PO rises until
equlibrium is re-established .

The electrical equlivalent circuit for the flapper/nozzle , rlay and transmission
line is shown below. The input capacitance C i of the relay is small and
corresponds to the volume of the input chamber below the diaphragm . The
resistances rS , rV of the supply and vent paths are small compared with the
resistance R , R of orifice and nozzle . The supply and vent flows M and
O N S

. MV are therefore large compared to the corresponding orifice and nozzle
flows mO and mN .The resistances rS , rV are variable and depend on the
displacement y of the diaphragm and double valve . The pressure under the
diaphragm is the nozzle back pressure P , The pressure above the diaphragm
is atmospheric , i.e. a gauge pressure of zero . The resultant deflecting force
on the diaphragm is ARD P , where ARD is the area of the diaphragm . If k is
the effective stiffness of the diaphragm , then the spring restoring force is ,
A
ky , so that at equlibrium , ARD P  ky and y  RD P .i.e.. y is proportional
k
to P .
The relation between rS , rV and y will depend on the shape of the double
valve and will in general be non-linear . An increase in P and y , causes an
increase in , a decrease in , and increase in p . In steady state , when
dPO
 M  0 , the output pressure is determined by the potentiometer rS , rV .
dt
The value of PO can be calculated by a detaild analysis based on
By careful design it is possible to produce an overall linear relationship
P
between PO and P . The steady state sensitivity K R  O of relay in
P

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 common use usually varies from unity up to 20 . A typical relay has a steady
state air constant (rS  rV )C describing dynamic pressure variations is now
only a few seconds.

d) Pressure transmitter:

It is often necessary to transmit a variable to a certain distance for further

processing , such as from site to the control center in plant . Process variable
measured locally are not , in general , conformable to transmission . Often
these are converted to pressure signals for easy transmission through
tramsmitter

The basics transmitter scheme is shown below. When the process pressure
increases , it causes the beam about fulcrum F to move against spring resistnce
r through bellow B1 , therby causing the beam to move closer to nozzle N and
the pressure P increases , which again is fed back through bellow B2 . A torque
balance will be arrived at finally and it will be to a large extent decided by the
spring , which in many cases is replaced by another bellows element fed from a
regulated supply pressure for range adjustment . For a large beam with
appropriate pivot popint , a small pressure change is easily detected as the
movement of the flapper beam can be made larger on the nozzle side with a
large velerage.

Torque –balance transmitter:

Torque –balance transmitter constists of flapper/nozzle and relay as basic

elements . The transmitter is a closed loop , negative feedback device and gives
a pneumatic output signal , in the standard range , proportional to an input force
F. An increase in F increases the anticlockwise moment on the beam , causing it
to rotate in an anticlockwise direction . this redices the flapper/nozzle seperation
x causing an increase in nozzle back pressure P and relay output pressure P
OUT . This increase in pressure is fed to the tranmsmission line , but also to the
feedback bellows , casuing an increase in the feedback force . This gives an
increased clockwise moment to oppose the increases anticlockwise moment due
to F . the beam will rotate and output pressure will change until clockwise and
anticlockwise moments are again equal . the flapper/nozzle and relay detect
small rotations of the beam due to any unbalance of torques .

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Reffering to
Anticlockwise moments : TA  Fb  FO a
Clockwise moment : TC  PO AB a

The steady state torque –balance equation: PO AB a  Fb  Fo a

b F
 PO  F O
aAB AB

Thus output pressure is proportional to the input force.

a
The sensitivity of the transmitter is ( )b and it depends on only on the lever
AB
b
arm ratio and feedback bellows area . A B . Thus the sensitivity is independent
a
of flapper/nozzle , relay characteristics and supply pressure .

b
Adjusting the position of pivot alters the ratio and the sensitivity of the
a
transmitter . This means that it is possible to adjust the input range of the
transmitter while maintaining an output range of 0.2 to 1.0 bar . Thus the input
range of the transmitter can be changed from 0 to 40 N , down to 0 to 4 N , by
b
increasing the ratio from 1 to 10
a
Example:

b
A transmitter with  1, AB  5  10 4 m 2 and zero spring force Fo  10 N , will give
a
an output pressure between 0.2 and 1.0 bar for an input force between 0 to 40 N
.
Assuming following parameters for Torque –balance type transmitter ,
K B =stiffness of the beam/spring
K = sensitivity of flapper/nozzle at the prevailing operating condition
K R =relay sensitivity

And referring to the block diagram ,

TA  bF  aFO , TC  aAB PO , T  TA  TC ; PO  K B KK R T

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 K B KK R
On substitution , Po  (bF  aFo )
(1  K B KK R aAB )
In this model the output pressure depends on the flapper/nozzle sensitivity K and
therefore on the supply pressure PS . Typical values are :

Since is large compared with 1 , the effect of supply pressure variations is small
. Typically an increase in supply pressure of causes an increase in output
pressure of only 0.2 %. This characteristics is important in large pneumatic
installation , where variations in compressor delivery pressure and load changes
can cause fluctuations in supply pressure of up to

Pneumatic differential pressure transmitter:

It consistis of two levers , the force beam and the feedback beam (or span lever)
. the resultant force on the diaphragm capsule is

Thus at equlibrium , the moment equation on force beam : AD ( P1  P2 )c  Fd

The span nut also produces an anticlockwise moment Fe on the feedback beam ,
which is supported by anticlockwise moment , due to the zero spring force.
Thse are opposed by the clockwise moment due to the output pressure acting
on the ffedback bellows .Thus at equlibrium , moment equation acting on
feedback beam : Fe  FO g  PO AB f
A c e g FO
 PO  D ( P1  P2 ) 
AB f d f AB
A c e g FO
i.e. sensitivity = D and zero pressure = .
AB f d f AB
e
Therefore adjusting the position of span nut alters the ratio and the sensitivity
d
. this means that for an output range of 0.2 to 1.0 bar , the input range of a typical
transmitter can be adjusted from 0 to 1 m of water

Pneumatic transmission through transmission line :

The transmission line connecting transmitter and receiver as a single fluidic

capacitance

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Force –balance type differential pressure transmitter:

It is often necessary to transmit a variable to a certain distance for further

processing, such as from cite to control room. The force –balance type
transmitter uses flapper nozzle element as basic component for transmission.
Dry air is supplied at constant flow rate (e.g. ) through a nozzle from a
compressor . Near the nozzle end , a flapper is positioned which can move
toward and away from the nozzle end. . When the flapper moves to the left about
its pivot less air will leak out and a larger pressure will be developed between
the fixed restriction and nozzle head. But when the flapper moves to right , large
air will leak out and consequently less pressure will be developed in side the
nozzle . Assuming flow through the restriction is incompressible , and the
pressure change in side nozzle pipe is very large , , flow through the fixed
restriction of dia d1 is given by : q1  C (d12 / 4)( p s  po )
And as the nozzle outlet is to the atmosphere , assuming identical discharge
1

coefficient , flow through the nozzle outlet is : q 2  C (d12 x p02 , where is the
distance of the flapper from the nozzle tip . Assuming the condition of flow
p 1
continuity , one gets , o 
ps d x
[1  16 ( 22 ) 2 ]
d1
The above relation shows ,that when the flapper distance w.r.t. nozzle head
increases , the output pressure decreases and vice versa. But the relation is non-
linear .as shown in the response curve .

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The basis transmitter scheme is shown below . When the process pressure
increases , it causes the beam about F to move against R through bellow B1 and
thereby causing the beam to move closer to nozzle N and the pressure increases
, which again is feed back through a bellow B2 .A torque balance will be arrived
at the finally due to control spring action . For a large beam with appropriate pivot
point , a small pressure change is easily detected as the movement of the flapper
beam can be made larger on the nozzle side with a large lever . The output
pressure can be transmitted for remote indication . The linear relation holds good
only for a small a change in process pressure as po  K ( p  ps ) .
For differential pressure transmission , two bellow elements are connected to
free end of the beam . The other end closer to nozzle head is connected to
feedback bellow . The two bellows are exposed to two pressure sources and The
effective force proportional to difference of two pressures acts on the free end
which is then stabilized by the feedback bellow via lever . The input –output
relation is appropriately linear as po  K ( p1  p2 ) .

P1

l1 l2

P2

PO=K(P1-P2)

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 Ab1
P1 PO
L1 Kb Kn

Ab2

P2 L2 Ab2

Ab1, Ab2=Bellow area ; Kb=Bellow linkage gain (cm/cm-kg); Kn=Nozzle flapper gain
(kg/cm)

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