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ISSN printed: 1806-2563
ISSN on-line: 1807-8664
Doi: 10.4025/actascitechnol.v39i1.28957
ABSTRACT. Electrical energy, solar energy, and/or direct combustion of a fuel are the most common
thermal sources for home water heating. In recent years, the use of solar energy has become popular
because it is a renewable and economic energy source. Among the solar collectors, those assisted by
thermosyphons are more efficient; therefore, they can enhance the heat transfer to water. A thermosyphon
is basically a sealed tube filled with a working fluid and, normally, it has three regions: the evaporator, the
adiabatic section and the condenser. The great advantage of this device is that the thermal resistance to heat
transfer between its regions is very small, and as a result, there is a small temperature difference. This
article aims to model a thermosyphon by using correlations based on its operation limits. This modeling
will be used as a design tool for compact solar collectors assisted by thermosyphons. Based on the results
obtained with the mathematical modeling, one copper thermosyphon, with deionized water as the working
fluid, was developed and experimentally tested. The tests were carried out for a heat load varying from 30
to 60W in a vertical position. The theoretical and experimental results were compared to verify the
mathematical model.
Keywords: solar collector, thermosyphons, operation limit, experiment.
for heating water in the interest of domestic use According to this review, the development
with different configurations (Hussein, Mohamad, process of thermosyphons and heat pipes for solar
& El-Asfouri, 1999a, 1999b; Ismail & Abogderah, collectors is not presented. In other words, for this
1998; Oliveti & Arcuri, 1996). specific application, the manufacturing process as
The solar collectors tested by Oliveti and Arcuri well as the necessary experimental tests for
(1996) and Hussein et al. (1999a, 1999b) were qualifying these kinds of devices are not shown.
assisted by thermosyphons with water as the Thus, this paper aims to present the steps to develop
working fluid. On the other hand, Ismail and thermosyphons for application in solar collectors.
Abogderah (1998) used heat pipes with methanol as
the working fluid in the solar collectors. Abreu and Material and methods
Colle (2004) presented a different configuration of Operation limit model for thermosyphons
the settings above. While the other researchers used
straight tube thermosyphons, Abreu and Colle The mathematical model presented here consists of
(2004) developed a condenser with curved geometry determining the operational limits for thermosyphons.
to allow a better coupling between the condenser These limits are entrainment, sonic, viscous, drying,
region and the heat sink. and boiling. For each one of them, specific correlations
Azad (2008) accomplished a theoretical and will be used for their evaluations.
experimental study on the thermal performance of One thermosyphon is schematically represented
thermosyphon solar collectors. He worked on a in Figure 1, which is composed of three regions: the
copper collector with six thermosyphons with an evaporator section (where the heat load is supplied),
external diameter of 12.7 mm and a length of 1,850 the adiabatic section, and the condenser section
mm. The tests were performed outdoor in Tehran (where the heat is removed). The thermosyphon
(Iran) and the thermal efficiency was based on works in the following way: first, heat is supplied in
ASHRAE 93-1986 method. the evaporator section causing the vaporization of
Chien et al. (2011) also made a theoretical and the inner working fluid; second, due to the pressure
experimental study regarding a solar collector difference, the generated vapour flows to the
assisted by thermosyphons. They used the method thermosyphon cooled region (condenser section)
of equivalent thermal resistances for the theoretical where heat is rejected by the cold source (water or
study, and for the experiment, they tested the solar air flow passing outside the tubes) and the vapour
collectors under different inclination angles and heat condenses inside; third, the condensate fluid returns
loads. to the evaporator by gravity, completing the cycle.
Azad (2012) manufactured three heat pipe solar
collectors with tubes of different shapes and with a
total length ranging from 1.55 to 1.90 m. All heat
pipes used a stainless steel wire mesh of 100 and
ethanol as the working fluid. The solar collectors
were tested outdoor in Tehran (Iran).
Du, Hu, and Kolhe (2013) manufactured a solar
collector assisted by twenty heat pipes and tested it
outdoors in Nanjing (China). Each heat pipe had an
evaporator outer diameter of 8 mm and length of
1,660 mm, and a condenser outer diameter of 14
mm and length of 83 mm. The heat pipes were
inserted into a borosilicate glass tube with a diameter
of 70 mm and a length of 1,730 mm. In the annular
space between the glass tube and an evacuation
process, up to 0.05 Pa was accomplished (absolute
pressure).
Deng et al. (2013) constructed and tested a solar Figure 1. Schematic representation of a typical thermosyphon.
collector assisted by an array of micro heat pipes
made of aluminum. The heat pipes used acetone as Since the thermosyphon is assisted by gravity,
the working fluid and the capillary structure was the condenser region must be located above the
composed by grooves with hydraulic diameter evaporator region at a minimal tilt angle. The
varying between 0.4 and 1.0 mm. adiabatic region is located between the evaporator
Acta Scientiarum. Technology Maringá, v. 39, n. 1, p. 59-68, Jan.-Mar., 2017
Modeling and experimental tests of thermosyphon 61
and the condenser (it has variable size or may not where,
exist in some cases). pv is the vapor pressure.
For Kp ≤ 4.104, f2 = Kp – 0.17 and for Kp > 4.104, f2
Operation limit model = 0.165.
The limit model was implemented and The parameter f3 is a factor which corrects the
simulated using the software EESTM (Engineering Eq. (1) for the thermosyphon inclination and it is
Equation SolverTM). also a function of the Bond number. According to
Mantelli (2013) for vertical position, f = 1.
Entrainment limit 3
fluxes.
f It occu
urs at the transiition between the boiling lost axially th
hrough the tubbe wall, Equattion (10); and
processes
p of pool
p boiling aand evaporatio on in film,
Qisol is thee heat transf
fer rate lost through the
when
w the heatt flux is criticall. As a result, bubbles
b are insulation, Equation
E (11).
formed
f and addhered to thiss film, causingg insulation
of the inner pipe wall. Since the vapo or thermal
Q evap = IV (9)
conductivity isi low, the waall temperaturre increases
and it may reaach, in extremee cases, the meelting point
of the metal material.
m An exxpression is proposed
p in T −T
Peterson (19994), Equation n (7), to esttimate the Q wall = kCu Aw eo co (10)
leff
maximum heaat transfer rate for the boilingg limit:
1 hlv Ae ρv2 ( ρl − ρv ) g σ
Q max,boiling = 0.12
1/ 4
(7) Q isol = Aisoll hisol ,o (Tisol ,o − Tenv ) (11)
where,
w where,
Ae is the evvaporator area. I is the electric
e currentt, V is the voltaage, kCu is the
copper therrmal conductiivity, Aw is th he wall cross
Heat Transfer Analysis
A area, Teo is the ou uter evaporaator average
This sectio on presents th he heat transffer analysis temperaturee, Tco is the outer condenser average
based
b on the co
orrelations usin
ng the experimeental data as
temperaturee, Aisol is the in
nsulation area, hisol ,o is the
input.
outer insulaation average heat transferr coefficient,
Calculation of th
he heat transferrred to the thermosyphon
Tisol ,o is thee outer insulaation average temperature,
In order too calculate thee heat transfer rate that is and Tenv is the
t environmeent average tem
mperature.
transferred
t to the thermosyyphon, a contrrol volume
is established according
a to F
Figure 2. Accordin
ng to Bergmaan, Lavine, In ncropera and
DeWitt (20012) the heaat transfer co oefficient by
natural connvection at outer insulattion can be
estimated byy the Equation
ns (12) and (133), Churchill
Control Volume
hisool ,o disol ,o
Nu D = (12)
kair
2
a1D/ 6
0.387 Ra
Nu D = 0.60
0+ 8 / 27 (13)
0.559 9 / 16
1 +
Pr
where,
Figure
F 2. Energy balance in evaporrator section. Nu D iss the average Nusselt
N numbeer, disol,o is the
outer insulaation diameteer, kair is the air thermal
Applying an energy b balance in th
he control
a ( Tisol ,o − Tenv ) d isol ,o
3
volume
v of Figure
F 2, thee Equation (88) can be g β air
Ra D =
obtained: conductivityy, α airν air is the
umber, and Pr is the Prandtl number.
Rayleigh nu
′ = Q evap − Q isol − Q wall
Q evap (8)
Mass transferr rate of internal flow
where,
w The calcculation of thee thermosyph hon’s internal
Q evap is th
he heat transffer rate suppllied to the mass transfeer rate, m
i , can
n be estimated
d by Equation
evaporator byy the heat systtem (skin heaater/electric (14), neglectting the sensib
ble heat variatiion along the
resistor), Equaation (9); Q walll is the heat trransfer rate evaporator region.
r
Acta
A Scientiarum
m. Technology Maringá, v. 39,, n. 1, p. 59-68, JJan.-Mar., 2017
Modelin
ng and experime
ental tests of thermosyphon 63
′ ( R2 + R3 + R4 )
Top = Teo − Qevap (22)
Figure 3.
3 Equivalent therm
mal circuit. In
n order to esttimate the internal heat trransfer
coeffficient into thee condenser aarea, the condensate
where, thermmal resistance, Rcond, can be used. This th
hermal
ng temperature, Teo is the outer
Top is the operatin resisttance is given by
b Equation (223).
evaporaator average teemperature, Tisol is the outer
1
insulatiion average teemperature, R2 is the therrmal Rcondd =
resistan
nce associated d to the wall w conducttion, ( hicond
,1 Aicond ) (23)
con
nd hi,cond
2 di
RT
Top 2
(
2π RTop )
1/ 2 Nu i = (25)
R4 =
o
(19) kl
hlv2 pv Ae
( )
cond 0.25
Nu i = 25 Reicondd Prl0.4 (26)
where,
do iss outer diametter, F is fillingg ratio (defined as
the ratiio between the volume of working
w fluid and 4Q evap
′
volumee of the evaporator), R is the universal gas Reiconnd = (27)
π di hlv μl
constannt, ϕ and Ψ are given by
Acta Scientiarum. Techn
nology Maring
gá, v. 39, n. 1, p. 59-68, Jan.-Marr., 2017
64 Santos et al.
where,
w The therrmosyphon waas tested at verrtical position
is th
cond
Nu i he condenser inner averagge Nusselt and a digitaal anemometerr was used to measure the
number, hi,2 d is condensser inner aveerage heat
cond air velocitty (approxim mately 5.6 ms-1). The
temperaturees along thee thermosyph hon’s outer
transfer
t coeffficient obtain ned by the Kaminaga
surface weree measured ussing 11 thermo ocouples (T-
correlation, Re
R icond is the con
ndenser innerr Reynolds
type): 4 th hermocouples at the evapo orator (Tevap1,
number and Pr
P l is the liquid
d Prandtl numb
ber. Tevap2, Tevap33, and Tevap4),, 4 thermoco ouples at the
condenser (T ( cond1, Tcond2, Tcond3, and Tcond4) and 3
Experiment
thermocoup ples at the therrmal insulation
n (Tisol1, Tisol2,
The meethodology to manufaccture the and Tisol3), as shown in Figgure 7.
thermosyphon
t n was based on Santos, Krambeck,
Santos, and Antonini
A (20114). The therrmosyphon
was
w produced by copper tub be with an outeer diameter
of 12.7 mm, a wall thickneess of 1 mm, and a total
length of 5000 mm (Figuree 4). The lenggths of the
evaporator annd condenser are 150 and 350 mm,
respectively. There is no adiabatic reegion. The
thermosyphon
t n was filled wiith 45.38 ml off deionized
water.
w
Figure
F 4. Thermosyphon made off cooper. Figure 7. Th
hermocouples possitions on the o
outer surface of
thermosyphon and insulation.
Figure 5 shhows the test rrig which is co
omposed by
a copper therm mosyphon, a p power supply (AgilentTM The exp perimental uncertainties weere estimated
U8002A), a data acquisittion system (AgilentTM using the ISO-GUM method m and taking into
34970A
3 with 202 channels), a computer (In ntel CoreTM account thee data acquissition and po ower supply
i5 3.30Ghz), ana airflow fan (WMR P/N TM
N2123XST) uncertaintiees. Thus, thee temperature uncertainty
and a digital an
nemometer (M MinipaTM MDA A-20). was estimateed as ± 0.8oC and the uncerrtainty of the
heat load applied to the evvaporator was ± 0.53W.
(a)
o
Tisol,o [ C]
o o
Teo [ C] Tenv [ C]
o
Q evap
[W] Tco [ C]
30 59.3 39.1 27.3 18.5
40 70.3 45.5 28.4 18.3
50 82.1 52.4 31.3 18.3
60 93.8 58.7 33.3 18.3
Properties of air, water, copper, and insulation
-1
α air = 2.1 × 10 −5 [m2 s-1] ν air = 1.5 × 10 −5 [m2 s-1] c = 1.0 [kJ kg . K]
p,air Prair = 0.73 kair = 0.025 [W m-1.K]
Q [W] [W]
Q [W]
Q
Q' [W] -1
i × 10 5 [kg s ]
m
evap wall isol evap
[W]
Q hCond
i,1 [W / m2K] hCond 2
i,2 [W/ m K]
evap
30 1.52×104 3.09×104
40 1.46×104 3.29×104
50 1.43×104 3.44×104
60 1.41×104 3.56×104
From the two correlations presented before and Eq. (22), regarding the heat load applied to the
the experimental data obtained through the heat evaporator.
transfer analysis, it is possible to estimate the Table 4 presents the maximum heat transfer
cond
coefficients in this section. hi,1 is calculated using rates for each operating limit taking into account
Groll and Rosler correlation, Equation (24), and the real operating temperature.
hi,cond
2 using Kaminaga correlation, Equation (26). From Table 4, it is possible to observe that the
cond cond heat transfer rate obtained for the viscous limit is
Note that hi,1 is 10 times greater than hi,2 . Thus, much higher than the other limits for the all heat
cond
the value of hi,2 is more conservative. However, loads. It is also observed that for all heat loads
the development of a more sophisticated experiment applied to the evaporator, the maximum heat
is necessary in order to measure the inner heat transfer rates obtained for the entrainment limit
transfer coefficient of the condenser region. are the lowest one, varying from 1,005 to 1,427W.
Therefore, it can be stated that the proposed
Comparison between theoretical and experimental
results thermosyphon could operate under higher heat
loads than the ones applied. However, for security
Figure 8 shows the theoretical results of the
reasons, the accomplishment of these tests was
operation limits as a function of operation
possible due to the temperature limitation
temperature variation (30 up to 110oC). Here, the
real operation temperature was estimated, using imposed (maximum temperature of 120oC).
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68 Santos et al.
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