J. Coat. Technol. Res.
, 8 (5) 619–628, 2011
DOI 10.1007/s11998-011-9350-1
Influence of pigment on biodeterioration of acrylic paint films
in Southern Brazil
Aecio M. Breitbach, Janaide C. Rocha,
Christine C. Gaylarde
Ó ACA and OCCA 2011
Abstract Biodeterioration of paint films leads to loss
of durability and increased repainting costs. The
influence of pigments on the biodeterioration of
architectural paint films in the city of Florianópolis,
Brazil, was evaluated using ten differently colored
acrylic paint films exposed to the environment for
34 months. Fouling (biofilm formation) on the surfaces
was assessed macroscopically, using British Standard
BS 3900/1989 G6, and microscopically. After
20 months, major colonizers were bacteria and fungi,
with some cyanobacteria and few algae; north-facing
suede and peach and south-facing ice colors showed
100% cover at this time. The least affected color at all
times was blue, with a maximum of 30% cover on
south-facing panels after 34 months. North-facing
panels were generally more fouled than South-facing.
Blue, red, and ceramic colors always performed best.
Resistance to fouling may have been due to copper in
blue and acidity from sulfur oxides in ceramic pig-
ments. Pigments may prolong paint film life and reduce
the need for biocides.
Keywords Biodeterioration, Biofilms, Coatings
performance, Paint pigments, Weathering
A. M. Breitbach, J. C. Rocha
Department Civil Engineering, Federal University of Santa
Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
A. M. Breitbach
e-mail: aeciomb@terra.com.br
C. C. Gaylarde (&)
Microbiology Research Laboratory, School of Pharmacy
and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth,
St. Michael’s Building, White Swan Rd.,
Portsmouth PO1 2DT, UK
e-mail: cgaylarde@googlemail.com
Introduction
The microbial colonization of painted surfaces causes
esthetic problems and can also lead to degradation and
blistering, flaking and spalling of the paint.1 Soiling of
painted surfaces is caused by a number of environ-
mental factors, such as climate, surrounding vegeta-
tion, and irradiation,2 which influence adhesion and
growth of microorganisms (biofilm formation). This
microbial colonization is often the most important
cause of surface discoloration; it is particularly prob-
lematical in tropical climates.2 Resulting loss of dura-
bility necessitates higher frequency of repainting,
causing considerable increases in maintenance costs.
Discoloration is especially notable when dark-pig-
mented filamentous fungi and cyanobacteria colonize
the surface; these organisms have been shown to be the
predominant biomass on soiled painted surfaces in
Latin America.3,4 Water-based paints are more sus-
ceptible to microbial attack than oil-based products5
and over 80% of the paints used in the building
industry are of this type.
Many paint formulations include dry film biocides in
an attempt to control microbial growth. Frequently
used biocides include 2-n-octyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one
(OIT), 3-iodo-2-propylbutyl carbamate (IPBC), and
N-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-N,N-dimethylurea (diuron).
However, leaching of these chemicals from the surface
during periods of rain leads to pollution of soil and
water6 and European regulations on the use of such
compounds are currently under review (Annex VI to
Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008). Methods are being
sought to reduce these adverse environmental effects.
Using a mixture of biocides, each at a relatively low
concentration, is one such method. An alternative is to
control the paint ingredients such that the dry film is
less likely to promote adhesion and growth of micro-
organisms. The bioreceptivity of a surface is deter-
mined by its roughness as well as its chemical
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J. Coat. Technol. Res., 8 (5) 619–628, 2011
composition.7 Some paint components, such as cellu-
loses, are nutrients for microbial cells, while others,
e.g., some metals, are inhibitory.2 Pigments used to
give the coating its color may be inorganic or organic
and the latter may be more likely to act as microbial
nutrients. Impurities in the pigments, such as phos-
phates and potassium salts, may also act as essential
nutrients, increasing paint susceptibility,8,9 while other
components, such as heavy metals, inhibit microbial
growth.
There has been no recently published work on the
effect of pigments on susceptibility of paints to
biodeterioration. Turner9 cites Gardner (1939),
Findlay (1940) and Dooper and Hermann (1948),
who stated that paints containing zinc oxide were
more resistant to fungal growth than those containing
lead white, lithopone, or antimony oxide, and that the
most susceptible white pigments were titanium dioxide
and lead–titanium. However, many of these pigments
are no longer used because of their environmental
toxicity, a similar situation to that occurring with
chromium, which is also biocidal.
Zinc oxide is one of the antimicrobial substances
still used in paint pigments. At a level of 3.4% it
conferred resistance to fungal attack on painted
surfaces in France10 and 2% in oil-based paint showed
fungicidal activity (Meier and Schmidt, 1952, cited in
reference (9)).
Of the organic pigments, Victoria Blue and methyl
violet were shown to be the most susceptible to fungal
growth, probably because of the presence of dextrin
(a nutrient sugar) in the formulation.9 This author
found that Monastral Blue was one of the few blue
pigments that were completely resistant.
A recent literature search revealed no scientific
publications on microbicidal activity of modern pig-
ments and so we decided to undertake this project to
determine the ability of paint pigments to inhibit
biofilm formation on painted surfaces, with the final
aim of reducing the need for dry film biocides.
Florianópolis, in the South of Brazil, is a suitable site
for such testing because of its climatic characteristics,
which encourage the growth of microorganisms. It is a
coastal city with exuberant subtropical flora and fauna.
The meteorological parameters measured during the
exposure period are given in Table 1.
Materials and methods
Paint formulation
A basic acrylic matt paint, of the type typically used for
external surfaces in Brazil, was produced (Table 2).
Solid content was 48.6% and performance, for a
50–60 lm dry film, was 12.50 m2/L. Ten predispersed
pigments (Colanyl) were donated by Clariant, Sao
Paulo, Brazil. They were presented dispersed in a
binder-free, aqueous solution containing wetting and
dispersing agents. Pigments were mixed into the basic
620
paint to achieve the required colors, as shown in
Tables 3 and 4. The colors chosen are those most
common on the Brazilian market. Acticide HF (an
isothiazolinone/formaldehyde based, broad spectrum
biocide) was used as the in-can preservative in all
paints and 2% Acticide EPW (a mixture of carbenda-
zim, octyl isothiazolone, and diuron) was added to a
portion of the paint to inhibit fungal and algal growth
on the dry film, acting as a control.
Paint and pigment analysis
The pigments supplied by Clariant were applied, each
as a single layer, on Whatman 40 8 lm filter paper and
inorganic components analyzed by EDS and X-ray
fluorescence spectrometry (Shimadzu model EDX-
700). The same analysis was carried out on the paints.
Pigment volume content (PVC%) of the colored paints
was calculated as follows:
VP  100
PVC% ¼
VP þ VR
where VP = total pigment volume and VR = volume
of resin.
Test panels
Fiber cement board (BrasiPlac, Brasilit) was cut into
panels 30 cm x 10 cm x 6 mm. A hole was drilled at
each end for the fixing screws and the sunken heads of
these zinc screws were sealed with a mixture of
powdered fiber cement and acrylic plaster. After
7 days for drying, panels were painted with a white
acrylic sealant, left to dry for a further 7 days in the
horizontal position in a dust-free environment, as
recommended by Brazilian standard NBR
13006/1993, and then roller-painted with one coat of
the requisite pigmented paints to give a dry film
thickness of 50–60 lm. For each color, six panels were
painted without dry film biocide and two with biocide,
the latter intended as controls. After a further 7 days
for drying, the panels were fixed to wooden racks,
using PVC tubes to protect the metal screws and
distance the panels from the wooden slats of the rack,
thus avoiding interactions between the wood and the
painted panels.
Exposure regime
Duplicate racks were prepared, each bearing 40 vertical
panels in 10 rows (Fig. 1). Each row held three non-
biocide and one biocide-containing panel of a given
color. The racks were placed on the roof of the Civil
Engineering building of the University of Santa Catarina,
in Florianópolis, on the Island of Santa Catarina,
 Table 1: Meteorological data for the period of the test
Month/2006 Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Average

Ave temperature – 33.0 18.0 36.0 16.0 31.0 14.0 27.0 10.0 28.0 9.0 29.0 5.0 29.0 5.0 33.0 4.0 32.0 14.0 30.0 22.0 33.0 18.0 31.0 12.3
(max min)°C
Rainfall/month – 36.0 70.0 70.0 50.0 40.0 45.0 60.0 45.0 90.0 240.0 80.0 75.09
(mm)
Insolation – 164.5 209.5 213.5 197.5 148.5 180.5 172.5 166.5 164.5 144.5 203.5 178.68
(h/month)
Month/2007 Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Average

Ave temperature 31.0 17.0 34.0 17.0 33.0 17.0 33.0 15.0 33.0 5.0 30.0 6.0 31.0 3.0 29.0 4.0 26.0 11.0 32.0 15.0 32.0 13.0 34.0 16.0 31.5 11.1
(max min)°C
Rainfall/month 90 140 210 40 140 10 175 90 140 150 100 140 118.75
(mm)
Insolation 201.0 177.5 224.0 186.5 120.0 154.0 142.5 97.5 165.0 149.1 189.0 195.3 166.79
(h/month)

Month/2008 Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Average

Ave temperature 33.0 17.0 33.0 17.0 32.0 16.0 32.0 10.0 33.0 5.0 30.0 4.0 30.0 9.0 28.0 8.0 31.0 9.0 30.0 14.0 30.0 13.0 31.0 15.0 30.9 10.9
(max min)°C
Rainfall/month 350 420 250 210 80 80 10 70 250 290 610 290 242.50
(mm)
Insolation 175.0 193.5 171.1 173.0 232.5 161.5 218.6 138.5 152.0 80.5 104.0 215.2 167.95
(h/month)
J. Coat. Technol. Res., 8 (5) 619–628, 2011

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J. Coat. Technol. Res., 8 (5) 619–628, 2011

Azoyl-b naphthol
Table 2: Components of the basic paint
Concn (%w/w) Material Weight (kg)

GG

5.50–8.00
42.50 Water 0.594
0.36 Hydroxyethylcellulose 0.006

1.33
Red

50
0.14 Ammonia 0.002
0.36 Disaspers-T Conc 0.005
0.18 Disafoam 969-T 0.002

Copper phthalocyanin
0.26 Acticide HF—THOR 0.004
8.08 Titanium dioxide 0.113
12.14 Calcium carbonate ppt 0.170

3GLS
13.20 Calcite #400 0.185

5.50–8.00
3.60 Micronized talc 0.050

Green
7.24 Micronized Caulim 0.101

1.47
10.33 Acrylic resin 0.144

50
0.46 Propylene glycol 0.006
0.83 White spirit 0.012

Lamp black
0.32 Gapcoat MGK 0.004

5.50–8.00
100.00 Total 1.398

PRQ

Black

1.27

35
South Brazil, with one rack with panels facing north and
the other south. Although it is more usual to incline

Titanium dioxide
panels for biodeterioration testing at 45°,2 we used
vertical panels to better mimic the façades of buildings.

8.00–10.00
TQ
This strategy was also adopted by Stanley Buckman,
who investigated phenylmercury compounds for the

White

1.80

N/D
reduction of paint film biodeterioration in the 1940s and
1950s,11 and by Springle et al.12 at the Paint Research
Association in the UK. Temperature at the exposed

Codes are those given by the pigment producer (Clariant). N/D = not determined
Copper phthalocyanin
surface of each panel was measured between 11:00 am
and noon, 245 days after initial placement (i.e., in
October) to check possible differences between north
and south faces. Ambient temperature and relative
SH

humidity (RH) at the time were 25.7°C and 66%. 5.50–8.00

Surface temperatures were measured by infrared pho-
tography using a ThermaCAM E2 camera, which shows
Blue

1.26
Table 3: Characteristics of pigments used in the paints

50

temperature variation as different colors.

Environmental conditions (daily rainfall, total inso-
lation, RH at midday and minimum and maximum
6.00–9.00
Iron oxide

temperatures) during the whole experiment were

R BR

Yellow

collected at the meteorological station of the Ministry

1.87

of Agriculture in Florianópolis airport, 8 km distant

70

from the exposure site (see Table 1). Maximum tem-

peratures were between 25 and 35°C, and nocturnal
Azoylaryl amidine

minima 3–23°C. During the 3 years of the research,

insolation was an annual average of 2,000 h, but there
MG BR

was considerable monthly variation. Rainfall increased

over the 3 years from 916 mm in 2006, to 1,425 mm in
Yellow

2007 and to 2,910 mm in 2008 (Table 1).

1.24
N/D

Immediately after positioning of the panels, samples

40

were taken from the surrounding parapet wall with

moistened sterile cotton wool swabs and Thor Brasil
Chemical nature

Ltda, São Paulo, used standard microbiological culture

Density (g/cm3)

and microscope techniques in an attempt to detect the

Pigment %

microorganisms that were present at the site. These

methods involved spreading the samples over the
Code

Color

surface of artificial solid media suitable for the growth

pH

of microorganisms and incubating until visible growth

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 J. Coat. Technol. Res., 8 (5) 619–628, 2011

Table 4: Quantities in mg of pigments added to the biodeterioration is well accepted, but gives only
basic paint approximate degree of cover of the painted surface
by the biofilm (fouling). The same two investigators
Paint color/ MG BR R BR SH TQ PRQ 3GLS GG graded the panels every time, adapting the British
weight of basic Standard Method to note percentage cover as 5, 10, 20,
paint (mg) 40, 60, 80, or 100%. These values were averaged for
each set of three panels. Since readings are not, by
Blue/395 0 0 4 0 1.5 0 0
their nature, precise, fractional means were converted
Marble/500 0 5 0 0 0 0 0
to the nearest whole figure.
Peach/420 0 5 0 0 0 0 1
One of each color test of south-facing panels was
Ceramic/400 0 7 0 0 2 0 10
sent to the University of Portsmouth after 20 months
Ice/420 0 0.4 0 0 2 0 10
of exposure and the biofilm studied under an inverted
Red/300 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
metallurgical microscope, by environmental scanning
Green/440 0 10 0 0 7 12 2
electron microscopy (ESEM; JOEL JSM-6060, 25 kV),
Yellow/500 2.5 10 0 0 0 0 0
without prior treatment, and by direct light microscopy
Straw/450 0 2 0 0 1 0 0
examination and culture on MKM medium of adhesive
Suede/480 0 12 0 0 3 0 2
tape samples.4 Only one set of panels was used so as to
Codes as for Table 3 retain as many samples as possible for final evaluation
of soiling.

1. SUEDE

2. RED
3. STRAW
4. YELLOW
5. GREEN
6. ICE
7. CERAMIC
8. MARBLE
9. BLUE
10. PEACH
Fig. 1: South-facing rack showing 10 rows, each contain-
ing four panels painted in a similar color
occurred. Slides were prepared from this growth and
examined under an optical microscope. In the case of
filamentous fungi, cellular structures were compared
with those of known species. In the case of bacteria, no
further tests were carried out.
Evaluation of biodeterioration
At intervals up to 34 months (see ‘‘Results’’ section),
panels were examined macroscopically and the degree
of biofilm formation assessed according to British
Standard BS 3900/1989 G6, in which the percentage of
cover of the panel by soiling (biofilm growth) is
assessed by the naked eye. Digital photos were taken
each month. The grading system used to assess
Results
Biodeterioration testing
Thor Brasil Ltda, São Paulo, using standard microbio-
logical culture and microscope techniques, identified
only the fungus Aspergillus and Gram positive bacilli,
typical air contaminants, in the samples taken from the
parapet surrounding the exposure site. As macroscopic
observation of red staining suggested that the alga
Trentepohlia was certainly present, we assume that the
standard media used by Thor were not suitable for the
growth of all microorganisms, and especially not for
algae. Those reported (bacteria and a filamentous fun-
gus) are fast-growing organisms that are readily detected.
Since this information was not important for the inter-
pretation of our results, no further tests were done.
Results of the macroscopic analysis of surface soiling
are shown in Table 5. Test panels (without film
biocide) began to show discoloration after the ninth
month, when temperatures began to rise again after the
winter (Table 1). Control, biocide-containing panels
remained unattacked. There was no correlation
between temperature at the surface of the panels,
measured after 245 days, and the degree of surface
soiling (Table 6).
Examples of disfigured yellow-painted panels are
shown in Fig. 2. It is obvious that the degree of cover
by biofilm increased with time. Microorganisms de-
tected on the painted surfaces after 20 months of
exposure to the south are shown in Table 7 and Figs. 3
and 4. Many of the microorganisms detected were
darkly colored because of the presence of intracellular
pigments,13,14 increasing the apparent soiling of the
paint surface. Fungi were detected on all samples,
confirming the results of Gaylarde and Gaylarde,15 that
fungi are the major biomass on painted surfaces in Latin
America. The same authors state that cyanobacterial

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J. Coat. Technol. Res., 8 (5) 619–628, 2011

Table 5: Mean biodeterioration scores (% cover) for various colored paints exposed to the north (N) or south (S) in
Florianópolis, Brazil, for up to 34 months
Color 12 months/N 20 months/N 34 months/N 12 months/S 20 months/S 34 months/S

Ceramic 10.00 60.00 60.00 13.00 30.00 60.00

Red 7.00 53.00 53.00 7.00 20.00 40.00
Ice 13.00 73.00 73.00 20.00 100.00 100.00
Suede 20.00 100.00 100.00 40.00 60.00 80.00
Marble 23.00 80.00 80.00 47.00 80.00 80.00
Yellow 40.00 93.00 93.00 60.00 70.00 80.00
Blue 17.00 18.00 17.00 0 20.00 30.00
Straw 40.00 93.00 100.00 60.00 80.00 80.00
Green 17.00 73.00 73.00 13.00 70.00 70.00
Peach 40.00 100.00 100.00 33.00 50.00 80.00

Table 6: Temperature at surface of painted panels and biodeterioration (soiling) rating

South facing North facing
Color Temperature Biodeterioration score Color Temperature Biodeterioration rating

Ice 25.95 20.00 Ceramic 28.80 10.00

Red 26.55 6.67 Red 29.15 6.67
Ceramic 26.60 13.33 Ice 29.55 13.33
Suede 26.95 40.00 Suede 30.10 20.00
Blue 27.35 0.00 Marble 30.55 23.33
Straw 27.65 60.00 Yellow 30.85 40.00
Peach 27.75 33.33 Blue 31.10 16.67
Yellow 27.85 60.00 Straw 31.20 40.00
Marble 27.90 46.67 Green 31.40 16.67
Green 28.70 13.33 Peach 31.90 40.00
Data are arranged in order of increasing temperature. It is obvious that the degree of soiling does not follow this order

genera are mainly the coccoid types and this was also and 2% or less in all others. Highest among the minor
confirmed by our results. oxides was CuO in the blue paint, at almost 0.4%.

Paint and pigment analysis

The pigment volume content (PVC%) varied between
53% and 73% for the variously colored paints, suede
being the highest and ice the lowest. The blue coating
showed the second lowest value, at 54%. Other PVC%
values were as follows: marble, peach and yellow 62,
ceramic 65, red 67, green 69, and straw 58.
The results of the spectrophotometric analysis of
oxides in the pigments are shown in Table 8.
When these pastes were diluted into the basic paint
formulation, the major paint oxides (mainly present as
fillers and extenders) measured by X-ray fluorescence
spectrometry were SiO2, CaO, TiO2, Fe2O3, and
Al2O3, the latter comprising 57.6% oxides in marble
paint, 50% in red paint and not detected in the rest.
Iron oxide, which could act as an essential element for
microorganisms at low concentrations, but be inhibi-
tory at high levels, was present at 8.1% in green paint
Discussion
It is immediately obvious from Table 5 that north-
facing panels were generally more highly fouled than
south-facing, although exceptions occurred in the cases
of ice and blue colored paints. Increasing fouling of the
north-facing yellow paint film over approximately
2 years is seen in Fig. 2. It has been stated that, in the
southern hemisphere, south-facing surfaces develop
biofilms more rapidly than north-facing.16 However,
this latter study was carried out in São Paulo, where
conditions are considerably different from those in
Florianópolis.17 São Paulo is placed at a higher altitude,
far from the sea, and has considerable air pollution
from burning of fossil fuels. Wind direction would
influence the deposition of air pollutants and microor-
ganisms on differently facing surfaces. Orientation
(north or south) did not affect the degree of fungal
biodeterioration of painted panels exposed in Belem, in

624

Fig. 2: Yellow north-facing panels at beginning (a), 14 months (b), and 24 months (c) of exposure
the north of Brazil, where the climate is tropical,18
suggesting that high temperature and humidity are
more important than orientation for microbial coloni-
zation. Temperatures measured at the surface of the
paint films in Florianópolis varied from 28.8 to 31.9°C
for north-facing and from 25.95 to 28.7°C for south-
facing panels; warmer north-facing surfaces would
promote microbial growth without being so hot as to
J. Coat. Technol. Res., 8 (5) 619–628, 2011
decrease time of wetness, an important factor in
biodeterioration (see, for example, reference 19).
The aim of this project was to determine the paint
pigments most resistant to fouling and the results are
quite clear in this respect. Blue was obviously the most
resistant color, with a total score of 102 out of a
possible 600, compared to the following colors: red at
180 and ceramic at 233.
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J. Coat. Technol. Res., 8 (5) 619–628, 2011

Table 7: Microorganisms detected by direct microscopy and culture on the south-facing painted surfaces after
20 months’ exposure
Color Bacteria Cyanobacteria Fungi Algae

Ceramic +  + 
Red +  +, including dark-pigmented 
Ice +++ + green coccoid, +++ including dark-pigmented 
including Gloeocapsa
Suede ++ + green coccoid ++ 
Marble +++ including + green coccoid ++ including dark-pigmented (+) coccoid
actinomycetes
Yellow ++ + including brown coccoid ++ 
Blue   (+) 
Straw ++ including + including brown coccoid ++ including Fusarium 
actinomycetes
Green ++  ++ (+) coccoid
Peach ++ +++ coccoid, including green, red, +++ including dark-pigmented 
brown Gloeocapsa, green, brown,
blue Synechocystis, brown filamentous
Scytonema
(+), +, ++, +++ = increasing numbers detected
 = not detected

Fig. 4: ESEM showing penetration of fungal filaments

Fig. 3: ESEM showing fungi (thick arrow) and a cyanobac- (penetration points arrowed) through the ice-colored paint
terial colony (thin arrow) on yellow-painted surface after film after 20 months’ exposure
20 months’ exposure

of only few fungi after 20 months. Apart from these 3

The biodeterioration scores are confirmed by the
microbiological data after 20 months (Table 7). Only a
very few fungi were seen on the blue-painted surface,
and fungi and bacteria on the red. In the latter,
however, some of the fungi detected belonged to the
dark-pigmented mitosporic group, which exert a great-
er esthetic effect on the surface. Bacteria generally do
not form visible biofilms unless they are pigmented or
slime producers; this was not the case in any of our
samples and so the bacteria would have affected the
surfaces only by acting as nutrients for disfiguring
organisms. The ceramic paint also showed the presence
colors, all other surfaces revealed the presence of fungi
and phototrophs (algae and, mainly, cyanobacteria).
All phototrophs are, by their nature, pigmented and
confer a dirty appearance on their substrate. A
scanning electron micrograph of a biofilm containing
fungi and coccoid cyanobacteria is shown in Fig. 3.
Filamentous organisms may also penetrate through the
paint film, damaging it and allowing entry of moisture,
and fungal filaments with this activity are shown in
Fig. 4.
After ceramic, the paler color marble was the next
least fouled, and straw the most contaminated,

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 J. Coat. Technol. Res., 8 (5) 619–628, 2011

Table 8: Oxides in the pigment pastes, as a percent of total oxides, analysed by X-ray fluorescence spectropho-
tometry
Oxide Paint pigment
Blue MG BR Yellow R BR Yellow SH White TQ Black PRQ Green 3GLS Red GG

CuO 68.731 ND 0.116 ND 0.125 4.553 0.026

SO3 30.101 1.688 1.121 ND 96.556 3.037 2.568
CaO 0.456 10.326 51.821 ND 0.653 0.024 0.285
Fe2O3 0.252 82.860 0.722 ND 1.093 0.047 0.127
MnO 0.169 ND 0.125 ND 0.129 ND ND
Cr2O3 0.167 0.056 ND ND ND ND ND
CO2O3 0.124 ND ND ND 0.270 ND 0.032
P2O5 ND 4.042 ND ND ND ND ND
TiO2 ND 1.028 45.766 99.43 0.444 ND ND
ZnO ND ND 0.193 0.357 0.123 ND 0.040
K2O ND ND 0.136 0.122 0.607 ND ND
NbO ND ND ND 0.067 ND ND ND
NiO ND ND ND 0.024 ND 0.010 ND
Cl ND ND ND ND ND 92.093 96.922
Br ND ND ND ND ND 0.236 ND
ND = not detected

One factor that could be involved in paint suscep-

Fig. 5: Apartment building on the Island of Santa Catarina,
Brazil, showing south-facing painted walls disfigured by
algal and fungal growth. The blue strip in the middle of the
white-painted wall has inhibited biofilm formation
suggesting that other factors than simple reflection of
sunlight, demonstrated by Castro et al.20 to be greater
for paler colors, are important in determining resis-
tance to biodeterioration. Indeed, there was no corre-
lation between temperature at the surface of the panel,
paint color, and fouling (Table 6), confirming the
involvement of other parameters.
tibility is PVC%. The higher the PVC% value, the
lower the proportion of resin and the higher the
amount of pigment in the paint. There is a complex
relationship between PVC% and susceptibility to
fouling. Reduced PVC% can be associated with higher
water absorption which would lead to increased
susceptibility.16 However, reduced PVC% also
increases permeability of the film to water vapor which
would allow more rapid drying after rain and reduce
susceptibility.
In our samples, PVC% varied from 52% to 73% and
there was no obvious correlation between these values
and paint biodeterioration. Shirakawa et al.18 also
reported the relative unimportance of PVC%
(30–50%) in fungal biofilm formation on a white paint,
pointing out that climate exerted a much greater effect.
In the absence of other factors controlling suscep-
tibility to fouling, it is apparent that pigment, the only
other variable, must have had a major influence on the
results. The superior performance of blue paint is
probably due to its content of copper, a known biocide.
This is present at a level of almost 0.4% in blue paint,
much higher than in other colors. The increased
resistance of blue pigment was unexpectedly confirmed
some months after the end of the experiment by the
observation of a painted building on the Island of
Santa Catarina, a few kilometers from the capital city
of Florianópolis (Fig. 5). The heavy algal colonization
(pink/brown coloration) seen on the south-facing white
walls was completely absent from the blue-painted
strip in the center.
In the case of the second most resistant color, red, it
is difficult to consider any heavy metal oxide as
responsible for the effect. The resistance of red paint
could be brought about by an interaction between high

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J. Coat. Technol. Res., 8 (5) 619–628, 2011
Cl levels and increased PVC% (red was the paint with
the highest pigment content of 16.1% w/v giving a
PVC% of 67). Ceramic paint, which showed the third
best performance, could have been influenced by its
content of SO3, which can lead to acid conditions on
the paint surface, inhibiting growth of some microor-
ganisms, notably cyanobacteria.
In conclusion, these results demonstrate that pig-
ments affect the timespan of fouling development on
the surfaces of painted buildings. A suitable selection
of paint color could reduce the need for dry film
biocides, with their accompanying adverse environ-
mental effects. The possible environmental problems
associated with leaching of the pigments themselves
are, of course, another factor that should be consid-
ered, especially where color depends on the presence
of potentially damaging compounds. Nevertheless, the
option of avoiding, or at least reducing the levels of
biocides in the paints is attractive, especially in view of
the new regulations being introduced in Europe.
Conclusions
1. After 20 months of exposure to the sub-tropical
environment of Florianópolis, Brazil, sealed fiber
cement panels painted with 10 differently pig-
mented acrylic paints became colonized mainly by
bacteria and fungi, with some cyanobacteria and
few algae.
2. The least affected color at all times was blue, which
showed a maximum of 30% soiling on south-facing
panels after 34 months.
3. North-facing panels were generally more fouled
than south-facing.
4. Blue, red, and ceramic colors always performed
best.
5. Resistance to fouling may have been due to copper
in blue and acidity from sulfur oxides in ceramic
pigments.
6. A suitable choice of pigments may prolong paint
film life and reduce the need for biocides.
Acknowledgments We wish to thank Clariant, São
Paulo, Brazil, for providing the pigments. Biocides
were kindly provided by Thor Brasil Ltda, São Paulo.
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