Seminar Report

A Comprehensive Review of Busbar

Protection Schemes

Submitted in Partial fulfilment of

requirements for the award of the degree

Doctorate of Philosophy

Submitted by

Soumitri Jena
Enrol. No. 15914014

Under the guidance of

Dr.Bhavesh Bhalja

Department of Electrical Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

January, 2016
 Abstract

The busbar is one of the most critical parts of the power system, where many trans-
mission lines converge. Busbar faults are seldom but the occurrence of it can lead
to extensive damage and large-scale blackout. The consequences of unprotected bus
fault are found to be very extreme. Reliable operation during bus fault is essential for
generator stability. Unwanted tripping, which may lead to longer supply interruptions
should be avoided. Busbars mainly lie in the second zone protection in distance pro-
tection schemes, so a busbar fault clearance is relatively slow. Time graded distance
protection is not an ideal choice for the purpose. System protections may not be ad-
equate and a dedicated busbar protection scheme is required. It is true that risk of a
fault occurring on a busbar is low, but it can not be ignored completely.

Different techniques like directional comparison, differential comparison, micropro-

cessor and AI-based techniques have been used by the utilities in order to detect faults
on busbar. However, digital and numerical relays provide economical alternatives of
busbar protection. Lesser maintenance costs and minimal hardware alterations for pri-
mary systems changes make it suitable for industrial use. It also provides interface
to the substation automation system. Hence, fast fault analysis and monitoring are
possible. The digital relays are widely used by utilities.They use algorithms which can
take care of Current Transformer(CT) saturation and ratio mismatch errors. How-
ever, there exists a wide scope of improvement in research techniques related to busbar
protection schemes.
Contents

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Busbar Faults and Protection Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Busbar Protection Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Directional Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1.1 Series Trip Scheme: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1.2 Directional Blocking Scheme: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1.3 Directional Comparison Scheme: . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Differential Protection technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2.1 Circulating Current Differential Protection: . . . . . . 4
1.2.2.2 Biased Percentage Differential Protection: . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2.3 High Impedance voltage Scheme: . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2.4 Protection using linear couplers: . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Techniques Used in Commercial Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1 Microprocessor based protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.2 Digital Differential Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.2.1 Distributed Busbar Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.2.2 Centralized Busbar Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.3 Busbar protection during CT saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.4 Neural Network based Busbar Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.5 Travelling-Wave Based Busbar Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.6 Wavelet Transform Based Busbar Protection Scheme . . . . . . 10
1.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2 Research Opportunities in Digital Protection of Busbar 12

2.1 Fault Zone Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1.1 Artificial Intelligence Based Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1.2 Travelling Wave based Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.2.1 Criteria for Busbar Protection: . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.1.3 Wavelet Transform Based Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2 CT Saturation Detection Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Discrimination Between Power Swing and Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.1 An Example of Power Swing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.2 Power Swing Detection Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

i
List of Figures

1.1 Directional comparison scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Directional series trip scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Directional blocking scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Circulating current differential protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Biased percentage differential protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6 Percentage bias characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.7 High Impedance differential protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.8 Protection using linear couplers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.9 Microprocessor based relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.10 (a) Distributed (b) Centralized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.11 CT saturation detection and compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.12 ANN based scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.13 Wavelet Transform based busbar protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.1 ANN based busbar protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.2 ANN architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 processing at a neuron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 A busbar configuration at the substation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 Wavelet Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.6 Wavelet Decomposition of a Fault signal [1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.7 Equivalent Circuit of a Current Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.8 Secondary saturated waveforms for a 400:1 CT and zero crossing instants 20
2.9 Maloperation of the Relay due to Power Swing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.10 Power Angle Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

ii
Chapter 1

Introduction

Though a critical point in the complex power system, busbar protection is often over-
looked. A fault on the busbar may result in tripping of all the lines connected to it,
resulting a widespread system failure. Thus, quick and reliable operation of breakers
is required from the busbar protection schemes. This chapter presents a bibliographic
and comprehensive review of different relaying schemes in the field of busbar protection.

In practice, various differential protection schemes such as biased percentage differ-

ential protection, low impedance protection, and high impedance voltage protection are
implemented for busbar protection. In percentage differential relays a restraining sig-
nal in addition to the differential signal with percentage bias characteristics is applied.
The low impedance approach can tolerate substantial CT saturation and provides high-
speed tripping. The high impedance voltage scheme overcomes the saturation errors in
case of heavy through faults. A busbar protection scheme employs directional features
to the existing percentage differential function. The main idea is if power flow in one
more circuits is away from the bus, there exists an external fault, whereas if power flow
directions in all the circuits are into the bus, an internal fault exists[2].

1.1 Busbar Faults and Protection Requirements

Because of high fault levels associated with the busbar faults, a very fast acting pro-
tection is required for protection of the busbar. Identification of the fault zone and
disconnection of the associated circuit breakers is required so that the healthy parts
remain unaffected.

Busbar protection should not operate for external(through) faults as it unnecessar-

ily trips the healthy lines. Thus, one of the important features of the busbar protection
is stability against through faults. Meanwhile, there is always a compromise between
stability and selectivity because of economical constraints.

In the event of an internal fault on busbar, tripping of all the connected lines is
required. Also unwanted tripping is avoided because they may lead to large scale sys-
tem interruptions. Busbar faults are found to be very rare (8%) when compared to
line faults which are about (60%) of the total faults. It has been observed that among
busbar faults single line to ground faults are 67%, 15% are double line to ground faults
and 18% are triple line to ground faults [3].

1
 Faults on the busbar are mainly because of:

• Insulation failure.

• Arcing or flashover caused by overvoltages.

• Faulty handling of switching equipment.

• Dropping of metal parts from the busbar.

1.2 Busbar Protection Schemes

The schemes used for bus bar protection can be categorised as

i. Directional comparison techniques

ii. Differential Protection techniques

iii. Techniques based on Artificial Intelligence (AI)

1.2.1 Directional Comparison

This scheme is based on the concept that, if power flow in one or more circuits is
away from the bus, there exists an external fault whereas if power flows in all the
circuits are into the busbar there exists an internal fault. This scheme can further
be categorised as Directional Series Trip Scheme, Directional blocking scheme and
Directional Comparison Scheme.

External Internal

Figure 1.1: Directional comparison scheme

1.2.1.1 Series Trip Scheme:

All the directional relays are connected in series in this scheme. In figure 1.2(a) two
direction relays R1 and R2 for line 1 and line 2 are connected in series. Figure 1.2(b)
shows the control circuit. The relay contacts are in series. In the case of an internal

2
fault, contacts R1 and R2 close simultaneously and energizes the auxiliary relay and
trip both the circuit breakers.

Figure 1.2: Directional series trip scheme

1.2.1.2 Directional Blocking Scheme:

Here, the power circuit is same as that of Figure 1.2(a). The tripping contacts (R1 and
R2) are connected in parallel and then to the tripping auxiliary relay (AUX), all the
blocking contacts are connected in parallel and then to the blocking relay(B). In the
event of an external fault, the blocking relay (B) operates and blocks the operation of
the bus protection.

Figure 1.3: Directional blocking scheme

1.2.1.3 Directional Comparison Scheme:

The main disadvantage with the directional blocking scheme is that for higher capac-
itance charging impedance it can not compare with minimum ground fault currents.
This can be overcome by using voltage restrain relay in directional comparison scheme.

1.2.2 Differential Protection technique

Differential Protection is the most widely used protection scheme for busbar protec-
tion. Differential protection can be achieved by implementing techniques such as Cir-

3
culating current differential protection, biased percentage differential protection, high
impedance voltage scheme and protection using linear couplers.

1.2.2.1 Circulating Current Differential Protection:

This scheme is based on on Kirchhoff’s current law i.e the vector sum of currents
entering to the substation must be equal to that of the currents leaving the busbar.
However, CT ratio mismatch and error due to CT saturation is a major concern.

Figure 1.4: Circulating current differential protection

1.2.2.2 Biased Percentage Differential Protection:

To avoid CT errors biased differential protection scheme is used. Figure 1.5 shows
connection diagram and operating characteristics of the scheme. When all the CTs
have same CT ratio, the scheme operates most efficiently.

Figure 1.5: Biased percentage differential protection

The restraining current is fed to the unidirectional restraining coils. The current
through the operating coil is the vector sum of currents whereas the current through
the restraining coil is the scalar sum of currents.

4
 Figure 1.6: Percentage bias characteristics

During normal operating conditions the operating current is close to zero and the
restraining current is a finite value in proportion to the load current. During internal
bus fault conditions there is an increase in both operating and restraining current. So
IOP /IRT point moves from restraining region to operating region. This causes the relay
to trip. The relay characteristics are adjustable owing to mismatch of CTs. However,
this scheme avoids substantial CT saturation errors and may maloperate for close-in
external faults.

1.2.2.3 High Impedance voltage Scheme:

High impedance relays are named so because they offer very high resistance to the
flow of current. The main advantage of this scheme is its performance in case of CT
saturation. This is achieved by keeping the CT secondary resistance low and adding
resistance to the relay circuit.

The full wave rectifier circuit adds considerable resistance to the circuit. The bridge
circuit is tuned to 50 Hz fundamental frequency, So the circuit is immune to DC
offset values. IEEE standards [4] are the guidelines for selecting the relay operation.
The disadvantage with this scheme is that it slows the relaying processes, but this is
countered somewhat by the addition of a high speed overcurrent(OC) unit in series with
a voltage limiting metal oxide resistor, which is connected in the circuit to limit very
high magnitude fault currents across the bridge terminal. Thus, the overcurrent unit
trips for high magnitude internal bus faults.The relative magnitudes of the voltages
across the differential junction classifies the fault as internal or external one and a
minimum pickup current distinguishes between internal and external fault.

5
 Figure 1.7: High Impedance differential protection

1.2.2.4 Protection using linear couplers:

Linear couplers use air as their core, so these are free from CT saturation errors. The
output voltage varies in proportion to the derivative of the current input. The linear
coupler output voltage Vs is proportional to the primary current Ip and expressed as,
Vs = jXm Ip (1.1)
Where, Xm is the mutual inductive reactance. The relay current IR can ve expressed
as P
Vsi
IR = (1.2)
ZR + Zci
Where, Zc is the self-impedance of linear coupler and ZR is the impedance of the relay.

Figure 1.8: Protection using linear couplers

For an internal bus fault, all the line currents are directed to the faulted busbar and
secondary voltages of the linear couplers add together and impressed across the relay
unit. This provides very high-speed protection which is free from CT saturation er-
rors. However, installation of dedicated linear couplers only for bus protections creates
economical constraints.

6
1.3 Techniques Used in Commercial Relays
Digital relays are most economical and effective means for busbar protection. These
relays are most economical in terms of maintenance cost and fewer hardware alterations
for new system changes [5]. The first commissioned digital busbar system has taken a
lot of alterations. Now more than 500 types of systems are used world wide for different
type of bus configurations. The commercialization of these relays has encouraged
innovative designs to provide security, speed and sensitivity. The fast fault clearing
time has also ensured greater generator stability [6]. However selectivity is a major
issue still now. The last two decades have seen remarkable success in microprocessor
based relaying scheme. Combination of microprocessor, microcontroller, digital signal
processors and artificial intelligence techniques have taken the level a way higher.

1.3.1 Microprocessor based protection

A microprocessor based relay mainly constituted by five major blocks namely analog
input system, digital input system, digital output system, storage unit and micropro-
cessor unit. The analog input system acquires the voltage and current signals from the
CT and PTs and convert it into a digital signal. Digital input signal acquires breaker
status, isolator status etc and input it to the microprocessor unit.

Digital output system contains a digital to analog converter. Storage unit contains
Random Access Memory(RAM), Read Only Memory(ROM) and hard disc storage for
temporary and permanent storage of data. Microprocessor unit takes the trip decision
according to the relay logic.

Substation Busbar

CTs and PTs

Analog Input Digital Input Digital Output

Subsystem Subsystem Subsystem

Analog Interface CPU ROM

RAM

Microcontroller

Relay

Station Battery Communication System

Figure 1.9: Microprocessor based relay

Digital output system contains a digital to analog converter. Storage unit contains
Random Access Memory(RAM), Read Only Memory(ROM) and hard disc storage for

7
temporary and permanent storage of data. Microprocessor unit takes the trip decision
according to the relay logic.

Different microprocessor based algorithms have been proposed by researchers in

the recent past. Keneddy and Hayward [7] in 1938 were first to propose a differential
relay based on harmonic current restrain. However if the harmonic current exceeds
certain limiting value the relay failed to operate. later Andow et al. [8] proposed a
low impedance bus bar protection scheme which remains stable during CT saturation.
Royle and Hill [9] proposed a solid state busbar protection scheme which detects the
saturated CTs. Peck et al. [10] proposed a busbar protection scheme that can adjust
the operating and restraining characteristics in the case of CT saturation for heavy
through faults. Kumar et al. [11] proposed a scheme based on multi processing. How-
ever, the time of operation for this relay was a major concern. Kang et al. [12] proposed
a modified scheme which can generate initial trip decision within few milliseconds for
internal faults. Kasztenny et al. [13] presented a combined busbar protection scheme
based on differential and directional protection principles. However, the operating time
in case of CT saturation for an internal fault was a major limitation to the scheme.

1.3.2 Digital Differential Protection

There exist two different approaches for digital differential protection.

1.3.2.1 Distributed Busbar Protection

It pre-processes the signals with the help of Data Acquisition Units(DAUs) in each bay
and provides a trip signal. The central unit gathers and processes the signal through
fiber-optics communication.

Figure 1.10: (a) Distributed (b) Centralized

1.3.2.2 Centralized Busbar Protection

Here all the tripping decisions are taken by a single relay. This scheme requires more
wiring and also puts more computational burden on the central unit. However,this
scheme is believed to be more reliable than the previous one.

8
1.3.3 Busbar protection during CT saturation
Because of iron cores are used in CTs for protection of busbar, most of the CTs are
prone to saturation errors. The main function of a protective CT is to faithfully amplify
the CT secondary current in case of normal as well as faulty conditions. The magnitude
of CT saturation depends on the level of fault current, residual flux, magnitude of DC
component and CT secondary burden [14].

After the transformation of the primary current I1 to I2 by the CT, it is sampled

into discrete signals (i2 ) by an A/D converter. The CT saturation algorithm detects
whether the samples of i2 within saturation limits or not. If saturation is detected by
the unit a compensating current is generated by the compensation unit.

Stability during saturation is one of the main requirements for busbar protection.
Different researchers have proposed different methods for this purpose. Sachdev et
al. [15] proposed a technique based on positive and negative sequence impedance for
deciding internal and external fault. Their method is also stable during CT saturation,
but it requires voltage information, which is not available always. Eissa [16] proposed
a scheme based on phase comparison. It gives improved results than previously used
magnitude comparison schemes, but delays relay operation. Kang et al. [17] proposed
an algorithm by compensating current to distorted CT secondary currents. However,
this method is not suitable for severe CT saturation cases.

Figure 1.11: CT saturation detection and compensation

1.3.4 Neural Network based Busbar Protection

Artificial Neural Networks(ANN) are inspired from the anatomy of biological neurons.
These artificial neurons are capable of implementing logical problems.

Current signals from the CT units are given to ADC through Signal conditioning
(SC) and Anti Aliasing Filter (AAF) block. AAF is a low pass filter and removes high
frequency signals. These current signals are then given as input to ANN input neurons.
The structure of neurons is decided based on the relay logics. The output of neurons
is given to a decision logic block, which decides the tripping signal.

9
 AAF
Power System Network CTs SC ANN Decision Logic
ADC

Figure 1.12: ANN based scheme

Recently the number of ANN based algorithms reported for busbar protection are
increasing. Feser et al.[18] proposed an ANN based busbar protection scheme by pro-
cessing large no of data signals. However, the scheme maloperates due to CT saturation
errors. Zadeh et al. [19] proposed a classification algorithm based on Neuro-Fuzzy clas-
sifier to decide the fault zone for busbar faults. However large training sets, tedious
training process and large number of neurons make these schemes ineffective.

1.3.5 Travelling-Wave Based Busbar Protection

This scheme is based on the time of arrival of the travelling wave produced by the fault.
This scheme consists of Capacitive Coupling Voltage Transformer (CCVT), Fault Tran-
sient Interface Unit (FTIU), Global positioning System (GPS) with storage.

Wang et al.[20] were the first to purpose a busbar zone identification scheme based
on polarities of transient current waves. Jiang et al. [21] then proposed a transient
based protection technique which depends on the energy spectrum of fault transients.
Eissa [2] proposed a directional busbar protection scheme by extracting features from
pre fault and post fault voltage and current signals. However, faults with inception an-
gle close to zero degree do not produce sufficient travelling waves. Close-in faults which
generate very high frequency travelling waves falls outside the boundary of conventional
CVTs. Thus limiting the applicability of these schemes.

1.3.6 Wavelet Transform Based Busbar Protection Scheme

Current signals are received from the secondary of CTs and then given as input to
Analog to Digital converter (ADC) through an anti aliasing filter (AAF) and Signal
Conditioning (SC) devices.

Figure 1.13: Wavelet Transform based busbar protection

10
 The wavelet packet then decomposes the differential current signal into detail ap-
proximate coefficients. Then the relay logic block takes the trip decision.

1.4 Conclusion
An attempt to review different busbar protection techniques and existing schemes is
made in this chapter. A bibliographic survey of relevant research work and history
of busbar protection are presented in this chapter. A comparative summary and an
attempt to find out the optimum technique is also made. Though very sophisticated
busbar techniques are available, there also exists a wide scope of improvement.

11
Chapter 2

Research Opportunities in Digital

Protection of Busbar

Faults on power systems are inevitable. Hence, a well-organised protection scheme is

required in order to detect and isolate the faults as quick as possible. So that, the
damage and power interruptions are minimised. The control centre has to deal with
a huge amount of data to get the information about faults. The protection system
may fail because of the communication system failure or noise in the transferred data.
Because of these reasons, protection is a major challenge in the power system.

Digital protection of busbar is quite challenging in nature. With the advent of

new technologies and interconnection of grids and increasing operating voltage levels,
busbar protection in itself is becoming a quite challenging task. As busbar protection
is directly concerned with the stability of the generator, hence dedicated busbar pro-
tection schemes need to be implemented in real practice. The following areas require
extensive research and real world implementation.

2.1 Fault Zone Discrimination

Fault zone discrimination is one of the major challenges in busbar protection. Busbar
areas are usually high voltage areas in a power system, hence fault level associated
with busbar faults are also very high. A false trip causes power interruption to a large
area and economical losses. Maloperation of the substation busbar may lead to system
instability. Maximum security for busbar can be achieved by clearly identifying the
fault zone. Busbar relaying is associated with fault detection, zone classification and
isolations so, fault zone classification enables quick operation of relaying service.

2.1.1 Artificial Intelligence Based Classification

With emergence of artificial intelligence techniques, classification algorithms were im-
plemented based on Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), fuzzy logics or expert systems
[18] [19] [22]. However, the training process became a tedious task with large number
of data sets and neurons. Brief explanation of one of such schemes is given below:

12
 NN1
Va , I a

NN2

Int.
NN1 Output Neuron
Vb , I b

Ext.
NN2 Output Neuron

NN1
Vc, Ic

NN2

Figure 2.1: ANN based busbar protection

The magnitude of three phase voltages (Va , Vb , Vc ) and currents (Ia , Ib , Ic ) are mea-
sured from CTs and PTs. These signals are then sampled and digitalized using analog
to digital converters. The data are sent to the ANN pattern recogniser. The recogniser
verifies the data and confirms the fault, if exists and then issues a trip signal. The
advantage of ANN based relays is that they can learn different aspects related to fault
type and fault conditions.

Figure 2.2: ANN architecture

13
 In general the neural network architecture consists of several layers i.e an input
layer, an output layer and possibly number of hidden layers. The number of hidden
layers are most probably limited to two in most of the cases to improve the execution
time.

Each node receives a set of weighted inputs and processes to give an ouput depend-
ing on the activation function. Different sigmoidal functions are used very frequently.
1
f (x) = (2.1)
1 + e−x
The node output then travels to the next node and then so on. In a feed forward
network the outputs travel in forward direction only.

Figure 2.3: processing at a neuron

The activation function and the number of layers are decided prior to the training
process. The relationship between the input and output neurons can be completely
represented by adjusting the weights in the training process.

A training pattern presented as a input to the input neurons should consist of

patterns from all the expected classes. Error back propagation is one of the most used
methods for weights adjustment. Error calculation depends on the learning rule. Error
Em for an individual pattern m can be given as
1X
Em = (tmi − omi )2 (2.2)
2 i

Where tmi is the desired output and omi is actual output from the output of the neurons.
The error E is the summation of all the individual neurons.
X
E= Em (2.3)
m

This error is minimised by adjusting the weights in the negative direction of gradient.
∂E
∆Wij = −η (2.4)
∂Wij

This processes of calculation the error and updating the weights is processed from
the output to input neurons i.e in the backward direction. The weights are updated

14
until the error exceed a predefined threshold.

Neural networks have the inherent benefit to adjusts their weights to the changes
in the surrounding environment. A neural network trained to work in a particular
environment may work efficiently to smaller changes in the environment. The adaptive
architecture of neural networks makes it suitable for pattern classification and decision
making.

However, the application of ANN based modules to real world problem is a major
issue. The real time data consists of thousands of inputs. The training is non-linear
and requires a huge amount of dataset. There exist no analytic methods to validate
the ANN outputs, only extensive training can validate the performance. The lack of
transparency puts ANN based schemes in backtrack.

2.1.2 Travelling Wave based Techniques

Based on the frequency components busbar protection schemes can be classified into
two groups. Some are based on power frequency components and some are based on
transient frequency components. Simple current differential techniques are based on
power frequency components but are prone to CT saturation and ratio mismatch errors.
In practise, the transient components can deliver a great deal of information such as
fault types, fault time and fault directions. The main idea behind these schemes are:

When a fault occurs on the busbar the direction of initial travelling waves on
all the lines connected to the busbar is considered to be positive. When a fault
occurs in one of the lines the direction of initial travelling waves in all of the lines
are found positive, whereas initial travelling waves in the faulty line are found to
be negative [23].

L2
R2
L1
R1

L3
R3

Figure 2.4: A busbar configuration at the substation

A simple busbar arrangement is shown in the figure. R1, R2 and R3 are corresponding
relays of line L1, L2 and L3. When a fault occurs on the line L1 travelling waves
are generated in both the directions from the fault point. Reflection and refraction
coefficients appear along the line where impedances are discontinuous i.e busbar and

15
other lines. Considering R1 as a zero reference point, then along the positive direction
at a point x the transient voltage and current waveforms can be represented by
x x
∆v = v + (t − ) + v − (t + ) (2.5)
v v
1 + x x
∆i = [v (t − ) + u− (t + )] (2.6)
zc v v
q
1
Where v = √LC and zc = CL represents the velocity and current of the travelling
wave. u+ is the positive travelling wave and u− is the negative travelling wave. The
voltage of positive and negative travelling wave can be obtained by solving (2.1) and
(2.2).
∆v + zc ∆i
v+ = (2.7)
2
∆v − zc ∆i
v− = (2.8)
2

2.1.2.1 Criteria for Busbar Protection:

1. When any of the lines connected to the busbar has a fault on the line itself, initial
travelling waves found at the relay location of the faulted line is negative whereas
for all the other lines it is positive and negative direction travelling wave is zero.

2. When the busbar experiences a fault on itself, all the relays experience a positive
initial travelling wave and negative direction travelling wave does not appear.

3. For an internal fault, initial travelling waves are experienced at the relay locations
at the same time whereas for an external fault the relays experience travelling
waves at different point of time.

2.1.3 Wavelet Transform Based Techniques

Unlike Fourier transform Wavelet Transform divides the signal into different non uni-
form frequency domain. It decomposes the higher frequencies in a shorter window and
lower frequencies in a wider window. So, an analysis in both frequency and time do-
main is possible with Wavelet Transform. In wavelet transform, the analytic functions
called wavelets adjust their width according to the frequency. This particular frequency
is however very much helpful for analysing fault signals.

The Wavelet Transforms (WT) of a time dependent signal f (t) is the set of coeffi-
cients W Ta,b . These coefficients depend on the similarity between the signal f (t) and
set of functions ψa,b (t), these functions are derived from the mother wavelet ψ(t) as
follows !
1 t−b
ψa,b (t) = 1/2 ψ (2.9)
|a| a
Where a and b are scaling and time-shift constants. The coefficient of WT can be
defined as Z ∞
W Ta,b = hψa,b (t), f (t)i = f (t).ψa,b (t)dt (2.10)
−∞

16
 In busbar protection, the fault signals are decomposed into different frequency band
in time domain. These decomposed signals are used to generate precise information
about the fault. The fault signals are decomposed into successive approximate and
detailed signals. The information lost between two successive approximate signals is
obtained from the detailed signal. In the next step, two new signals are generated from
each of the approximate and detailed signals. Thus, a complete binary tree is formed.

The approximate signals are result of output of the Low-pass filter (LPF) and the
detailed signals are the output obtained from the High-pass filter (HPF). In the next
level, these signals are again given to LPF and HPF. The decomposition is proceeded
till the desired level of decomposition is not achieved [24].
Fault Signal
A (0)

A (1) D (1)

AA (2) DA (2) AD (2) DD (2)

AAA (3) DAA (3) ADA (3) DDA (3) AAD (3) DAD (3) ADD (3) DDD (3)

Figure 2.5: Wavelet Decomposition

Figure 2.4 shows decomposition of a fault signal obtained after the CT secondary. A
sampling frequency f (s) is decided for the wavelet packet. In each level the signal is di-
vided into two frequency intervals [0,f (s)/2] and [f (s)/2, f (s)]. So the end of level 3 the
signal is decomposed into the band of [0,f (s)/8],[f (s)/8,2f (s)/8]. . . . . . ,[7f (s)/8, f (s)].
The average value of the decomposed current signal gives the energy level in each fre-
quency band.

The features extracted from the energy spectrum from different samples of internal
and external faults are used to develop the relay logic. As the trip logic is based
on frequency changes rather than magnitude changes, these relays deliver satisfactory
performance in case of CT saturation errors.

17
 Figure 2.6: Wavelet Decomposition of a Fault signal [1]

2.2 CT Saturation Detection Algorithms

The main objective of a protective CT is to faithfully amplify the line current in nor-
mal as well as faulty conditions. Sometimes It is observed that for fault currents are
hundred times over the rating of the CT. Which results in saturation of the CT core.
Relatively short duration peaks are observed which can be as low as 5-10 % of the
rated secondary current. Due to saturation, the CT secondary current is asymmetrical
and may contain DC offset. This leads to incorrect busbar protection.

Figure 2.7: Equivalent Circuit of a Current Transformer

Several algorithms have been proposed in the literature for CT saturation detec-
tion. These techniques can be roughly classified into two groups depending on the input
current i.e 1) The CT secondary current 2) The differential current. Algorithms used
in the group (1) detect CT saturation based on the unusual CT secondary waveforms
that differ from the CT secondary waveforms during normal operating conditions. The
algorithms used in the group (2) detect CT saturation by the fact that, during the
inception of a fault, there is a low magnitude of differential current which is followed

18
by a large differential current because one of the CTs has saturated.

One of the earlier reported methods [25] depend on the calculation of the core flux
in the case of saturated CTs and compensate it using compensating currents.With the
help of magnetising curve, this method successfully determines the secondary current
required, even when the CT is saturated.

Some of the methods, assume the fact that if CT secondary waveform is perfectly
sinusoidal then the mean should be zero, which is not the case when the CT has sat-
urated its core. The summation of instantaneous currents over cycle and the second
order derivatives are zero for a perfectly sinusoidal curve, which is not true for a satu-
rated CT secondary waveform.

A CT saturation detection algorithm based on impedance measurement instead of

CT secondary current measurement was proposed in [26]. The proposed algorithm is
based on the assumptions that: Considering the power system as a linear circuit if a
fault occurs it can be represented by the summation of two circuits. One is the power
system is operating under normal steady state conditions and the other one is based
on the incremental magnitudes of voltage (∆V ) and (∆I), the difference between pre
fault and post fault values. The impedance seen by the relay using this algorithm is the
ratio between ∆V and ∆I at the relay location. If the CT enters into high saturation
region the magnetising behaviour of the CT can be approximated by a straight line
parallel to the H axis in the B-H plane and CT secondary current goes to close to zero
∆I = 0. So, the impedance seen by the algorithm tends towards infinity.

When a CT saturates the secondary current gradually reduces hence corresponding

current zero crossing intervals becomes smaller than the half cycle for a normal sinu-
soidal wave. This criterion is used to detect saturation by comparing two zero crossing
instants.

A number of techniques based on Artificial Intelligence [27] [28] have been reported
in the literature to detect CT saturation. The basic idea is to train a network with a
large number of discrete saturated CT secondary waveforms and test with a large num-
ber of samples. However, because of non-transparency and tedious training processes,
these methods are not being practically implemented.

19
Figure 2.8: Secondary saturated waveforms for a 400:1 CT and zero crossing instants

2.3 Discrimination Between Power Swing and Faults

Large disturbances in power system like line switching, generator disconnection, ad-
dition or loss of load, change in mechanical input to the turbine or energization/de-
energization of the transmission lines leads to big oscillations in real and reactive power,
voltage instability or change in power angle. This phenomenon is known as power swing
which could cause unwanted tripping of the circuit breaker.

In steady state operation of the power system synchronism between nominal fre-
quency and nominal voltage between the sending and receiving ends keep the balance
between generated and consumed active or reactive power. However, because of the
above listed methods if there is a sudden change in electrical power whereas the me-
chanical input to the generator remains constant. The electrical power output from a
generator (Pg ) is given by the equation

Eg El
Pg = sinδ (2.11)
X
Where:

20
 Eg = Internal voltage generated by the generator.
El = Voltage at the receiving end load.
X= Reactance between the generator and load.
δ=The angle by which Eg leads load voltage.
Accelerating power in a generator can be given by the formula

Pa = Pm − Pg (2.12)

Where:
Pm = Mechanical power given to the generator unit.
Pg = Electrical power generated by the generator unit.

The mechanical input given to the generator unit must be equal to the average
electrical power output, in order to maintain equilibrium. In the case of a disturbance
in the system, one of the above parameters changes. In the case of faults the reactance
(X) between the source and the load or the load voltage (El ) or any combination
of both changes. When a generator trips or in the case of opening of a breaker the
reactance (X) changes. In these cases, the mechanical power input to the generator is
no longer equal to the electrical power output. This causes severe oscillations in the
rotor unit. Which leads to power swings.

2.3.1 An Example of Power Swing

Suppose two areas are interconnected. Generator G1 supplies to area 1 and G2 sup-
plies area 2. When there is a sudden disconnection of G2 the load on G1 increases
drastically. There may be large oscillations in the rotor and the rotor angle δ changes
which lead to change in nominal system voltage. Change in nominal voltage leads to
loss of synchronism between the source and the load.

Small disturbances can be controlled by corrective measures. Severe disturbances

cause large rotor angle separation, larger values of voltage and current, larger power
swings and resulting loss of synchronism. Power Swings can cause the impedance of
the system to fall within the operating limits of the distance relay.
False Tripping

G1 CB G2

Severe Fault
Relay

Figure 2.9: Maloperation of the Relay due to Power Swing

Power swings can cause the load impedance seen by the relay to fall within the
operating region of the relay. Hence unwanted tripping may lead to cascading outages
and complete blackout.

21
 Pm

Pe

0° 45° 90° 135° 180°

Rotor angle (δ )

Figure 2.10: Power Angle Curve

A Power Swing Block (PSB) is present in modern day relays. The main idea of
the PSB is to differentiate between Power swing and fault conditions. An Out of Step
Trip (OST) block is also present which differentiate between stable power swing and
unstable power swing. Corrective measures are taken after detection of the type of
power swing.

2.3.2 Power Swing Detection Methods

Power Swing conditions are differentiated from fault conditions by the change of the
positive sequence vector. The rate of change of positive sequence reactance vector is
slow in the case of power swings where for a fault condition change of positive sequence
vector is very fast [29]. This scheme is implemented by two impedance measuring units
and a timing circuit. Significant deviation of impedance may be because of the power
swings.Some of the other methods depend on the Swing Centre Voltage (SCV) i.e
voltage zero. The rate of change of voltage zero instance is used to detect the power
swing situation [30]

2.4 Conclusion
The busbar is a point of interconnection in the power system where different apparatus
are connected. Busbar is a vital element in view of stability and interconnectivity.
Faults can be on the busbar itself or be on different equipment connected. Though
faults on a busbar are rare, but the consequences are very severe. Therefore, a dedi-
cated busbar protection scheme should be employed for busbar protection. Faults on
the busbar must be clearly identified and cleared with minimum possible time. So It
is highly desirable to develop a fast and reliable busbar protection scheme. The pro-

22
tection should also be sustainable for CT saturation conditions. CT saturation should
not lead to misclassification of faults. CT saturation should be detected effectively.
An efficient busbar protection scheme should also discriminate between power swing
condition and fault conditions.

Although numerous busbar protection schemes are presented in the literature.

There still exists scope for improvement in integrating and coordinating all the re-
lated issues corresponding to a complex busbar protection.

23
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