Q. Write basic principles of AM Generation.

Also Explain :
a) Square law modulation
b) AM in amplifier circuits.

Ans: Principle of AM Generation :

In order to generate the AM wave of figure(b), it is necessary merely to apply the
series of current pulses of figure (a) to a tuned circuit.

Fig (a) Tank Circuit Fig (b) AM wave

Each pulse, if it were the only one, would initiate a damped oscillation in the tuned
circuit. The oscillation would have an initial amplitude proportional to the size of the current
pulse and a decay rate dependent on the time constant of the circuit. Since a train of pulses is
fed to the tank circuit here, each pulse will cause a complete since wave proportional in
amplitude to the size of this pulse. This will be followed by the next sine wave, proportional
to the size of next applied pulse, and so on. Bearing in mind that at least 10 times as many
pulses per audio cycle are fed to a practical circuit as shown. We see that an extremely good
approximation of an AM wave will result if the original current pulses are made proportional
to the modulating voltage. The process I known as the “Fly Wheel effect” of the tuned
circuit.

a) Square Law Modulation Methods

Square law modulation circuits make use of nonlinear current-voltage characteristics
of diodes or triodes and are, in general, suited for use at low voltages.
Important square law modulation methods are :
 i) Square law diode modulation.
ii) Van der Bijl modulation.
iii) Balanced modulator.

Square Law Diode Modulation :

It utilizes the non-linear region of current voltage dynamic characteristic of a diode.
This dynamic characteristic is highly nonlinear particularly in the low voltage region as is
obvious from Figure.

The A.C. current may then be expressed as function of the A.C. voltage as given by
the following Taylor series:
ia = a1 . vs + a2 vs2
where a1 and a2 are Taylor series coefficients
ia is the A.C. anode current; vs is the A.C. anode voltage.

Figure shows the basic circuit arrangement of square law diode modulation.

Let the carrier voltage be given by,

vc = Vc cos c t
Let the modulation voltage be given by,
vm = Vm cos m t

Then the entire A.C. plate voltage vs is given by

 vs = ve + vm = [Vc cos c t + Vm cos m t]
Hence ia = a1 . vs + a2 vs2 = a1 [Vc cos c t + Vm cos m t] + a2 [Vm cos c t + Vm cos m t]2
= a1 [Vc cos c t + Vm cos m t]
+ a2 [Vc2 cos2 c t + V2m cos2 m + 2Vc Vm cos c t cos m t]

The various frequency components may be identified as below :

1) a1 Vc cos c t — carrier frequency component of frequency c.
2) a2 Vm cos m t — Modulation frequency component of frequency m.
L
1  cos 2 t O
M
a 2 v 2c cos2  c t  a 2 v 2c
N 2 P Q
c

3)
This consists of a D.C. component a2 V2c/2 and a component of frequency 2c
a 2 Vm2
a 2 v 2m cos2  m t  [1  cos 2 m t ].
4) 2

This consists of a D.C. component a2 V2m / 2 and a component of frequency 2m.

5) 2a2 Vc Vm cos c t cos m t = a2 Vc Vm [cos (c + m) t + cos (c - m) t] .

Here a2 Vc Vm cos (c + m) t is the upper sideband term of frequency (c + m)
whereas a2 Vc Vm cos (c - m) t is the lower sideband term of frequency (c - m) .

Thus there are in all 6 terms of different frequencies in addition to the D.C.
component. The load impedance is a tuned circuit which is tuned to the carrier frequency c.
It responds to a narrow band of frequencies centred about the carrier frequency. Hence the
components which are developed in the output arc terms of frequency c, (c + m) and (c -
m) assuming that m « m. The rest of the frequency terms will not produce appreciable
output voltage across the tuned circuit. Hence the desired anode current is given by,

io = a1 Vc cos c t + a2 Vc Vm cos (c + m) t + a0 Vc Vm cos (c - m) t

= a1 Vc cos c t + a2 Vc Vm cos c t cos m t

or
L
M
i 0  a1Vc 1 
2a V 2 m O
P
cos  c t cos  c t
N a 1 Q
or io = a1 Vc [1+ ma cos m t] cos c t
 2a 2 Vm
ma 
a1
where modulation index

The modulated output voltage is then given by,

vo = io R t
where Rt is the impedance of the tuned circuit at resonance.
It may be shown that the modulated carrier power output is maximum when the load
resistance is one fifth of the dynamic anode resistance of the diode.

Waveshapes of applied voltage and resulting currents in square law diode modulation.

The operation of the diode square law modulator is illustrated diagrammatically in

Figure. Because of the nonlinearity of the dynamic current-voltage characteristic of diode,
the amplitude of the carrier component in the current waveform during the positive half cycle
of modulating voltage is greater than the corresponding amplitude during the negative half
cycle of the modulating voltage as shown in Figure(b). This waveform shown in Figure(b)
corresponds to Eq. for diode current. This current has an average component evaluated over
carrier frequency cycles. This average component consists of a steady component Idc and
component varying at the modulation frequency. From the entire modulated current of
Figure(b) if this average component is subtracted, then the residual current is as shown in
Figure(c) which is approximately the waveform of an amplitude modulated current. This, no
doubt, contains components in frequencies 2c and 2m but the presence of these may be
observed only through a very careful graphical construction.

Similar treatment applies in the case of a high vacuum diode instead of a

semiconductor diode. However vacuum diode square law modulators are no longer used.

b) Suppressed Carrier Balanced Modulator

Study of Eq. reveals that the carrier Vc cos c t contains no information (or message).
The information is contained in each of the two sidebands. Accordingly the carrier may be
dropped or eliminated without losing any information. Further the carrier takes up a large
proportion of the total modulated carrier power. In ordinary AM Radio broadcast carrier is
allowed along with the two sideband and the system is referred to as the double sideband
(DSB) system. Carrier is necessary for reproduction of modulation signal in the detector
stage o[radio receiver. Accordingly in ordinary AM broadcast we allow the carrier to
propagate and use a simple diode detector in the radio receiver. If we eliminate or suppress
the carrier, the system becomes suppressed carrier double sideband system (DSB-SC). In this
case, we need reinsert the carrier in the radio receiver and the circuit of the receiver becomes
complicated and costly. Hence suppressed carrier double sideband system may be used in
point-to-point communication system.

Generation of suppressed carrier amplitude modulated voltage is done in balanced

modulator. These suppressed carrier balanced modulators may be of the following types:
(i) using transistors or FET’s;
(ii) using diodes.
Basic circuit of suppressed carrier balanced modulator using transistors.

Suppressed Carrier Balanced Modulator using Transistors. Figure gives the basic circuit
The carrier voltage is applied in parallel to the input of the two matched transistor T 1 and T2
whereas the modulating voltage is applied in pushpull to the same two transistors.
In this case vs = vc + vm = Vc cos c t + Vm cos m t
and v’s = vc + vm = Vc - vm = Vc cos c t - Vm cos c t

The A.C. Collector currents are given by,

ic = al .vs + a2.v2s
ic’ = al .vs’ + a2.vs’2

Substituting the values of vs and vs’ from Eqs. and (4.87) into Eqs. we get
ic = al [Vc cos ct + Vm cos m t] + a2 [V2c cos2 c t + V2m cos2m t
+ 2Vc Vm cos c t cos m t]
and ic’= al[Vc cos c t - Vm cos c t] + a2[V2c cos2 c t + V2m cos2m t
- 2Vc Vm cos c t cos m t]

Hence the output voltage is given by,

vo = k(ic - i’c) = 2k[a1 Vm cos m t + 2a2 Vc Vm cos c t cos m t]
or vo = 2ka1 Vm cos m t + 2ka2 Vm Vc[cos (c + m) t + cos (c - m) t]
Thus the output voltage consists of the modulation frequency voltage and the two
sidebands. The carrier voltage has been suppressed. The L.C. circuit is tuned to resonate at
frequency c and it responds to a band of frequencies centered about c. Hence in the output
no voltage at frequency vm is developed and the only components available in the output are
the two sidebands at frequencies (c + m) and (c - m).

Suppression of carrier results in economy of power. Suppressed carrier balanced

modulator is commonly used in carrier current telephony in which one sideband is usually
filtered out to reduce the width of the channel required for the transmission and the
remaining sideband is transmitted to the receiving end. At the receiving end, a local oscillator
adds the carrier frequency voltage of suitable amplitude and phase to the sideband voltage
and then the two together are fed to a square law detector to produce the modulation
frequency voltage.