Photovoltaic effect

We have discussed some important properties of light and characteristics of the radiation of
light by our sun. In this video we will focus on converting that light to electrical energy. This
is done using the photovoltaic effect.

Photovoltaics covers the direct conversion of sunlight into electrical energy, by a

semiconductor material. The term photovoltaics is derived from the Greek word ‘phos’
which means light, and volt, which refers to electricity, specifically voltage. Volt is a
reference to the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta, who invented the battery

The photovoltaic effect was discovered in 1839, by the French physicist Emond Becquerel. At
the age of 19 Becquerel created the first photovoltaic cell by illuminating platinum
electrodes, coated with silver chloride in an acid solution. This device was the first to convert
light into electricity.

The photovoltaic effect occurs through the generation of a potential difference at the
junction of two different materials, in response to electromagnetic radiation. The
photovoltaic effect consists of three distinct processes. The first process involves the
absorption of light, which leads to the generation of charge carriers. During the second
process, the generated charge carriers are separated. The third and final process consist of
the collection of the of the charge carriers at the electrodes. Let’s look at these processes in
some more detail.

We will use the shown solar cell to visualize the photovoltaic effect. This is a basic crystalline
silicon solar cell, with an n-doped silicon layer, a p-doped silicon layer and back and front
electrodes. The first process involves the absorption of photons in the materials that form a
junction. Shown here is a single photon of light incident on the solar cell. Upon absorption of
the photons, an electron-hole pair is generated. A negatively charged electron is excited to a
higher energy state and it leaves behind a positively charged hole. Here we show one
photon of light exciting a single electron hole-pair. In reality, there will be many electron
hole pairs generated at once with a full spectrum of light.

This electron hole pair will only survive for a certain lifetime. After some time,
recombination may occur. This means that the electron will fall back to its initial energy
state. If this happens, that absorbed energy is essentially lost and cannot be converted into
electrical energy. Therefore in order to really generate electricity we have to separate these
charge carriers.

How do we do this? Once carriers are generated in a solar cell, they will move around due to
various processes such as diffusion, random motion and drift. In order to separate the
photo-generated charge carriers, semipermeable membranes must be present on both sides
of the absorber. This ensures that the electrons can only flow out through one membrane
and holes can only flow out through the other membrane. In our solar cell here, the charges
were generated in the p-type semiconductor. As you will learn in later videos, the p-n
junction at the top of the solar cell only allows electrons to pass through and the junction at
the bottom of the cell only allows holes to pass through. Therefore, the solar cell needs to
be designed so that the mobile charge carriers eventually hit those barriers and are
separated.

So now we have generated and separated charge carriers, but we have one more step to
generate electricity.

The final process then involves the collection of the photo-generated charge carriers. Let’s
start over again. Under influence of light a large number of charge carriers are generated
and separated. The difference in charge carrier concentrations at both ends of the PV device
causes a potential difference between the electrodes. This potential can be measured by a
voltmeter and is called the open circuit voltage or V_OC.

If an external circuit is applied between these electrodes, electrons will flow from the N-type
material towards the P-type material. There is now a current flowing from a high potential
to low potential which is the definition of electrical power. This is how the charge carriers
are extracted from the solar cells. The chemical energy of the electrons-hole pairs is now
converted to electric energy. After the electrons have passed through the circuit, they
recombine with holes at a metal-absorber interface.

In summary, we have seen how the photovoltaic effect involves the generation of charge
carriers due to the absorption of photons at a junction of two semiconductor materials
followed by the subsequent separation of the photo-generated charge carriers. And finally,
the collection of the charge carriers at the terminals of the junction. In the next video we will
look at the current and voltage characteristics of a solar cell.