UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1
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EVOLUTION

1Charles Darwin (Charles Robert Darwin) (Biography.com, 2014)

02/12/1809-04/19/1882
 British naturalist (born in Shrewsbury, England; youngest of 6 kids)
 Family: Dr. R.W. Darwin (father, medical doctor), Dr. Erasmus Darwin (grandfather,
renowned botanist), Susanna (mother, died when Charles was only 8 y/o)
 Education: University of Edinburgh (October 1825,16 y/o with brother Erasmus); (1827,
Christ’s College in Cambridge)
 Expectations: medical doctor (but blood made Darwin queasy); parson (rector/clergy); more inclined to
natural history
 Developed *Theory of Evolution based on natural selection
 Social Darwinism
 Traveled around the world for a 5-year voyage on the HMS Beagle to study various plants
o (During his stay @ Christ’s College) *John Stevens Henslow (botany professor) BECAME HIS
MENTOR
o Graduated with BACHELOR OF ARTS DEGREE (1831)
o *Henslow recommended him a NATURALIST’S POSITION aboard the HMS Beagle
 Capt. Robert FitzRoy (captain of HMS Beagle): take a 5-year survey trip around the world
 (December 27, 1831) launching of the voyage – allowed Darwin to collect varieties of
natural specimens (birds, plants, fossils)
 Points of Interests for Darwin: The Pacific Islands, Galapagos Archipelago, South America
– where he had hands-on research and experimentation for botany, geology, zoology
 (1836) return to England – beginning of writing his findings in Journal of Researches
(published as part of Capt. FitzRoy’s larger narrative and later edited into the Zoology of
the Voyage of the Beagle)
 After the trip, *MONUMENTAL EFFECT ON DARWIN’S VIEW OF NATURAL HISTORY:
developing of a *revolutionary theory about the origin of living beings (contrary to the
*popular naturalist view of that time)
 Other naturalists believed the species were created at the start of the world /
over the course of natural history. SPECIES REMAINED THE SAME
THROUGH TIME
 Landmark book: On the Origin of Species (1859)
 THEORY OF EVOLUTION – species survived through a process called natural selection (species that
successfully adapted/evolved to meet the constantly changing requirements of their natural habitat
THRIVED AND REPRODUCED while those who failed to adapt/evolve DIED
o (upon studying plants, birds, fossils) noticed that there are similarities among the species in the
whole world together with variations based on specific locations = species existing and known
today GRADUALLY EVOVLED FROM COMMON ANCESTORS
o Darwin’s Theory of Evolution + Process of Natural Selection = DARWINISM
 ORIGIN OF SPECIES (1858) – public introduction of the revolutionary theory of evolution in a letter at
the meeting of the *Linnean Society
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o (November 24, 1859) – published a detailed explanation of his theory in On the Origin of Species
by Means of Natural Selection
o (next century) – DNA studies gave scientific evidence for the theory; but it was in conflict with
Creationism (religious view that everything was created by God)
 Social Darwinism – collection of ideas in the late 1800s that used Darwin’s theory of evolution to highlight
and expound social and economic issues
o Darwin rarely established a connection between his theories and human society but to explain his
views, he used widely understood concepts such as survival of the fittest from Herbert Spencer
(sociologist)
o (during the Industrial Revolution and laissez faire capitalism) Social Darwinism was used as
justification for imperialism, labor abuses, racism, poverty, eugenics, social inequality
 Died at his family home (Down House, London); buried at Westminster Abbey
 (more than a century after) Richard Brum (Yale ornithologist) tried to revive Darwin’s theory on sexual
selection in The Evolution of Beauty
o Darwin: female aesthetic mating choices became the driving force of evolution
o Brum: had an effective argument through birds’ expertise (The New York Times’ list of 10 best
books of 2017)
REFERENCE:
Biography.com. (2014, April 2). Charles Darwin Biography. Retrieved from The Biography:
https://www.biography.com/scientist/charles-darwin
2Charles Darwin (BBC, n.d.)
 Grandfathers: Erasmus Darwin (doctor, Zoonomia: species could transmute into another); Josiah
Wedgewood (industrialist and anti-slavery campaigner)
 (1838) Darwin’s explanation of transmutation: animals well-adapted to the environment survive longer and
reproduced. Evolution happened through Natural Selection.
 (Summer 1858) Alfred Russel Wallace (admirer of Darwin) set off to travel after his inspiration of the Beagle
Voyage. He wants to arrive at a theory of Natural Selection to publish. Darwin was afraid that Wallace will
take credit.
 (July 1858) publicizing the theory to the Linnean Society – Britain’s leading Natural History body. The
presentation included Darwin’s and Wallace’s work.
 (November 1859) Publishing of On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection
 (June 1860) Darwin’s Theory of Evolution on trial at Oxford University. Thomas Huxley defended the ideas
in public. He went head to head with Bishop Samuel Wilberforce
o Both sides were victors and it was Darwin Legend that shook the Victorian Society
 (February 1871) The Descent of Man – unequivocal account of human evolution (a challenge to Christian
orthodoxy). His ideas were accepted eventually
REFERENCE:
BBC. (n.d.). Charles Darwin: Evolution and the story of our species. Retrieved from BBC - iWonder:
https://www.bbc.com/timelines/zq8gcdm
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Charles Darwin’s Mentors (Grigg, 2010)

 John Stevens Henslow (1796-1861)
o Took part in geological expeditions to the Isle of Wight to the Isle of Man with
Adam Sedgwick
o (1822) Professor of Mineralogy at Cambridge
o (1825) Professor of Botany
o (1824) had been ordained as an Anglican clergyman
o Founder of the Cambridge University Botanical Garden

Aims:
 To analyze the limits of variation within created species
 To use the limits of variation to define species in a practice referred to as collation (he was
conforming that species don’t evolve but only have the capacity to vary within limits)
o Darwin and Henslow had the friendship that influenced the former’s career. Darwin took Henslow’s
5-week botany course three times (1829-1831) The man who walks with Henslow
 Adam Sedgwick (1785-1873)
o (1818) ordained as Anglican clergyman before being a professor of Geology
(Chair of Geology)
o Catastrophist
o Believed in a succession of Divine creative acts throughout the long expanse
of history / long geological ages
o Totally opposed to all theories of biological evolution
o Origin of Species in 1859: more pain than pleasure because it is very opposite
to the inductive truth
REFERENCE:
Grigg, R. (2010, January). Darwin's mentors. Retrieved from Creation.com: https://creation.com/clergy-mentor-
darwin

 Charles Lyell (Charles Lyell, n.d.)

o author, friend, and correspondent to Darwin
o geology and its subjects better remain beset by speculation and uncertainty
o (Principles of Geology, 1830-1833) aimed to explain it philosophically rigorous
science that is based on real life situations that can still be in action at the
present time
o In this/his view, there’s no earth-destroying comets or rising of new mountains
o Darwin became a zealous disciple of Lyell’s book wherein he believes that
small changes can be added up over time to result to big changes
Pieces of advice to Darwin:
 Encouragement to pursue being a naturalist
 Presented a model of being a theorist
 Avoid administrative burdens
o Darwin always believed that half the contents of his books came from Lyell: the gradual operation
of natural selection and the reliance on immense eons of time
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o His view: the difference of humans from all other life forms is reason and the highest application of
reason is science. Natural selection was science at its best but the downside of it was making
humans fundamentally the same as the other forms of life
REFERENCE:
Charles Lyell. (n.d.). Retrieved from University of Cambridge: Darwin Correspondence Project:
https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/charles-lyell

Darwin’s Voyages aboard HMS Beagle (Darwin's Voyages, 2011)

 (1831, age 22) Darwin aboard the survey ship, HMS Beagle as its naturalist
o Beagle – Royal Navy brig 27 m (90 ft) long. 74 people were on board as well as supplies and 22
clocks
 Experience of equipping himself with the fundamental knowledge of geology and biology that are substantial
in developing his theory of evolution
 Shipped more than 1,500 different species
 Had notes about erosion, earthquakes, volcanoes
 England > South America > Pacific Ocean > Galapagos Island > Australia > Mauritius > South Africa
o South America
 exploration to the Southern Coast (now Argentina and Chile)
 Latin America: most important discoveries that helped him in working with his evolutionary
theory
 Brazil: first experience of rainforest
 Argentina and Falkland Islands: found many fossils and geological findings
 Chile (Chiloe Island): has 2 different environments: the Pacific-facing side is very damp and
has high winds that led to an environment rich in vegetation. The continent-facing side is
protected by mountains that has a unique micro-climate; thus, supported native life for
centuries. The eruption of Mt. Osomo also led to an enriched understanding of the Earth’s
geology
o The Galapagos Islands (5-week stay)
 Most unique, scientifically important, and biologically outstanding area
 Witnessed the effects of evolution in isolation
 4/5 islands only: San Cristobal, Floreana, Santiago, Isabela
 Helped in his theory: numerous differences in animals, flora, fauna IN THE DIFFERENT
ISLANDS BUT STILL HAS THE SAME HABITS, IS ANALOGOUS, AND LIVING IN THE
SAME PLACE OF THE NATURAL ECONOMY
REFERENCE:
Darwin's Voyages. (2011, March 26). Retrieved from National Geographic:
https://www.nationalgeographic.com.au/history/darwins-voyages.aspx

(McNamara, 2019)

o Tahiti (November 1835) – New Zealand (late December)

o Australia
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 Impression on Sydney
 Coral reefs
o Cape of Good Hope, South Africa (May 1836) – Atlantic Ocean – St. Helena – British Outpost,
Ascension Island, South Atlantic – South America – Falmouth, England (October 2, 1836)
REFERENCE:
McNamara, R. (2019, June 4). Charles Darwin and His Voyage Aboard H.M.S. Beagle. Retrieved from
ThoughtCo.: https://www.thoughtco.com/charles-darwin-and-his-voyage-1773836

Darwin’s Mission (Wilkin & Brainard, Darwin, 2012)

 Darwin didn’t grasp the belief of his two mentors of long geological ages (where life forms endure and live
just the way they are since creation) and that life forms aren’t just merely created as to what was stated in
the divine Creation; therefore, he set forth into revolutionizing biology: finding out that the accepted fact
during that time wherein life forms are stable and hasn’t change since they were created is false, through
theorizing about evolution.
REFERENCE:
Wilkin, D., & Brainard, J. (2012, February 25). Darwin. Retrieved from cK-12:
https://www.ck12.org/biology/darwin/lesson/Darwins-Voyage-of-the-Beagle-BIO/

Notable Events (Charles Darwin: Time Line, 1996)

 Voyage of Discovery: On Board the Beagle (1831-1836) [see HMS Beagle info]
 Origin of Species I: Preparation and Delay (1836-1858)
o Cambridge > London to prepare his collection of fossils and specimen for scientific publications
o Publication of Journal of Researches (1839)
o Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S Beagle edited by himself, published in 5 volumes (1839-1843)
o 2/3 researches that were conducted on board the Beagle were published: Coral Reefs (1842) and
Volcanic Islands (1943)
o 2 written versions of his developing theory of species evolution: Sketch of 1842 and Essay of 1844
o 4 volumes about living and fossil barnacles were published (1851-54)
o Started writing the Big Book or about the transmutation of species over 2000 pages (1854-1858)
o Interruption of the production of the Big Book due to a letter sent by Wallace (June 18, 1858) where
they had similar results (paper on 1855)
 Origin of Species II: Publication and Debate (1858-1882)
o Presentation of Darwin and Wallace to the Linnean Society (July 1, 1858)
o Publication of Origin of Species (1859) an abstract to the Big Book
o Publication of 5 editions of Origin of Species (1860, 1861, 1866, 1869, 1872) + 3 other works about
species evolution
o The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication (first ed: 1898; second ed: 1875)
o The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (first ed: 1871; second ed: 1874, revised
1877)
o The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals (1872)
o Plants and worms, dealing with the fertilization of orchids by insects (1862), climbing plants (1865),
insectivorous plants (1872), cross and self-fertilization (1876), different flowers on plants of the
same species (1877), movement of plants (1880), production of top-soil by worms (1882)
o Death of Darwin, 73 (April 19, 1882 at Westminster Abbey near Isaac Newton)
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REFERENCE:
Charles Darwin: Time Line. (1996, September). Retrieved from Bertie.ccsu.edu:
https://bertie.ccsu.edu/darwinevol/DarwinTimeLine.html

Evolution (Than, 2018)

 Process by which life forms (organisms) change over time that leads to changes in physical or behavioral
attributes. These changes are said to help the organism adapt to its changing environment and reproduce
 Supported by evidences from paleontology, geology, genetics, developmental biology
 2 main points: (Brian Richmond)
o All life on earth is related to each other
o This existing diversity is from the modifications of populations by natural selection wherein some
traits were more fitting for survival than others
 Natural Selection
o Can change species in small ways = arriving into a population that has a different color or size over
the course of generation and time (microevolution)
o Can also create new species, given the time and changes (macroevolution)
REFERENCE:
Than, K. (2018, February 26). What is Darwin's Theory of Evolution. Retrieved from Live Science:
https://www.livescience.com/474-controversy-evolution-works.html

Evolution as a Process (Brain, 2001)

 Possibility of the DNA to change or mutate either starting from the offspring or even through the generation
 The change or mutation may be either harmful or beneficial
o Beneficial: if the offspring will thrive and adapt better in the environment and reproduction occurs,
then it will be passed down the next generations
o Harmful: if the offspring will die, then reproduction will not happen, resulting to the mutation’s death
 As changes and mutations constantly occur over time, they spread and cause new species to form. The life
forms around us are said to be the evidence
 Even at the start, there was already a process: chemicals were said to arrange themselves that caused
the basic form of life
REFERENCE:
Brain, M. (2001, July 25). How Evolution Works. Retrieved from HowStuffWorks:
https://science.howstuffworks.com/life/evolution/evolution1.htm
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Evolution as a Pattern (Patterns of Evolution Topics, n.d.)

It can follow several different patterns because of several
factors present in the environment [refer back to the
voyage discoveries]
 3 patterns:
o Divergent: when 2 species become increasingly
different. Happens when closely related species
move into different habitats. On a larger scale, it
is responsible in creating biodiversity. On a
smaller scale, it is responsible for evolution of
humans and apes from a primate ancestor
o Convergent: when species of different ancestry begin to share analogous traits due to shared
environment and other selection pressure (e.g. fish)
o Parallel: when 2 species evolve independently of each other while maintaining the same level of
similarity. Occurs between unrelated species that don’t occupy the same niches in a given habitat.
REFERENCE:
Patterns of Evolution Topics. (n.d.). Retrieved from Sparknotes:
https://www.sparknotes.com/biology/evolution/patternsofevolution/section1/

Mechanisms of Evolution

1. Descent with Modification – new organism descends from the previous organism but is genetically
modified; therefore, the change in the gene frequency within the population will occur in a period of time =
these traits are heritable and are passed to the next generations (Evolution 101, n.d.)
2. Basic Mechanism of Change
a. *Adaptation: any characteristic that increases fitness, which is equivalent to survival and
reproduction (Morano, Lopez, & Tan, 2011)
b. *Natural Selection: differential success in the reproduction of phenotypes resulting from the
interaction of organisms and the environment. The fittest survive and contribute their genes to
offspring; thus, creating a population (Morano, Lopez, & Tan, 2011). Three types:
i. Stabilizing selection – environment continually eliminates individuals at extremes of a
population
ii. Disruptive selection – environment splits population into two or more populations due to
favoring the extreme types in a population at the expense of intermediate forms
iii. Directional selection – environment acts for or against an extreme characteristic, resulting
to a replacement of one gene group with another gene group (e.g. antibiotic-resistant
bacteria)
c. Artificial Selection: farmers and breeders (people) are the ones in control of reproduction of organisms,
not nature. They engineer or match organisms with desirable characteristics to reproduce, leading also
to evolution (new species/organisms) (Evolution 101, n.d.)
d. *Genetic Drift: when a small group of organisms leaves a population and moves into a new area that
is geographically isolated region (Morano, Lopez, & Tan, 2011)
3. Genetic Variation – variation in DNA sequence and genome
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a. *Mutation: driving force of evolution and is a rare/random change in the population’s gene pool,
creating an ultimate genetic diversity. Source of variation in a population. Can be harmful or
beneficial (Morano, Lopez, & Tan, 2011)
b. *Gene Flow: may occur during the migration of individuals from one group to another. They
contribute their genes to the genes of the local population. It may refer to loss or gain of alleles in
a population due to migration. Gene flow may also increase the similarities between remaining
populations of the same species (Morano, Lopez, & Tan, 2011)
c. Sex: production of offspring, transfer and combination of DNA to form a unique organism.
Changes/evolves over time, space, ability to adapt to the environment, number within population
(Otto, 2008). Can also introduce new gene combinations to a population/genetic shuffling (Evolution
101, n.d.)
d. Recombination: formation and combination of new genes during meiosis that cannot be done in
natural selection (because in natural selection, it only makes use of the existing genetic variations)
(O'Neil, n.d.)
4. Genetic Drift – per generation, some individuals may leave (by chance) a few descendants together with
their genes MORE than the other individuals. Those who were left may still contribute to the genes of the
next generation, thus, the next generation will carry the genes of the “lucky” individuals (left descendants);
however, it doesn’t mean that its healthier or better. HAPPENS TO ALL POPULATIONS (Evolution 101,
n.d.)
5. Coevolution – as one species change, the other species must also change in order to adapt. Simply, it
occurs when species EVOLVE together. This is most common in species with symbiotic relationships:
(Wilkin & Brainard, Coevolution, 2012)
a. Predator/prey
b. Parasite/host
c. Competitive species
d. Mutualistic species
REFERENCES:
Evolution 101. (n.d.). Retrieved from Understanding Evolution:
https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evo_24

Morano, L. N., Lopez, C. S., & Tan, A. S. (2011). Fundamentals of Biology I. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing Inc.

O'Neil, D. (n.d.). Recombination. Retrieved from Palomar.edu:

https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/synthetic/synth_7.htm

Otto, S. P. (2008). Sexual Reproduction and Evolution of Sex. Retrieved from Scitable by Nature Education:
https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/sexual-reproduction-and-the-evolution-of-sex-824

Wilkin, D., & Brainard, J. (2012, February 25). Coevolution. Retrieved from cK-12:
https://www.ck12.org/biology/coevolution/lesson/Coevolution-BIO/
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Evolution and the Origins of Life (Johnson, 2017)

Evolution – an unpredictable and natural process of descent over time with genetic modification
 Descent over time. As generations continue, populations of organisms are/can be subjected to changes
that lead to differences from their ancestors. One instance can also happen wherein a population diversifies
into t other populations that are entirely different and no longer acts for reproduction, birthing to new species.
 Genetic modification. Change in genes initiate the process of change for the organisms.
 Unpredictable and natural. Evolution happens by chance, natural selection (involvement of nature for
adaptation), historical events, and shifting environments.
Theory of Evolution is associated with Charles Darwin (British naturalist of the mid-1800s) where he hypothesized
that life arose only once, probably from the primordial sea and what we know about life up until know just descended
from the said life-form.
Darwin preferred the phrase “descent with change” or “descent with modification” instead of using evolution. The
first two interchangeable phrases resulted from natural selection (Darwin).
There has never been a worthy scientific challenge to the theory about how life on Earth came about.
Evidences for Evolution
Fossils, comparative anatomy and embryology, biochemistry, biogeography
1. Fossils – remnants of organisms that lived in the past (bones, teeth, shells, spores, seeds). They are only
preserved if after death, they are soon covered with sediments or volcanic ash (stratification). Over time,
they become mineralized as those with rocks. We are most likely to see fossils that are produced in large
numbers or within big populations. Usually it can be mostly found on land but there can be instances where
they are under the sea.
a. Fossil’s age. Points out when in history and how body structures have changed over time. By
examining stratification (sediments and volcanic ash are laid down layer upon layer), and if the
fossils are found in the same location in different layers, the possibility of telling the chronology of
fossils from the older one to the younger one. Relative relationships.
i. Radiometric dating – used to date rocks and fossils. Makes use of some atoms (radioactive
isotopes), which are unstable. These isotopes radiate particles until they become more
stable, and even become a different, more stable atom. If measuring the radioactive
isotopes in a mineral, you can get the age of the mineral. Usually the isotope used is
radioactive potassium which then converts to argon (gas). The half life of radioactive
potassium is 1.3 billion years. The argon will be trapped in the rock which can be used to
estimate the rock’s actual age.
2. Comparative anatomy and embryology – comparison of animal anatomy and embryo development. In
the context of evolution, these are the anatomical structures:
a. Homologous – body structures that share a common ancestor. The degree where these structures
can be used to infer the closeness of evolutionary relatedness.
b. Analogous – structures that has the same function but did not come from same ancestor
c. Vestigial – little or no function in an organism. Sometimes, for some organism, the structure may
be vestigial, but for the other organism, it is still functional, meaning it can be inferred that it is
homologous (sharing the same ancestor)
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Picture 1: homologous structure

Picture 2: analogous structure

Picture 3: vestigial structure

comparisons of the embryos of animals – most common for vertebrates (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals)
because they follow the same pattern.
 Development of notochord (core of the intervertebral disks)
 Somites (will become bone, muscle, skin)
 Series of arches below the head / gill arches / pharyngeal arches

3. Comparative biochemistry for examining similarities between molecules – make use of proteins and
genes to determine relationships among species. If two species are identical or nearly identical in
biochemical molecules, it can be inferred that they are from a common ancestry (homologous molecules).
Sometimes, they are from diverging evolutionary paths where one species becomes two different species.
a. Mutations. If it occurs over long periods of time, it may gradually modify the original molecule into
two new species. The greater the difference between two molecules of the same function in two
species, the earlier are these two species diverged from a common ancestor.
i. Cytochrome c (important protein in the metabolic pathways for energy exchange) is found
in yeasts to humans.
1. In humans = 104 amino acids
2. In chimpanzees = identical to humans
3. In human and chimpanzees = 1 amino acid different from rhesus monkeys
a. THEREFORE, HUMANS ARE MORE CLOSELY RELATED TO
CHIMPANZEES THAN TO RHESUS MONKEYS AND THAT HUMANS
ARE ALSO MORE RELATED TO OTHER PRIMATES THAN CHICKEN
OR YEASTS
4. Biogeography – study of the distribution of plants and animals around the world. This answers the question,
why do we see plants and animals only in some parts of the world? MIGRATION, BLOCKERS, and
CONTINENTAL DRIFT.
a. Migration. If an organism’s ability to migrate is inhibited if it lives in an isolated region such as an
island or where there are geographic barriers. If this is possible, it often occurs that closely related
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organisms evolve first in one location and then spread to regions that are accessible to and can
benefit them.
b. Blockers. These comprises physical barriers, environments wherein they threaten survival of the
organism. If organisms are able to overcome or has already dispersed/migrated and have adjusted
to the new conditions of the location, then we can see the essence of geography on evolution and
distribution of life forms.
c. Continental Drift. Plates slowly moved over time and by this, some related organisms were
isolated from each other and have evolved separately but still following parallel paths. There are
still similarities.

Natural Selection Contributes to Evolution – DNA contains all the codes for an organism’s life processes and if
all organisms have the same set of DNA, they will all be 100% identical in both form and function. However,
differences in DNA result to differences among species and even among individuals belonging to a species.
 Random mutations underlie evolution
o Gene pool changes gradually in respect to time due to mutations occurring in the genes of individual
members of the said species
o Mutations are rare accidental events that produces a different form of a gene: allele.
o Mutations can be: neutral, detrimental, beneficial
o Accumulating mutations may cause changes to physical and functional traits
o “ may cause divergence of species into two
o WITHOUT MUTATIONS, THERE WILL BE NO EVOLUTION
 Natural selection encourages changes in the gene pool
o Mutations alone cannot take over evolution. There will always be a contribution from natural
selection
o Organisms interact with their home environment = varying life span
o Allele frequency in a gene pool of species DEPENDS on the survival rate of that allele
o Natural selection means that INDIVIDUALS WHO HAVE MORE ADAPTIVE AND RESPONSIVE
TRAITS ARE FITTER TO LIVE IN THEIR PRESENT ENVIRONMENT THAN THOSE WITHOUT
THESE SAID TRAITS. THE LATTER WILL HAVE LESS CHANCE TO SURVIVE AND
REPRODUCE.
o Mutation + natural selection = certain genes to increase and others to decrease within a gene pool
of a population
 Genetic drift and gene flow alter populations
o Population – group of individuals of the same species that live in the same geographical area
o Not only natural selection affects evolution: genetic drift, gene flow, selective hunting
 Genetic Drift. Random changes in allele frequency because of chance events. Usually
occurs in small populations because they are more susceptible to change.
 Bottleneck effect – occurs when a major catastrophe strikes a population and
wipes it out regardless of fitness.
 Founder effect – occurs when a few individuals leave the original group and begin
a new population in a different area. In both cases, the few genes left in the gene
pool cannot be considered as a representative of the original population nor the
most fit genes.
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 Gene Flow. Geographical redistribution of alleles that tends to mix gene pools or might not
mix. Movement of organisms may be immigration (into) and out of (emigration) the
population.
 Antigenic shift – rapid change in a virus where it results to different combination
of genes resulting to more danger.
 Mass extinctions eliminated many species
o Extinction – when a life form dies out completely
o Permian-Triassic: largest mass extinction
 Evolutionary trees trace relationships between species
o Evolutionary tree (phylogenic tree) – illustration of the evolutionary change and relationships among
species.
 Branches – point of divergence between two species
 Length of the branches – time
 Adaptive radiation – numerous branches from a single point on the tree

REFERENCE:
Johnson, M. D. (2017). Human Biology: Concepts and Current Issues. Essex: Pearson Education Limited .
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The HMS Beagle Route

Darwin’s Observed Species (Darwin's Creatures, 2009)

Organism Description Image
Beetles - First passion as a naturalist
- Distraction from Christ’s
College, Cambridge

Barnacles - 8 yrs of study

- stalling act
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Tortoise - from Galapagos Islands

- varying tortoises
- identical geology, elevation,
and climate but house
distinctive creatures

Mockingbirds - comparison of 2
mockingbirds from the G.I, 1
from San Cristobal, 1 from
Floreana
- hint that species might evolve
over time

Finch - from Galapagos Islands

- each species’ geographical
isolation and unique attributes
(beaks) adapted for particular
food sources
- cactus-eater, seed-eater,
insect-eater

Rhea - in Patagonia
- eating it at the time
Salvage the head, neck, wings,
some feathers
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Pigeon - 1850s
- selective breeding over
successive generations
- process was analogous to
evolution through natural
selection

Plants - intrigued of the way plants

adapted to growing in nutrient-
poor sol by trapping insects
- plant should secrete when
properly excited, a fluid with
acid and ferment, closely
analogous to the digestive fluid
of an animal

Sand Lady’s Slippers - adaptations were as varied

and almost as perfect as any of
the most beautiful adaptations
in the animal kingdom

Primates (Capuchin monkey) - similarity of expressions

between humans and primates
- photographs for Expression
of the Emotions in Man and
Animals
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Bees and Ants - problem of cooperation in

social insects (hindrance)
- how could phenomena like
sterile slave workers and the
ability to build complex hives
have evolved?

Earthworms - If these lowly organized

creatures contribute to the
history of the world
- role in the formation of
vegetable mold
- intelligence testing

Fossils

Physical Evolution and Genetic Evolution

 Genetic Evolution – how genetic variation results to evolutionary change. It comprises the evolution of
genome structure, genetic basis of speciation and adaptation, and genetic change responsible to selection
within species
 Physical Evolution – changes in the appearance of species over a period of time. Change in the physical
characteristics (phenotype) of an organism
Understanding Evolution as a Process through Beetles (Evolution 101, n.d.)
Beetles have…
1. Variation in traits. Some beetles are green, some are brown.
2. Differential reproduction. Environment can’t support unlimited reproduction between the two variations of
beetles. In one case, the green beetles are eaten by birds due to them being easily seen; thus, they tend to
reproduce less than those of the brown beetles
3. Heredity. Newborn beetles are brown because this has a genetic basis from reproduction
4. Ending. The more beneficial it is to an organism’s trait, that trait is said to become more common in the
population (proliferation). If this PROCESS continues, then all individuals in that particular population will
be brown.
If you have VARIATION, DIFFERENTIAL REPRODUCTION, and HEREDITY, you will have evolution by natural
selection.
REFERENCE: Evolution 101. (n.d.). Retrieved from Understanding Evolution:
https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evo_24
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BBC. (n.d.). Charles Darwin: Evolution and the story of our species. Retrieved from BBC - iWonder:
https://www.bbc.com/timelines/zq8gcdm

Biography.com. (2014, April 2). Charles Darwin Biography. Retrieved from The Biography:
https://www.biography.com/scientist/charles-darwin

Brain, M. (2001, July 25). How Evolution Works. Retrieved from HowStuffWorks:
https://science.howstuffworks.com/life/evolution/evolution1.htm

Charles Darwin: Time Line. (1996, September). Retrieved from Bertie.ccsu.edu:

https://bertie.ccsu.edu/darwinevol/DarwinTimeLine.html

Charles Lyell. (n.d.). Retrieved from University of Cambridge: Darwin Correspondence Project:
https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/charles-lyell

Darwin's Creatures. (2009, February 12). Retrieved from The Guardian:

https://www.theguardian.com/science/gallery/2009/feb/12/charles-darwin-evolution-natural-
selection

Darwin's Voyages. (2011, March 26). Retrieved from National Geographic:

https://www.nationalgeographic.com.au/history/darwins-voyages.aspx

Evolution 101. (n.d.). Retrieved from Understanding Evolution:

https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evo_24

Grigg, R. (2010, January). Darwin's mentors. Retrieved from Creation.com: https://creation.com/clergy-mentor-

darwin

Johnson, M. D. (2017). Human Biology: Concepts and Current Issues. Essex: Pearson Education Limited .

McNamara, R. (2019, June 4). Charles Darwin and His Voyage Aboard H.M.S. Beagle. Retrieved from
ThoughtCo.: https://www.thoughtco.com/charles-darwin-and-his-voyage-1773836

Morano, L. N., Lopez, C. S., & Tan, A. S. (2011). Fundamentals of Biology I. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing Inc.

O'Neil, D. (n.d.). Recombination. Retrieved from Palomar.edu:

https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/synthetic/synth_7.htm

Otto, S. P. (2008). Sexual Reproduction and Evolution of Sex. Retrieved from Scitable by Nature Education:
https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/sexual-reproduction-and-the-evolution-of-sex-824

Patterns of Evolution Topics. (n.d.). Retrieved from Sparknotes:

https://www.sparknotes.com/biology/evolution/patternsofevolution/section1/

Than, K. (2018, February 26). What is Darwin's Theory of Evolution. Retrieved from Live Science:
https://www.livescience.com/474-controversy-evolution-works.html

Wilkin, D., & Brainard, J. (2012, February 25). Coevolution. Retrieved from cK-12:
https://www.ck12.org/biology/coevolution/lesson/Coevolution-BIO/

Wilkin, D., & Brainard, J. (2012, February 25). Darwin. Retrieved from cK-12:
https://www.ck12.org/biology/darwin/lesson/Darwins-Voyage-of-the-Beagle-BIO/
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ECOLOGY
 aka bioecology, bionomics, environmental biology
 study of the relationships between organisms and their environment
(EVERYTHING YOU SEE AROUND YOU AND HOW YOU INTERACT WITH
THEM)
 coined by Ernst Haeckel (German zoologist) oekologie (relation of the animal
both to its organic as well as its inorganic environment)
 came from the Greek word oikos meaning “household”, “home”, “place to live”
 ecology deals with the organism and its environment
 of how it becomes a home

Ecosystem
 the complex relationship between living and nonliving things
 foundation of the Biosphere and the foundation of natural balance because it is
where the basic interactions between every organism take place
 in an ecosystem, each organism inside has its own role, therefore, if any alien
enters, it is considered as a threat, because it has the tendency to disrupt the
balance existing in the ecosystem.
 Aliens: natural to man-made calamities
Components of the Ecosystem
2 major divisions: ABIOTIC COMPONENTS AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS
 Abiotic Components
o Nonliving things
o Minerals, climate, soil, water, sunlight
 Biotic Components
o Living things
o You, animals, plants, etc.
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All these components enable energy to flow in the ecosystem as well as the
nutrients
 Sun’s energy is the primary source of energy in all of the ecosystems because
it is readily available and there is no need for human intervention to happen to
produce this
 Autotrophs (self-sustaining organisms) absorb this energy and undergo
photosynthesis where the energy from the sun is used to convert CARBON
DIOXIDE and WATER into simple carbohydrates.
 These carbohydrates are storages for energy for the production of organic
components such as lipids, proteins and starches for the survival of the
organism
 Autotrophs = producers
 the organic compounds produced by the autotrophs are needed for the survival
of the heterotrophs = consumers (incapable of producing their own food)
Types of Ecosystems
3 types of ecosystem = biomes
 aquatic biomes – in water bodies (oceans, rivers, seas, lakes, springs)
o pond ecosystem: smaller and for mostly amphibians and insects,
sometimes, fishes
o river ecosystem: fishes, plants, amphibians, insects, and birds that hunt
for small fishes
o shallow water ecosystem: tiny fishes and corals close to land
o deep water ecosystem: gigantic sea creatures
 Terrestrial Biomes – on land (forests, deserts, grasslands, tundras, coastal
regions)
o Rainforests: extremely dense because of a variety of small organisms in
tiny areas
o Tundra: relatively simple since few life forms can survive in here
o Deserts: opposite of tundra, but have extreme conditions. Animals would
prefer heat than cold.
o Forests: most abundant since it can support a lot of life forms
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 Lentic Biomes – support both aquatic and terrestrial life forms (swamps,
mangroves?). photosynthesis is the only requirement
Trophic Levels, Food Chain, and Food Web
Trophic Level – nutritive levels in a food chain. Feeding patterns categorize the
organisms in trophic levels
FOOD CHAIN:
 Producers are at the lowest level of the chain
 Consumers of the producers are at the second level (herbivore or carnivore or
omnivore)
 Carnivores that eat herbivores and carnivores that eat carnivores make up for
the third level, as well as omnivores
 Quaternary consumers are those who ate these carnivores or omnivores
 Decomposers make up for a different or topmost level because they help in
breaking down the waste materials and turn them back into nutrients for the
producers to use again.
 APEX CONSUMERS: THE TOPMOST ORGANISMS IN A FOOD CHAIN
FOOD WEB: the interlinking of feeding relationships of various communities of
organisms