MEASUREMENTS

CONVERSIONS
SI Units – Base quantities • Conversions between units are very helpful. The use
of different units has again and again lead to errors,
sometimes with bad consequences.
Length Meter m • The conversion of units is also a frequent source of
errors engineering and science (and exams).
Time second s • But it is easy to avoid.
• Avoid skipping the units (for example because it is less
writing time)
Mass kilogram kg
– Are all the ingredients for a problem in the same
units? If not, it is good practice to perform the
Electric current Ampere A conversion, before doing any algebra.
– Basic SI units are always safe
Temperature kelvin K – It is OK to us km or nm, but need to take care that you
don’t mix m and km
Amount of mole mol – Develop good practice.
substance

Luminous Candela Cd
intensity

Prefixes
• Depending on the scale one often likes to use prefixes.
• Example, for length it is convenient to use
km = 1000m when traveling by car, or
nm=10^-9m when discussing molecular scale
objects.
Multiple Prefix Abbreviation
1018 exa E
1015 peta P
1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo K
Measurement and Significant figures
102 hecto h • A measurement has a precision (or error).
101 deka da • Significant figures reflect the precision of the
-1 measurement.
10 deci d
Example:
10-2 centi c • Pocket calculator
10-3 milli m • White board,
• Web Assign intro
10-6 micro µ
10-9 nano n Physical quantity is the property of an object that can be
quantified. For instance, the physical quantities are the
10-12 pico p length of a rod or the mass of a body.
-15
10 femto f
Measurement is the act of comparing a physical quantity
10-18 atto a
with its unit.
Measurement result is the value of a physical quantity
obtained by means of measurement.
This value can be expressed as the product of numerical
value and corresponding unit. The complete
presentation of the measurement result must contain
the information about the uncertainty (see below).
Uncertainty gives the range of possible values of the
measurand, which covers the true value of the
measurand. Thus uncertainty characterizes the spread of
measurement results. The interval of possible values of
measurand is commonly accompanied with the
confidence level.
Therefore, the uncertainty also indicates a doubt about
how well the result of the measurement presents the
value of the quantity being measured.
The symbol for uncertainty is u or U, depending on what
kind of uncertainty is regarded. The uncertainty
expressed as the experimental standard deviation is
called the standard uncertainty (u).
The product of the standard uncertainty and the factor
larger than one, known as coverage factor (symbol k), is
called the expanded uncertainty (U).
Consequently U=k·u.
Commonly expanded uncertainty is equal to the half-
width of an interval having a stated level of confidence.
(The coverage factor depends on the probability
distribution and on the confidence level.)
Direct measurement is a measurement in case of which
the value of a physical quantity in question is obtained
directly from the instrument scale.
Indirect measurement is a measurement in case of
which the value being sought for a quantity is calculated
by a known relationship (formula) between that quantity
and the quantities subject to a direct measurement.
Measurement units
By making the measurements the units are of great
importance.
Nowadays the most common system of units is the
International System of Units (Systeme International
d’Unites, abbreviation SI).
The International System of Units (SI) specifies a set of
seven base units from which all other units of
measurement are built up. Derived units are based on
those seven base units.
SI base units are:
for length (l) - metre (m),
for mass (m) - kilogram (kg),
for time (t) - second (s),
for electric current (I,i) - ampere (A),
for thermodynamic temperature (T) - kelvin (K),
for amount of substance (n) - mole (mol),
for luminous intensity (Iv) - candela (cd).
In the physics laboratory almost all units must be
converted into the SI system.
Significant figures
The significant figures are all number s 1, 2, 3, …, 9, and
0 if it lies between the numbers 1 …
9 or at the end of an integer or decimal. The zeros
situated at the beginning of decimal are not considered
as significant figures.
Example. In the number 0.06503 there are four
significant figures (the first significant digit is
6 and the last one is 3), but the number 20.620 has five
significant figures (all digits are significant).
The integer 5200 has four significant figures.
Dimensions are basic types of quantities that can be
measured or computed. Examples are length, time,
mass, electric current, and temperature.
A unit is a standard amount of a dimensional quantity.
There is a need for a system of units.
A derived unit is composed of combinations of base
units.
Example: The SI unit of energy is the joule.
1 joule = 1 kg m2/sec2
Derived unit Base units
1 mile = 1609 m
= 1.609 km
1 ft = 0.3048 m
= 30.48 cm
1m = 39.37 in
= 3.281 ft
1 in = 0.0254 m
= 2.54 cm
A measurement is an experimental process to acquire
new knowledge about a product.

A measurement is the realization of planned actions for

the quantitative comparison of a measurand with a unit.

A measurand is the physical quantity that is to be

measured.

Generally, a measurand is the input of a measurement

system.

Measuring is a process for ascertaining or determining

the quantity of a product by application of some object
of known size or capacity, or by comparison with some
fixed unit.

Measurement error is defined as the difference between

the distorted information and the undistorted
information about a measured product, expressed in its
measurands.
In short, an error is defined as real (untrue, wrong, false,
no go) value at the output of a measurement system
minus ideal (true, good, right, go) value at the input of a
measurement system according to (1):
▲x = xr − xi

Where: ▲x is the error of measurement, xr is the real

untrue measurement value, and xi is the ideal true
measurement value.