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At the 1996 Annual General Meeting 3.1 Hull Forces in Deep Water
(AGM), the Working Group received a new
task for the extension of the MPP code to twin- Numerical Methods: RANS Solvers. Re-
screw vessels. A one year project (1997) was markable achievements have been made during
accepted as a pilot study. The aim of the study the last few years in the prediction of the hy-
was to investigate the possibilities and limits of drodynamic forces acting on a manoeuvring
an extension to twin-screw vessels of the ma- ship by using 3D viscous flow methods.
noeuvring prediction program (MPP) developed
for single-screw ships. A modified version of After several years of code development
the MPP (MPP 97-1), covering both single and several calculations have been performed by
twin screw ships (with one or two rudders) was different groups of researchers in order to test
developed, but still based on hydrodynamic and to assess the validity of codes solving the
coefficients of single screw hulls. RANS equations. Test cases include constant
drift and steady turning motions of a Series 60
A new validation process started in July hull, the ESSO OSAKA, and the SR221 tankers:
1997 and the Working Group discussed the re- Alessandrini & Delhommeau (1998), Cura
sults at meeting in October 1997. More than 30 Hochbaum (1998), Tahara et al (1998), Berth et
ships were used, and the comparison between al (1998), Ohmori et al (1996), Makino & Ko-
calculations and measurements (model or full- dama (1997), Sowdon (1996). Generally, the
scale) were not always satisfactory: especially results presented show good agreement with
turning circle parameters showed a large scatter available experimental data. These methods are
and some systematic deviations. It was thus particularly interesting since they can be used
decided by the Group that it would be desirable for a wide range of different geometries. How-
to modify the MPP97-1 program in order to ever, a point which needs improvement is the
achieve an accuracy similar to that of single- dependence of the results to the grid size and
screw ships. topology.
The proposal for a two years project (1998- Sato et al (1998) proposed a numerical
99) was accepted by the AGM (1997) with the simulation method for solving the manoeuvring
main objective to develop a reliable prediction motion of blunt ships by coupling the equations
tool for manoeuvring performances of twin- of motion with the Reynolds Averaged Navier
screw vessels. Stokes (RANS) equations or RANSE.
3. HYDRODYNAMIC FORCES
Numerical Methods: Potential flow solvers. By solving a 3D lifting potential flow prob-
The use of potential flow based numerical lem, Landrini & Campana (1996), and Zou
methods has continued with several recent de- (1996), calculated the hydrodynamic forces on a
velopments. One of the principal difficulties in surface piercing plate in steady drift and turning
modelling manoeuvring forces using potential motion, in which the free surface conditions
flow methods is to include the lift generating were linearised with respect to the double
vortices in the computation: their position along model flow and the wake was modelled by a
the hull, as well as their intensity, constant or system of trailing vortices shedding from the
varying. Although this problem can usually be trailing edge and keel edge.
solved for lifting surface type bodies such as
keels, rudders, etc., these simulations on ships, Combining a 3D Rankine Panel method
and particularly on full form ships, require with the unsteady linear lifting surface theory,
some prior knowledge of the vortex field. As a Zou & Soeding (1995) simulated the forced
consequence, and given the complexity of the sway and yaw oscillating motion of a surface-
wake in steady turning motion, calculations are piercing plate and calculated the linear hydro-
sometimes limited to steady oblique towing. dynamic derivatives.
Ando et al (1997) and Nakatake et al (1998)
developed a surface panel method and present- Pinziy et al (1995) developed a panel
ed numerical results for three VLCC models method using the wave resistance Green’s
with different after-body shapes were compared function for solving the Neumann-Kelvin
with experiments. problem for a surface-piercing body moving at
forward speed with lifting effects. Results were
presented for a simple shape wing at yaw angles
and for a Wigley hull in symmetric motion.
mentum. Based on slender body theory Tanaka Kodan et al (1996) performed model tests of
(1996, 1998) proposed a practical method for recent ships to obtain their hydrodynamic coef-
predicting hydrodynamic forces acting on a ship ficients, and developed a new prediction proce-
moving with large drift angles. The flow was dure of ship manoeuvrability based on these
modelled by two dimensional cross flow at each data.
cross section, whereas both bound vortices and
free vortices are distributed to represent the two
dimensional separated flow. Kim & Rhee 3.2 Hull Forces in Restricted Water
(1996) applied parameter identification tech-
niques to estimation of the manoeuvring coeffi- Theoretical/Numerical Methods. By using a
cients of a slender body. Karasuno & Maekawa finite volume method Ohmori (1998) calculated
(1996, 1997) presented a component type the viscous flow around a ESSO OSAKA tanker
mathematical model of hydrodynamic forces in model in steady drift motion and turning mo-
steering motion. They estimated the ideal flow tion in shallow water. The calculated hydrody-
force, viscous and induced drag by applying a namic forces were compared with experimental
simplified vortex theory. data, and qualitatively good agreement was
obtained. Assuming that a ship hull can be re-
Experimental Methods. Ishida & Fujiwara placed by a rectangular flat wing, Yumuro
(1995) conducted a large amplitude forced sway (1995) proposed a simplified method for cal-
motion test to investigate the effect of hull culating the manoeuvring hydrodynamic forces
forms on the non-linear sway force and mo- and the shedding angles of the trailing vortices
ment. Takano et al (1995) conducted oblique in shallow water.
towing test to investigate the effect of bow and
stern shape on ship hydrodynamic forces. Yasukawa (1997, 1998) applied unsteady
Nonaka et al (1996) measured stern flow fields slender body theory to predict the hydrody-
and hydrodynamic forces acting on three VLCC namic coefficients of the ship hull and rudder.
models in oblique towing motion. Kijima et al The hydrodynamic memory effect of wake vor-
(1997) carried out measurements of hydrody- tices generated by a slender ship advancing
namic lateral force and yaw moment acting on a with sinusoidal steering in shallow water was
ship hull to clarify the effect of roll motion on investigated theoretically. Nakao et al (1995)
the hydrodynamic forces. Nakatake et al (1995) calculated the hydrodynamic forces acting on a
measured wake distributions of three ship mod- manoeuvring ship in confined water using slen-
els in oblique towing. Sadakane (1996) meas- der body theory. Xiong & Wu (1996) applied a
ured the lateral drag coefficient on models 3D Rankine source method to calculate forces
moving laterally from rest. Longo & Stern and wave patterns of ship hulls moving in re-
(1997) performed extensive force, flow field stricted water. The effect of free surface and
and wave measurements in the vicinity of a canal bank effects on the forces was empha-
series 60 model in oblique tow for CFD valida- sised. Yumuro (1996) proposed a simplified
tion purposes. method for calculating forces on a ship on an
off-centreline course in a narrow water channel.
Semi-Empirical Methods. Clarke & Horn
(1997a) developed new empirical expressions Experimental and Semi-Empirical Methods.
for the hydrodynamic velocity derivatives. Al- Vantorre & Eloot (1996) described unsteady
ternative predictor variables were suggested. hydrodynamic phenomena which were ob-
Sutulo & Kim (1997) developed a regression served during systematic captive model test
model for estimation of hydrodynamic forces series carried out in shallow water. Ishibashi et
acting on the hull of a submersible in arbitrary al (1996) conducted captive model tests cover-
three dimensional manoeuvring motion. Bian- ing a wide range of yaw and sway motion in
cardi (1997) proposed a method for calculating shallow water to identify characteristics of hull,
the hydrodynamic coefficients of surface ships propeller and rudder as well as interaction
by applying adjusted formula obtained previ- forces. Clarke (1997) pointed out an error found
ously for submerged bodies. The calculated in a simple shallow water correction of hydro-
sway force and yaw moment were compared dynamic derivatives published previously and
with the model scale measurements. suggested new equations for hulls with rectan-
6
gular sections. Gronarz (1995) proposed a for- model of Vec Twin Rudder performance for the
mulation of an exponential equation built up of MMG model.
a constant term and a term describing the de-
pendency of the manoeuvring hydrodynamic Other manoeuvring devices. Hirayama et al
coefficients from the water depth. (1996a, 1996b) and Hirayama & Niihara (1996)
performed model experiments and numerical
Laforce et al (1996) presented experimental simulations to investigate the effectiveness of
results of systematic captive model tests on an active vertical fin on improvement of the
three ship models of different lengths in open transverse stability and manoeuvrability of high
shallow water and in restricted water including speed displacement mono-hull ships.
a cross section of the canal and a scale model of
the geometry of the bends. The influence of the Knowles et al (1996) performed a numerical
ship’s length, water depth and canal banks on study of the unsteady hydrodynamics of an
hydrodynamic forces were discussed. UAV thruster, using a vortex-lattice, lifting-
surface model modified to handle unsteady op-
erating conditions during dynamic positioning
3.3 Manoeuvring devices and manoeuvring.
Conventional rudders: Chau (1998) com- Endo et al (1997) conducted model tests and
puted the turbulence flow around ship rudders proposed hydrodynamic mathematical models
in uniform inflow by solving the RANSE, using for side-thrusters.
the standard k-C turbulence model with wall
function. Jukola & Castleman (1995) tested tractor
and stern drive tugs and concluded that vessels
Gong et al (1995) conducted a series of equipped with Z-drives are capable of other
model tests to investigate the effect of rudder means of producing arresting and steering
area on the manoeuvrability of a ship with large forces with reduced risk of placing the escorting
B/T. Rudder open water characteristics were tug in a potentially dangerous situation.
determined by open water tests, and HPMM
tests were carried out for the ship with rudders The increasing use of podded propulsion is
of different areas. Ding et al (1997) conducted notable and is causing large changes in the ma-
ship model tests for measuring rudder lateral noeuvrability of these ships, essentially cruise
force in both still water and following seas. Oda ships. However, little published data is avail-
et al (1996) measured the open water normal able on the manoeuvring characteristics of
force and chordwise force of the mariner rud- pods.
der.
forces and moments on a rudder located in a (1998) also demonstrated the importance of the
propeller slipstream. Molland & Turnock flow straightening influence of upstream hull
(1996, 1998) developed a theoretical method to form on the performance of the propeller/rudder
predict the hull/propeller/rudder interaction combination which can be used for the devel-
forces. Wang et al (1994) studied the propulsive opment of prediction methods which would
performance of the propeller/rudder system. A include the effects of the drift angle and the
vortex lattice method was applied to describe upstream hull geometry.
the performance of the rudder behind the pro-
peller.
3.5 External influences
Yasukawa et al (1996) proposed a method to
calculate hydrodynamic forces on a ship mov- Proximity effects: Based on slender body
ing with constant rudder angle. Tamashima et al theory, Kijima (1997) predicted hydrodynamic
(1995) developed a theoretical method for pre- interaction forces between two ships and be-
dicting the performance of a propeller/rudder tween a ship and a pier. Manoeuvring motion in
behind a ship. The propeller and the rudder the proximity of the pier was studied. Using
were modelled separately, and the mutual inter- potential flow around a slender body with a
action was taken into account by an iterative rigid free surface, Varyani et al (1997) calculat-
procedure. ed the hydrodynamic interactive forces between
three ships in a restricted waterway. The effects
Li & Dyne (1995) presented a linear method of water depth and separation distance between
to calculate the steady forces on the propel- ships were investigated.
ler/rudder combination working in a uniform
flow.
Wind. Blendermann (1995, 1996) proposed data. Caccia et al (1997) performed tests to
an empirical method to estimate the wind identify hydrodynamic derivatives on a ROV.
loading of ships in uniform and non-uniform
flow based on wind-tunnel tests. Blendermann Hiroshima et al (1997) and Kataoka et al
(1997) also investigated the effect of beam (1997) developed and applied a 6 DOF perfor-
wind on overtaking manoeuvres using wind- mance prediction simulation method for yachts,
tunnel test data and numerical simulation. Shi- in which the forces and moments were derived
gehiro et al (1997) conducted model tests in a from the CFD computation. Suzuki & Yoshi-
wind tunnel and in a circular tank, and studied hara (1995) computed the hydrodynamic forces
the course stability of towed fish preserves in acting on sailing yachts by means of a surface
the presence of wind. Fukuchi et al (1997) pro- panel method. Tahara (1995, 1996) developed a
posed a method to improve the course-keeping numerical method for calculating boundary
ability of a small vessel scudding under strong layer and wake flows around a sailing yacht
wind by spreading canvas around the flying with yaw angle. The RANS equations were
bridge. Model experiments were carried out in a solved with the Baldwin-Lomax turbulence
wind/water facility to measure wind loads. model.
Simulations were conducted using the experi-
mental data. Yamano & Saito (1997) developed
a practical estimation method for wind forces.
Alternative ways of defining the equations of ships with low transverse stability (low GM).
of motions have been investigated by Bailey et
al (1995, 1997, 1998a). Their work combines Sutulo & Kim (1997) present a unrestricted
the knowledge of impulse response functions mathematical model of submersible dynamics
from linear sea-keeping theory with traditional based on regression of parameters for the 6
manoeuvring equations of motion, creating a DOF forces and moments.
unified general theory of ship motions. An in-
teresting finding has been made that the tradi- Prediction of Dynamics. Simulation of stan-
tional manoeuvring derivative Yr was found dard manoeuvres has become more relevant
experimentally to be approximated by since the IMO Res. 751 was adopted.
Yr = − B 26 − UA 22 A method for predicting ship manoeuvring
which paid special attention to stern shape was
in contradiction to the traditional theory developed by Kang & Kim (1995) using slender
found in numerous textbooks that body theory, low-aspect-ratio theory, and cross-
flow theory. For the cases considered the simu-
Yr = − B26 − UA 11 lation results show good agreement with meas-
ured manoeuvres. Hooft & Quadvlieg (1996)
where B26 is the frequency dependent sway- also use cross-flow drag and slender body theo-
yaw damping and A11, A22 the frequency de- ry for prediction of forces used in a simulation
pendent surge and sway added mass coeffi- model. Comparisons between simulated ma-
cients. noeuvres and full scale measurements show
acceptable agreement.
Pawlowski (1996) proposed a link between
formal hydrodynamic models and CFD hydro- When sea trials are performed in a “semi-
dynamic models. A general mathematical model loaded” condition means of extrapolating the
for ship manoeuvring simulation is proposed data to full load condition are required. Kijima
and a discussion of various mathematical ma- et al (1995) developed such a method where
noeuvring simulation model approaches is turning ability is predicted satisfactorily but the
given. prediction of overshoot angles in zig-zag ma-
noeuvres is less satisfactory.
Degrees-of-Freedom (DOF). The need in
some cases to include more than 3 DOF in the
equations of motion has been accepted; in par-
ticular roll motion for surface ships. The influ-
ence of GM and thereby the roll motion on ship
manoeuvrability was investigated among others
by Kijima et al (1997) and Kijima & Furukawa
(1998). Measurements of hydrodynamic forces
as a function of speed and GM were made and
numerical simulations including roll motion
were performed. Figure 4.2 shows the signifi-
cant effect of varying these parameters on the
simulated 1st overshoot angle in 10-10 and 20-
20 zig-zag manoeuvres. The effect of including
roll in the equations of motion can be seen to
increase with ship speed.
A similar conclusion was obtained for a
modern over-panamax container carrier by Figure 4.2.a: 10-10 zig-zag manoeuvre
Oltmann (1996) who showed that yaw instabil-
ity increases with increasing approach speed.
These results confirm earlier conclusions about
the effect of roll motion on the manoeuvrability
11
angles etc.) to various hull form parameters manoeuvre but limited influence on the tactical
(stern shape, LCB, L/B) was investigated by diameter. However, the σa parameter was not
Kang et al (1995). Simulations were made included in the suggested regression equations.
based on measured hull derivatives determined
from systematic PMM and free running tests on Lee & Shin (1998) also used 19 PMM test
19 slow speed, full form hulls with stern bulbs results to suggest another set of regression
and with horn type rudders. The stern shape equations to estimate the hydrodynamic hull
parameter, coefficients as well as the ε and γ parameters
1 Cwa for the MMG model. The regression included
σa = the parameters L, B, T, CB and a stern bulb area
1 − C pa parameter. The sensitivities of the 1st and 2nd
where Cwa is the water plane area coefficient overshoot angles in the 10-10 zig-zag manoeu-
of the aft body and Cpa is the aft body prismatic vre to various parameters in the MMG model
coefficient, was found to have a large influence are shown in Figure 4.4.
on the overshoot angles in the 10-10 zig-zag
Figure 4.3: Sensitivity of MMG model parameters on 1st overshoots in the 10-10 zig-zag ma-
noeuvre for three different types of ships (Ishiguro et al 1996).
Figure 4.4: Sensitivity of MMG parameters on 1st overshoots in the 10-10 zig-zag manoeuvre for
three different ship models (Lee & Shen, 1998)
13
The sensitivity study shows that ε and Nβ have a The use of desktop simulators for harbour design
particularly large influence on the overshoot angles in studies has become widely used. Kose et al (1995a),
the 10-10 zig-zag manoeuvre. Simulation results Galor (1997), Yang (1996) all present mathematical
based on estimated hydrodynamic parameters show models suited for harbour design studies.
good agreement with simulated results based on
measured hydrodynamic parameters.
4.2 Modelling of External Influences
Generally, the sensitivity of simulated manoeu- Tugs and Towlines. An important aspect in har-
vres to each mathematical parameter will depend on bour manoeuvring is the use of tug assistance as the
the following items: number or size of tugs can be the influencing factor
• the mathematical model itself. for a successful harbour manoeuvre. Also, ocean
• the hydrodynamic of the ship towing of large ships has received attention.
• the manoeuvre that is investigated, i.e. turning
circle, zig-zag or other manoeuvres. Harbour manoeuvres including tugs has been ad-
dressed by Laible & Gray (1997) and Rooij (1996)
The work performed in the period covers pri- who discusses the simulation of tugs. The use of
marily the items 2 and 3. Most of the sensitivity varying modelling details of tugs in ship simulators is
studies use the MMG mathematical model. These described in Jakobsen et al (1996).
sensitivity studies identify the parameters which are
most important, and where to put the emphasis of The combined motion of a tug towing a large
research. Improvements in regression equations have tanker were investigated by Jiang (1997) and Jiang et
been suggested by many authors to estimate the most al (1998). The modelling included the non-linear re-
important parameters. storing forces of the elastic towline. Numerical
simulations shows that the dynamic behaviour of the
Modelling of Fast Ship Dynamics. Due to in- system is qualitatively different from results obtained
creased interest in fast transportation at sea, the ma- with simpler models. It is also shown that it is of
noeuvrability of fast ships is particularly important great importance to include the tug dynamics in the
and research in this area is increasing. However, re- mathematical modelling of a tug-tanker tow system.
search efforts concentrate on individual projects and Also Milgram (1995) investigated tow line tension in
not on general tools which is due to the wide diver- open ocean towing
sity of fast ship designs and the limited experience in
the area. Position and length of tow wire for a tug towing a
barge in shallow water was studied by Kijima & Fu-
Hirayama et al (1996a) (1996b) investigated the rukawa (1995) by use of simulations. Varyani (1997)
effect of anti-rolling active vertical fins on the ma- describes a method for simulating of a tow including
noeuvrability for displacement-type super high speed three ships.
ship. Kobayashi et al (1995) studied the manoeu-
vrability of a high speed boat. The manoeuvrability Shigehiro et al (1996 & 1997) investigated the in-
of an air cushion vehicle was investigated by Huang fluence of the course stability on a high speed towed
et al (1996). Plante et al (1998) investigated the ma- fish preserve. Kreibel & Zieleski (1990) investigated
neuverability of a planing craft. It is found that added the effect of different viscous damping models for
masses depend on the forward speed of the planing single point mooring simulations.
craft.
Restricted Water Influences. The influence of re-
Enhancement Features. Simulation of the stan- stricted water covers both shallow water manoeu-
dard manoeuvres via the Internet is described by Ha- vring and manoeuvres in channels or in the vicinity
segawa & Sasaki (1997). The model is based on the of banks.
well known MMG model and the users can via the
Internet simulate standard manoeuvres on their own Different formulations of lateral force and yawing
computer by downloading the Java source code. Ship moment were compared with model experiment re-
simulators of today include many features for model- sults for shallow water manoeuvring for all drift an-
ling realistic harbour manoeuvres. gles by Vantorre & Eloot (1996). It was found that a
tabular formulation of the lateral force and the yaw-
14
ing moment was needed to cover the whole range of based mainly on committee reports of previous ITTC
drift angles. Propeller action seems to have signifi- proceedings.
cant influence on lateral force and yawing moment,
especially at large drift angles.
5.1 Scale Effects
A study of the influence of the length of bulk car-
riers in a canal was undertaken by Laforce & Van- In spite of a great deal of efforts to reveal scale ef-
torre (1996), Laforce et al (1996). Captive model fects, the ship-model correlation is still one of the key
tests with three different ship sizes were undertaken, issues related to model testing techniques in ship
multi harmonic tests were performed, and fast time manoeuvrability.
simulations were made to evaluate the influence of
ship length for the risk in the canal. Unsteady phe- Model tests are generally classified into two cate-
nomena in restricted water were observed during gories. One is free-running model tests, where the
model testing. same tests as in full scale are typically performed.
Manoeuvring characteristics of a full scale ship can
Shallow water harbour manoeuvring was also in- be predicted directly from model tests or through
vestigated by Ishibashi et al (1996). Kobayshi (1995) simulations using coefficients obtained by system
developed a method for simulating shallow water identification techniques. The other is captive model
manoeuvres based on deep water hydrodynamic de- tests where hydrodynamic forces in manoeuvring
rivatives which produces results with enough accura- motion are measured. Full scale predictions are made
cy for practical purposes. with the use of a mathematical model in which re-
sults of model tests are used as input data.
The determination of hydrodynamic forces acting
on a ship during berthing was investigated by Chen et The most important scale effect in manoeuvring
al (1996) using a RANS code in 2D suited for un- tests is caused by the inability to achieve Reynolds
steady time domain simulations. Number similarity. As a result, scale effects in the
area of ship manoeuvrability are essentially caused by
Environmental Influences. There has been little the lack of similarity for velocity field in stern region
published research on the influence of wind, current especially over the rudder.
and waves.
Other possible factors affecting the fidelity of
Spyrou (1995) investigated the yaw stability of model tests (accuracy of model geometry, surface
ships in steady wind. It is concluded that dynamic tension, cavitation number, roughness, engine con-
instability can occur in following or head winds troller...) are generally less important or can be ac-
whereas for other relative wind directions the ship counted for if deemed important.
will be course stable. Larjo (1994) defined wind
limits on large cruise ships. Wind tunnel experiments Prediction from Free-running Model Tests. There
were performed to determine the wind loads for use are two principal aspects of Reynolds Number related
in the simulation model. scale effects in free-running model tests: decreased
velocity field in stern region due to thicker boundary
The phenomena leading to broaching of ships in layer and increased flow velocity over the rudder due
following waves were investigated by Spyrou (1996 to higher propeller loading at the model self-
& 1997). Both steady state and transient analysis is propulsion point. As a result of these scale effects,
carried out. Yang and Fang (1998) addressed ship rudder effectiveness of a model may generally be
manoeuvring in a non-uniform current. More gener- over-estimated compared with that of a real ship.
ally, the influence of shear current on the ship hull Accordingly, free running models tend to be more
seems to have had little attention in the past. stable (or less unstable) with respect to course-
keeping ability. This effect is typically less significant
for fine ships because of their inherent stable course
5. SCALE EFFECTS AND VALIDATION keeping ability.
Publications on the topics of this chapter have One typical example which illustrates the above-
been very scarce during the period of 22nd ITTC. mentioned effect is given in figure 5.1, where steady
The state of the art is reviewed and summarised turning performances obtained by free-running model
15
tests for 100 KDWT crude oil carrier are presented Attempts to apply additional towing force to a
together with full scale trial results (Okamoto et al, self-propelled model have been made in order to
1972). It is seen in Fig. 5.1 that small-sized models compensate the over-estimated rudder effectiveness
(both L = 2 & 6 m) show stable course keeping abil- mentioned above. Oltmann et al (1986) used this
ity while large-sized model (L = 14.5 m) has unstable technique on a 20/20 zig-zag manoeuvre with a
characteristics similar to that at full scale. model of the ESSO OSAKA. It was found that a pro-
peller loading between model and ship self-
On the other hand, an opposite result has been re- propulsion points gives the best agreement with full
ported for a ULCC with the use of three models of L scale results.
= 4, 10 & 30 m (Sato et al, 1973). In this free-running
model tests, the larger-sized model was less unstable The contradictory results on scale effects on slow,
than the smaller model (figure 5.2). However, full full form ships raise questions about our under-
scale trial results indicated that the ship was more standing of scale effects even for large models. For
unstable than the smallest model. finer hull forms such inconsistencies have not been
reported and free-running model tests continue to be
widely used to predict the manoeuvring behaviour of
ships.
Prediction from Captive Model Tests. Hydrody-
namic forces measured in captive model tests are
used as input data to a mathematical model of ship
manoeuvring motion, where scale effects can be ap-
plied to each hydrodynamic coefficient. In this re-
spect, full scale predictions from captive model tests
are widely understood to be more scientifically based
for most manoeuvres than free-running model tests.
While scale effects on the ahead resistance are
taken into account in the conventional manner, the
lateral forces and yaw moments obtained by captive
model tests are generally not corrected. Results ob-
Figure 5.1 : Spiral test results for 100 KDWT tained in a co-operative effort with geosim models of
tanker model the ESSO OSAKA (L = 2.5 - 7.256 m) shown in figure
5.3 (17th ITTC proceedings) indicate that no signifi-
cant scale effects exist on the linear coefficients. Alt-
hough scale effects are expected in non-linear coeffi-
cients which are mainly dependent on cross flow
drag, non-linear coefficients derived from the same
model tests do not reveal clear scale effects. This may
be due to the fact that non-linear coefficients depend
on the range of drift angles and yaw rates used in
these sets of experiments as well as the regression
techniques used to identify the coefficients.
Given the importance of scale effects on
hull/propeller/rudder interactions, scale effect correc-
tions should be applied. These can readily be intro-
duced in modular models (e.g. MMG) through scal-
ing of interaction parameters such as propeller and
rudder wake factors and the flow straightening coef-
ficients. Scale effects on the first two parameters are
very significant, while the flow straightening coeffi-
Figure 5.2 : Scale effects on K’ and T’ indices cient may not be affected (Yumuro & Yamamoto,
(ULCC model) 1992).
16
Empirical formulae are widely used at the design Full Scale Benchmark Data. There are very few
stage to provide estimates of the coefficients based full scale trials carried out at a scientific level with
on principal characteristics of the ship. The most which validation can successfully be made. The ESSO
commonly used parameters in the regression equa- OSAKA trial is one of such scarce and valuable full
tions for describing the ship are the L, B, T, CB, LCB, scale trials, where extensive manoeuvring tests had
and σa which to some extent describes the shape of been carried out both in deep and shallow water con-
the aft body. It is the opinion of the committee that ditions. Taking the opportunity of ESSO OSAKA trial,
more parameters describing the ship are needed to extensive model tests have been made at many places
increase the accuracy of the most important parame- from both aspects of hydrodynamic forces and ma-
ters. This, however, requires a large data base of reli- noeuvring motions. A benchmark study is made for
ESSO OSAKA by the Manoeuvring Committee as de-
18
scribed in Chapter 8, where efforts are made to KGPS and RTKGPS (Real Time KGPS) have been
provide a means to validate hydrodynamic forces. made by Hirata et al (1997) for standard manoeuvres
Another set of extensive full scale trials data obtained of a small-sized cargo ship (L = 70 m). The meas-
on a Mariner hull was used as a basis for validation urement accuracy obtained was 2 cm in the horizon-
in the 14th ITTC proceedings (Eda, 1975). tal direction and 5cm in the vertical direction. Similar
full scale measurements by both KGPS and RTKGPS
Full scale trials are always carried out for a have been made by Takase et al (1997) and Suzuki et
newly-built ship before delivery according to the al (1998).
contract and a large number of full scale trial results
have been collected and accumulated in ship yards. In general, the use of DGPS is recommended in
Unfortunately few of them have been reported and order to keep a position accuracy better than 10 m as
fewer have been used for validation purposes and in required by Norske Standard NS2780 (1985), or 3%
the past the quality of these results has sometimes of the turning diameter as suggested by the 20th IT-
been poor due to lack of accurate tracking, environ- TC Manoeuvring Committee.
mental conditions, motivation...
A practical way to validate predictions is through 6. SHIP OPERATION AND SAFETY
comparisons with trials data for a large number of
ship types and manoeuvres. Hirano (1981) has com- Because safety during navigation depends on in-
pared full scale trial results for seven merchant ships, teraction between ships, the environment, and the
covering a wide range of ship types from 10 KDWT operators, studies have been conducted to promote
traditional cargo boat to 400 KDWT ULCC with marine safety through improvements in shiphandling
block coefficients of CB = 0.52 - 0.83, and for three simulators and application of modern control algo-
types of manoeuvring motions covering a wide range rithms. Also, inherent ship manoeuvrability has be-
of rudder angle. A suitable level of validation was come an important design factor since the adoption
confirmed through these comparisons. of “Interim Standard for Ship Manoeuvrability” by
the IMO.
A methodology to evaluate validity of the predic-
tion method on a scientific basis was discussed in
20th ITTC Proceedings. In order to assess the degree 6.1 Ship-handling Simulators
of “agreement” in quantity in a sophisticated manner,
a concept of error bands had been proposed, Dand Ship-handling simulators have been widely used
(1992). in the design of ports and fairways, and for training
and demonstrating competence of many maritime
Accuracy of Full Scale Measurements. Since skills and objectives, and to evaluate the performance
1994, the NAVSTAR GPS (Global Positioning Sys- of newly developed controller.
tem), consisting of a constellation of 24 satellites, is
in operation giving world-wide coverage 24 hours a The primary emphasis and publications in simu-
day. The absolute positional accuracy of GPS in the lator development are concerned with the fidelity of
autonomous mode can be as low as 100m. In order to the simulator environment, including the display.
improve accuracy, DGPS (Differential Global Posi- Improvements in the underlying manoeuvring models
tioning System) has been developed, which is now are reported in section 4.
used widely as a means to get accurate (1 - 5 m) and
continuous position information in a reliable and Some of the recent publications in the use of ship
cost-effective manner. Applications of DGPS for simulators to assess ship safety and operations are
monitoring full scale trials in general and standard discussed in this section.
manoeuvres in particular are described by Cortellini
& Lauro (1995), Stenson (1995), Yum et al (1996) Gong, et al (1996) developed a simulation system
and Youn et al (1997). for the assessment of harbour capabilities from the
view point of safety of ship navigation in congested
In addition, an advanced technique of KGPS harbour area. Pourzanjani (1996) examined the ef-
(Kinematic Global Positioning System) has recently fectiveness of electronic chart system on collision
been developed to further improve the measurements avoidance behaviour in coastal water navigation.
accuracy. Full scale measurements with the use of Endo, et al (1996) used a ship handling simulator to
19
evaluate the control performance of the joy stick wave disturbances and in a random sea by applying a
controller for berthing based on decoupling control control strategy of variable structure control. Wang et
theory. Takahashi, et al (1996) verified the effective- al (1996) applied the fuzzy control method for the
ness of the navigation support systems, leading lights adaptive control of heading and position under uni-
and the Ramark Beacon, when entering port of the form wind. An adaptive autopilot for submarine via
Techno Super Liner, and the results of simulator ex- gain scheduling was designed by Dumlu et al (1995)
periments were compared with the records of the based on the stochastic controller and observer tech-
experimental ship HISHO. Kose, et al (1995) des- niques which possesses robustness against possible
igned a prototype Integrated Navigation System(INS) changes in the external environment. Ogawara et al
taking into consideration the human decision making (1995) showed that the Learning Feed-Forward Con-
process, and Ishioka, et al (1996) used real time ship trol System has good controllability to compensate
handling simulator to evaluate the supporting system for the wind disturbance.
in INS for collision avoidance.
A robust digital servo control method incorporat-
ing the concept of the annihilator polynomial was
6.2 Control applied to auto-pilot control system in course change
to the specified direction by Han et al (1995) and
Autopilot. The first application of control theory confirmed the effectiveness of the proposed control
to the ship is an autopilot for course keeping. Nowa- method by model tests. and Zuev et al (1996) applied
days, autopilots have been used widely in ship steer- impulsive course-keeping autopilot to unstable ship.
ing, and several kinds of control theories are adopted
to enhance the robustness or to increase the effec- Collision Avoidance. For safe and effective navi-
tiveness of the controller. gational assistance, collision avoidance systems have
been developed in two ways. One is to reason the
Jiang (1997) studied the influence of tow-hook degree of collision risk, and the other is to determine
location, towline length, and control parameters of a the collision avoidance manoeuvre. Imazu (1996)
PID autopilot on the non-linear dynamic behaviour of assumed that the collision avoidance was consisted of
the tow when a tug-tanker tow is operating in calm an information processing ability and the avoiding
water by use of locally linearised stability analysis, action ability, and developed decision model for col-
time-domain simulation and Poincare map. Nakatani lision avoidance action considering the actions on a
et al (1996) proposed a simple and safe automatic second and subsequent stages based on a forecast of
PID gain tuning methods using relay control for typi- the encounter condition. An algorithm is proposed
cal marine PID controller, and they applied this for the real-time detection of encounter situation
method to an autopilot system, a yaw control system compatible with the real behaviour of ship’s officers
through bow thruster and a diesel engine governor by Zec (1996). Hilgert et al (1996) created a common
system. risk level from the actions requested by relevant
steering and sailing rules of the International Regula-
Neural networks was applied to the autopilot for tion for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGS).
tanker conning by Logan (1995). He envisaged the The moment at which a collision avoidance manoeu-
intelligent autopilot that will learn ship manoeuvring vre should be executed in a dangerous two-ship en-
dynamics through experience, allowing the neuro- counter in order to obtain a certain passing distance
controller to apply rudder and engine speed control in was calculated by Kwik (1996) based on the ships’
the same manner as humans. Sutton, et al (1996) used equations of motion in conjunction with the kine-
artificial neural networks in the design of fuzzy matics of ship encounters. Lisowski et al (1996) de-
autopilots and later Sutton & Marsden (1997) used a termined ship’s optimum safe trajectory in a collision
genetic algorithm to optimise a fuzzy rule based situation of passing many moving targets by using a
autopilot, and showed that such approaches can pro- multistage decision-making process.
duce effective designs.
Adaptive controllers which can compensate the 6.3 IMO Standards
disturbance such as wind and wave during manoeu-
vring motion were designed. Zhang et al (1996 & Since IMO has adopted Resolution A.751 (18)
1997) designed a robust autopilot system for course “Interim Standards for Ship Manoeuvrability”, sever-
regulation or directional stability control in assumed al studies have compared the performance of existing
20
ship populations to the Standards. Based on these posal indicates that the criteria for the 2nd overshoot
comparisons, certain changes in the criteria have angles in a 10/10 and the 1st overshoot angle in a
been proposed. 20/20 zig-zag manoeuvres are not appropriate be-
cause "...the present criteria may regard ships with
In order to review the IMO standards, extensive good manoeuvring performance as having poor ma-
efforts to compile full scale manoeuvring databases noeuvring performance."
were made by Capurro & Sodomaco (1996), and
Kang et al (1996). Raestad (1996) found that the cri- Furthermore, this document indicates that "...the
teria generally are based upon sound principles and criteria on stopping ability should be improved based
that most ships behaving “normally” will be in com- on results of research work considering physical
pliance with the standards. Kijima, et al (1997) parameters e.g. displacement, horsepower of a ship
pointed out through use of numerical simulation the and so on...".
importance of GM, which is not considered in the
interim standards. Norrbin (1998) discussed the procedures and ex-
periences of the crash-stop test against a review of
Oltmann (1998) presented an overview of the ac- trial and scale model results, track reach estimates,
tivities concerning the definition of various proposed and presented a guideline formula for the track reach
manoeuvring standards during the last fifty years, not to be exceeded.
with special attention to the IMO. A constant limiting
value of 17° for the 1st overshoot angle in a 10° zig-
zag regardless of speed is proposed. 6.4 Squat.
Following the adoption of the IMO interim stan- Definition of squat. Tuck defines squat as fol-
dards, a special effort was made by the Ship Research lows: "Squat is not a change of draft (...). It is an
Institute of Japan to collect full scale trial data for overall lowering of the ship together with the water
newly-built ships (Haraguchi et al, 1998). The da- in the neighbourhood of the ship. Hence it is almost
tabase consists of trial results of 226 ships in total, unseen in the open sea, where it is nevertheless pres-
most of which have been built during the last decade. ent. However, squat is mainly of concern in restricted
The database covers a wide range of ship types, in water (...)". For this reason, papers handling the sink-
which about two third of the ships are full hull form age due to forward speed in deep, unrestricted water
ships such as oil tankers and bulk carriers with mod- are not discussed in this report.
ern hull forms (pram stern with semi-balanced rud-
der). Full scale tests have been carried out for 73 Need for reliable squat data. The organisation of
ships in service condition, of which 23 dry cargo ves- meetings on squat (SNAME Workshop, Washington
sels and bulk carriers. According to the IMO Ma- DC, 1995; Nautical Institute Seminar, Hull, 1995)
noeuvrability Standards, data for three types of ma- and the attention paid to this subject by international
noeuvring motions, namely turning motion with maritime associations (PIANC/IAPH, 1997) reveal a
35deg. rudder, 10/10 and 20/20 zig-zag manoeuvre renewed interest in this topic. A need is recognised
and full astern stopping motion, have been collected for more reliable information about a ship's sinkage,
and stored. which is an essential element in determining an ap-
propriate under-keel clearance for safe transit through
As shown in figures 6.1 and 6.2, there exist a channels with restricted depth Overestimation of
considerable number of ships which do not comply squat may lead to excessive dredging expenses or
with the criteria for the second overshoot angle in non-optimal use of navigation areas while underesti-
10/10 zig-zag manoeuvre and the first overshoot an- mation of squat can lead to unsafe situations.
gle in 20/20 zig-zag manoeuvre. Moreover it is
pointed out that about a half of the ships which do Squat predictions. Reviews of practical, empirical
not comply with the above-mentioned criteria do methods allowing an estimation of squat based on a
comply with the criteria for the first overshoot angle limited number of parameters characterising ship
in 10/10 zig-zag manoeuvre. geometry, waterway configuration and ship speed are
published by PIANC/IAPH (1997), Dand (1999),
Based on these results, Japan has formally sub- Vantorre (1999a), Millward (1996). Substantial de-
mitted a proposal for revision of the interim stan- viations can be observed between the results of such
dards (IMO MSC 70/20/6 dated 28/7/98). This pro- formulae.
21
A new simple prediction method based on nu- Special craft. Bertram & Grollius (1994) present a
merical calculations using slender body theory and 3D potential flow panel method for computing resis-
model test data was published by Kijima & Higashi tance, sinkage and trim of SWATH ships in shallow
(1999). Ankudinov et al (1996) and Ankudinov & water. Results are good, except near critical depth
Jakobsen (1999) developed a semi-empirical engi- Froude numbers. The wavemaking resistance and
neering and simulation tool to estimate squat for squat of a fast catamaran moving uniformly in a
conventional ship types with a minimum of input straight rectangular shallow water channel was theo-
variables and computational efforts. retically investigated by Jian et al (1995) using the
technique of matched asymptotic expansions.
cussed by Rossignol (1995). A detailed description of Test program and analysis. The literature reflects
the NSWCCD facilities (Lake Needwood) is given; a tendency towards an optimised standard captive test
outdoors and indoor test results are compared. program and analysis technique developed for a par-
ticular simulation model. The PMM test program
An application of a GPS technique to free- presented by Blok et al (1998) contains 97 runs,
running model tests has been attempted by Ueno et al comprising both bare and appended hull tests, while
(1997), and compared with the existing UPS (Ultra- Sutulo & Kim (1998) claim that a specially optimised
sonic Positioning System). Sufficient accuracy and experimental program of only 20 combined
reliability for position measurement was obtained. sway/yaw tests is sufficient for use with their mathe-
matical manoeuvring model.
Analysis techniques. The use of neural networks
for the identification of a 4 DOF model based on Existing guidelines for selecting suitable pa-
free-running tests (zigzag manoeuvres, harmonic rameters (amplitude, frequency) for harmonic captive
rudder angle variations, steady turn) is discussed by manoeuvring tests are reviewed by Vantorre & Eloot
Caux & Jean (1996). They concluded that a classical (1997). A relation between non-stationary phenomena
linear neural network model generally provides good and interference with the model's swept path during
predictions, although results are less reliable if rudder PMM tests is discussed, and a alternative non-
variations are applied in the resonance frequency stationary sway test is proposed. A method for opti-
range for roll. mising PMM test conditions, yielding most reliable
results, is suggested by Rhee et al (1998), based on
7.2 Review of captive model tests sensitivity analysis. Several estimators applied to
determine manoeuvring coefficients from PMM tests
Test techniques. Several efforts were made to are compared; the non-recursive least square estima-
optimise captive manoeuvring test programs by using tor appears to be preferable to the recursive and ge-
novel techniques. netic algorithm estimators.
A very compact apparatus for circular motion 7.3 Current practice in captive model tests
tests (CMT), to be used autonomously or combined
with a towing carriage, is described by Karasuno et al Captive model test techniques have been used for
(1996). The application of this apparatus to several the last 30 years. During this period, each institution
types of tests with the intent to reduce test duration is has developed its own methods, mainly based on
discussed. semi-empirical considerations. The ITTC identified a
need for guidelines in order to ensure the quality of
Reduction of the time required for a captive test test results. The 21st ITTC Manoeuvring Committee
program may be achieved by combining several test formulated a "Recommended standard PMM test
parameters in one run; e.g. combined oscillatory tests procedure" which has been extended in three ways:
can replace separate yaw and drift tests (Rhee et al, • to cover rotating arm tests (RA),
1998). Results of alternative tests in shallow water • to provide quantitative guidelines,
(h/T<1.2) are compared with stationary tests by Eloot • to suggest an analysis procedure for the uncer-
& Vantorre (1998). Although in some cases good tainty.
agreement was obtained, discrepancies may occur
due to non-stationary effects and incomplete flow The quantitative data are based on two sources:
development around hull or rudder. literature on captive testing published during the last
decades, and the results of a questionnaire distributed
A technique using a rotating arm (RA) facility for among all ITTC member organisations in 1997. A
determining equilibrium conditions (speed, drift an- positive response was received from 37 institutions,
gle, rudder angle) as an alternative to free running providing a solid base for an overview of actual
tests was described by Perdon (1998). practice.
Agdrup et al (1998) investigated the applicability Questionnaire. Taking account of an increasing
of a wind tunnel PMM to ship manoeuvrability as- need for guidelines and even standard test proce-
sessment; except for Yr’, a qualitative agreement dures, the Committee considered a thorough insight
with tank results was obtained. in present methodologies for selecting the experi-
mental parameters for captive model tests - being the
23
result of years of experience of many institutions - as sumed to be 33 % lower and higher than the mean
a requirement. For this reason, a questionnaire was value. The following conclusions can be drawn for
circulated among 110 ITTC Member Organisations in test types (a) and (b):
order to obtain an overview of the actual practice of • comparable lengths are used for (a) and (b);
captive model testing. A positive answer was re- • the median value for L appears to be 4.5 m;
ceived from 37 institutions, covering a total of 61 • the distribution reaches a peak at a L ≈ 3 m;
facilities. This report summarises the response to the • 95% of all tests are carried out with L> 2 m.
questionnaire. A more detailed overview will be pub- On the average, circular tests (c) are performed with
lished. smaller models. The median length is only 3 m, the
peak in the distribution is reached at 2.2 m, and the
The questionnaire consisted of three parts: 95% limit is 1.5 m.
1. Experimental facilities: main specifications and
physical limitations. Figure 7.2 shows that most tests of types (a) or (b)
2. Experimental program: actual practice. are carried out in a tank with a length of 35 times the
3. Data acquisition and processing. ship model length, which is also approximately the
median value. Most circular tests (c) are carried out
Test types. Taking account of the mechanism in- in a tank the largest dimension of which is about 20
volved and the motion imposed to the ship model, a times the model length.
distinction can be made between different types of
tests: According to figure 7.3, a median value for model
(a) Stationary straight line tests in a towing tank length to tank width ratio (L/W) is 0.47 for stationary
(a1) straight towing; straight-line tests (a), and somewhat smaller (0.42)
(a2) straight towing with rudder deflection; for harmonic tests (b). This difference can be ex-
(a3) oblique towing; plained by the fact that PMM mechanisms are
(a4) oblique towing with rudder deflection; mounted in tanks with a width, which is larger than
(b) Harmonic tests, requiring a towing tank equipped the average towing tank. As most circular tests are
with a PMM: executed in circular or wide tanks, the median value
(b1) pure sway; of L/W for test type (c) is much smaller (0.09).
(b2) pure yaw;
(b3) pure yaw with rudder deflection; Experimental program: test type (a). Table 7.1
(b4) pure yaw with drift; gives an overview of the number of ship speeds, pro-
(c) Stationary circular tests, by means of a rotating peller loadings, drift angles and rudder angles applied
arm or a x-y-carriage: during captive model tests. A larger number of model
(c1) pure yaw; speeds is used for resistance-propulsion tests (a1), as
(c2) yaw with drift; the self-propulsion point has to be determined by this
(c3) yaw with rudder deflection; kind of tests. For other types of tests (a2, a3, a4), the
(c4) yaw with drift and rudder deflection. median value appears to be 1 or 2.
Tests a1, a3, b1, b2, b4, c1, c2 are carried out for The majority of the tests are carried out at the
determining hull forces; a2, a4, b3, c3, c4 yield rud- (model or ship) self-propulsion point. Straight towing
der induced forces, and are therefore non-applicable tests without rudder action (a1) and rudder force tests
in case the model is not fitted with rudder and pro- (a2) are often carried out at other propeller loadings
peller (bare hull testing). as well.
The questionnaire covered the following numbers The number of drift angles applied in tests a3-a4
of facilities for each category: is on the average smaller for oblique towing tests
(a) Stationary straight line tests ..... 53 facilities with rudder action. The highest frequency is observed
(b) Harmonic tests.......................... 34 facilities at 12 angles for type (a3), and 5 angles for type (a4).
(c) Stationary circular tests ............ 14 facilities A similar distribution is obtained for the number of
rudder angles at which tests a2/a4 are carried out.
Experimental facilities. Figure 7.1 presents dif- The way drift and rudder angles are selected is dis-
ferential and cumulative distributions of the data on played in figures 7.4(a3) and 7.5(a2), respectively.
ship model length L. When an average value was
given, the limiting values of model length were as- Besides parameters related to the ship model
24
kinematics and control, the questionnaire requested pose, a Froude number range between 0.05 and 0.3
for details concerning some parameters related to was assumed if no indication could be found on this
experimental and analysis techniques: waiting time topic in the completed questionnaires. Table 7.3 also
between runs, acceleration phase, settling phase, mentions recommended values according to empiri-
steady phase, deceleration phase. An overview is cal rules of thumb formulated by several authors (see
given in Table 7.2. ITTC Quality Manual: Manoeuvring - Captive Model
Test Procedure, discussed in paragraph 7.4).
Experimental program: test type (b). An overview
of the number of parameters determining the ship Interaction of yawing with drift and rudder action
model kinematics and control is shown in Table 7.1. is typically verified at four drift angles and three rud-
Most harmonic tests are carried out at only one der deviations, but are only seldom combined. No
speed-rpm combination. tendency can be observed concerning the selection of
the rudder angle range (see figure 7.5(b3)); drift an-
The number of sway or yaw velocity amplitudes gles for combination with yawing are selected in the
applied during tests of types (b1) and (b2), respec- range |β| < 30 deg, [0 deg;16 deg] being a median
tively, varies between 1 and 20, 4 being a median range (see figure 7.4(b4)).
value. There is only a slight difference between the
distributions for (b1) and (b2), which is remarkable, Common practice concerning execution parame-
as in general sway tests are only performed for de- ters, such as the number of cycles considered for
termining the sway acceleration derivatives, while analysis is given in Table 7.4, which also gives an
yaw tests also provide data on yaw rate dependent indication about the number of cycles skipped in or-
forces and moments. Median ranges for nondimen- der to obtain a steady state. Waiting times between
sional sway and yaw velocities are [0.1 ; 0.35] and tests of types (a) or (b) are comparable.
[0.16 ; 0.58], respectively.
Experimental program: test type (c). An overview
The number of amplitudes applied in a harmonic of the number of ship speeds, propeller loadings, drift
sway (b1) and yaw (b2) test program may vary be- angles and rudder angles applied during rotating arm
tween 1 and 10, 3 being a median value. The median or circular motion tests is given in Table 7.1.
number of frequencies selected for such types of tests
is 2. Non-dimensional yaw rates r’ vary from 0.07 to
1; a median range appears to be [0.2 ; 0.75]. The
The ratio of lateral amplitude yA to tank width W number of yaw rates varies between 2 and 16, 4 being
is in some cases restricted by the technical limitation a median value.
of the driving mechanism, but even if the lateral mo-
tion extends over the full width, yA/W is selected to The maximum drift angle applied during tests of
be not larger than a certain value in order to avoid type (c2) varies between 10 and 20 deg. About 50%
wall effects. As shown in figure 7.6, the sway ampli- of the respondents apply an asymmetric range.
tude typically takes less than 10% of the tank width.
Data acquisition and processing. The member
An important issue concerns the selection of the organisations were requested to answer, which of a
PMM frequency ω, which can be expressed non- list of data were always, sometimes or never meas-
dimensionally in various ways: ured during captive manoeuvring tests. The replies,
reflected in figure 7.8, can be summarised as follows:
ωL • longitudinal and lateral hull force components
ω 1′ = (7.1) and yawing moment are (of course) always meas-
u ured;
L • a majority always measures the position and/or
ω ′2 = ω = ω 1′ Fn (7.2) speed components of the driving mechanism, as
g
well as parameters characterising the control of
ωu the ship model steering and propulsion equipment
ω ′3 = = ω 1′ Fn2 (7.3)
g (rudder angle, propeller rpm), and thrust and tor-
que acting on the propeller(s);
Figure 7.7 and table 7.3 present an overview of • following data are always or sometimes measured
actual practice in selecting ω'1, ω'2, ω'3. For this pur- by a majority of the respondents: rolling moment,
25
forces and moments on rudder(s) and, to some be selected for determining a captive model test.
lower extend, sinkage and trim. • Several techniques may be applied to analyse the
measured data.
Sampling rates vary between 4 and 250 Hz, 20 Hz • The structure of the mathematical manoeuvring
being a median value. model is also of importance for assessing the un-
certainty of test results.
7.4 Captive model test procedures and analysis For these reasons, it is not possible to formulate a
techniques universal uncertainty analysis procedure that can be
applied for any captive model test. Instead, some
Captive model test techniques have been used for examples are given, indicating the importance of the
the last 30 years. During this period, each institution selection of test parameters.
has developed its own methods, mainly based on
semi-empirical considerations. For further details reference is made to the ITTC
Quality Manual.
The ITTC identified a need for guidelines in order
to ensure the quality of test results. The 21st ITTC
Manoeuvring Committee (1996) formulated a "Re-
commended standard PMM test procedure". On be-
half of the ITTC Quality Group, the present Com-
mittee proposed an updated version of this procedure,
entitled “Manoeuvring - Captive Model Test Proce-
dure”, which can be considered as an extension of the
latter in three ways.
In the first place, the considered techniques are
not restricted to PMM testing, but other captive
methods are also discussed. Procedures for rotating
arm tests, however, are still in development.
Figure 7.1. Differential and cumulative distribution
Secondly, an attempt is made to provide quantita- of the length of ship models used for several types of
tive data, unlike the former procedure, which inten- captive model tests.
tionally was given a qualitative character. The quan-
titative data are based on two sources: literature on
captive testing published during the last decades, and
the results of the questionnaire discussed in section
7.3.
Finally, basic ideas for an uncertainty analysis are
formulated. It is clear that in comparison with other
tests, such as resistance tests, such an analysis is far
more complex in the case of captive manoeuvring
tests, for several reasons:
• The number of possible causes of uncertainty is
very large, and substantially depends on the con-
cept and the characteristics of the experimental
facility.
• Several data have to be measured simultaneously
during captive manoeuvring tests.
• According to the kinematics imposed to the ship
model, a large number of test types can be distin-
guished. Figure 7.2. Differential and cumulative distribution
• A rather important number of parameters has to of the ratio of ship model length to tank length for
several types of captive model tests.
26
Figure 7.4. Distributions of limits of drift angle range applied for tests (a3) and (b4).
Figure 7.5. Distributions of limits of rudder angle range applied for tests (a2) and (b3) (legends: see
figure 7.4).
tating arm and oblique towing test data at gained by using four measured parameters (u,
varying speeds which show no significant ef- v, ψ and r) rather than three parameters (u, v,
fect of speed in the speed range tested. There is ψ) plus a value of r calculated from ψ. Table
little difference in yawing moments at signifi- 8.6, which compares identified values of linear
cant yaw rates or in sway forces for any drift coefficients for various input parameters, indi-
angles or yaw rates. However, large differences cates large differences in yaw moment coeffi-
do exist between hull yaw moments due to pure cients.
drift at a ship speed of 5 knots. These results
indicate that important scale effects may exist Figure 8.11 compares yaw moments calcu-
at these low model Reynolds number for yaw lated using these three sets of parameters for a
moment due to pure drift. range of yaw rates for two drift angles (0° and
12°). Also shown on the figure are the extreme
values of all model test data for appended mod-
els. These results indicate that the differences
in yaw moments obtained from trials data using
different SI methods are as large as the scatter
of test data from all model tests. It is therefore
concluded that values of the identified coeffi-
cients have to be validated by simulating ma-
noeuvres other than those used in the identifi-
cation. Furthermore, the choice of suitable
identification parameters has to be validated for
other manoeuvres and other ships.
Table 8.6: Linear coefficients for different
Figure 8.9: Sway force as a function of model identification parameters, Abkowitz (1984)
length (β=12°)
Parameters 4 3 3+
Coefficient u, v, r, ψ u, v, ψ u, v, ψ, ψ
Yv’ -0.0261 -0.0255 -0.0257
Nv’ -0.0141 -0.0061 -0.0145
Yr’ 0.0037 0.0034 0.0036
Nr’ -0.0048 -0.0025 -0.0066
fects on hydrodynamic forces acting on a ma- moments for the ESSO OSAKA for both deep
noeuvring vessel, particularly the lateral forces water and shallow water.
and yawing moments. 23. The available data for the ESSO OSAKA in
11. Clarification is required on the scale ef- its current form is not suitable for use as
fects present in free-running models. benchmark .
12. There is evidence that manoeuvres pre-
dicted using free-running model tests on full 10. RECOMMENDATIONS TO THE
form ships can be subject to significant scale CONFERENCE
effects which are not yet well understood.
13. Research is needed to improve the accu- 1. Adopt the procedure on captive model
racy of practical prediction methods, including tests (ITTC Procedure 4.9-03-04-03)
numerical methods, for squat. 2. Standardised precision limits should be
14. Research has to be conducted to assess provided with both predictions and full scale
the relevance of existing IMO criteria, particu- results. “Good agreement” should be defined
larly overshoot angles, to practical ship ma- based on these precision limits.
noeuvring performance. The development of 3. A systematic validation procedure, such
criteria which best quantify ship manoeuvring as the one outlined in figure 5.4 for simulation
performance should be pursued. models, should be applied and presented with
15. Comparison of trials data for a large the results of simulations.
number of newer ships with the IMO standards
indicated that a large majority of these ships 11. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FU-
met all IMO performance criteria. The criteria TURE WORK
most frequently not met are the overshoot an-
gles in zig-zag manoeuvres and the reach in a 1. Model test procedures should be devel-
crash stop. oped for free-running model tests.
16. Differential Global Positioning System 2. The committee strongly recommends that
measurements of squat provide a new source of the Esso Osaka benchmark data effort be con-
data for validation of squat predictions. tinued in the following five areas:
17. New methods have been proposed and • Reduce the scatter in existing data either
applied to reduce the number of tests required by eliminating suspect data sets, or by
to obtain a complete set of hydrodynamic coef- stimulating new, benchmark quality ex-
ficients. The general applicability of these periments.
methods has to be demonstrated. • Compare propeller and rudder forces and
18. Current practice for captive model tests, propeller-hull-rudder interactions.
and in particular PMM tests, shows a wide • Carry out a systematic series of simula-
spread in the relative size of model and facility. tions using one reference mathematical
19. The choice of parameters used in PMM model (e.g. MMG with fixed propeller and
tests, particularly the frequency of oscillation, rudder forces and interactions) using avail-
often does not follow published guidelines. able sets of hull damping coefficients
(linear and non-linear).
20. Based on proposed guidelines for captive • Compare the results of these systematic
model tests and described uncertainty analysis, simulations with available track data and
the number of sources of uncertainty in captive particularly the full scale trials data.
model tests is significantly greater than typi- • Promote the disclosure of benchmark data
cally considered (i.e. in resistance tests). through the organisation of a workshop
21. The accuracy of test results, in particular 3. Work should be pursued to define the
for PMM tests, depends to a great extent on the critical roll angle values above which 4 DOF
physical mechanism, the choice of test pa- are needed in the simulation.
rameters, and the method of the analysis. 4. Work should be pursued on the modelling
22. Based on the comprehensive collection of of a ship manoeuvring in a non-uniform or
existing and new results, surprisingly large shear current.
differences exist in published hull forces and 5. Trials data for all ship types at fully load-
36
ed condition should be collected to support Bailey, P. A., Price, W.G., Temarel, P., 1997, “A
evaluation of the IMO standards. Unified Mathematical Model Describing
6. The lack of benchmark data for all ma- the Manoeuvring of a Ship Travelling in a
noeuvring problems needs to be addressed by Seaway” Trans. RINA, W6.
conducting suitable (free-running and captive)
benchmark quality tests at model and full scale. Bailey, P. A., Hudson, D.A., Price, W.G.,
Temarel, P., 1998a, « Theoretical and Ex-
perimental Techniques for Predicting
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48
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