LEARNING

Learning: Some Key Terms

 Learning: Relatively permanent change in behavior due

to experience
 Does NOT include temporary changes due to
disease, injury, or maturation
 Reinforcement: Any event that increases the
probability that a response will recur

Major Types of Learning

1) Classical Conditioning: Event-Event learning
o Pavlov and his dogs; Watson and Little Albert
2) Operant Conditioning: Behavior-Consequence learning
o Thorndike; Skinner
3) Observational Learning: watch and imitate
o Bandura and BoBo doll experiment

Classical Conditioning and Ivan Pavlov

 Russian physiologist who initially was studying digestion
 Used dogs to study salivation when dogs were presented with meat powder
 Also known as Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning

Classical Conditioning Terminology

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
 An event that consistently and automatically elicits an unconditioned response
Unconditioned Response (UR)
 An action that the unconditioned stimulus automatically elicits
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
 Initially a neutral stimulus. After repeated pairings with the unconditioned stimulus, the
CS elicits the same response as the US.
Conditioned Response (CR)
 The response elicited by the conditioned stimulus due to the training.

Principles of Classical Conditioning

 Acquisition: Training period when a response is reinforced (the CS is followed closely by
the US)
 Extinction: Weakening of a conditioned response through removal of reinforcement
 Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a learned response following apparent
extinction

Higher – Order Conditioning

 Previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit the response brought forth by a conditioned
stimulus by being paired repeatedly with that conditioned stimulus.

Principles of Classical Conditioning

 Stimulus Generalization: A tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not
identical, to a conditioned stimulus (e.g., responding to a buzzer when the conditioned
stimulus during training was a bell)
 Stimulus Discrimination: The learned ability to respond differently to various stimuli (e.g.,
Paula will respond differently to various bells (alarms, school, timer)

Classical Conditioning in Humans

 Phobia: Intense, unrealistic, irrational fear of a specific situation or object (e.g.,
arachnophobia; fear of spiders; see the movie!)
 Conditioned Emotional Response: Learned emotional reaction to a previously neutral
stimulus
 Desensitization: Exposing phobic people gradually to feared stimuli while they stay calm
and relaxed
Operant Conditioning
(Instrumental Learning)
 Definition: Learning based on the consequences of responding; we associate responses
with their consequences
 Law of Effect (Thorndike): The probability of a response is altered by the effect it has;
responses that lead to desired effects are repeated; those that lead to undesired effects
are not
 Operant Reinforcer: Any event that follows a response and increases its likelihood of
recurring
 Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box): Apparatus designed to study operant conditioning
in animals

Timing of Reinforcement
Operant reinforcement most effective when given immediately after a correct response

Types of Operant Reinforcers

Primary Reinforcer: Non-learned and natural; satisfies biological needs (e.g., food, water,
sex)
Secondary Reinforcer: Learned reinforcer (e.g., money, grades, etc.)
Social Reinforcer: Learned desires for attention and approval

Reinforcement and Punishment

Reinforcement: When a response is followed by a reward or other positive event and the
effect is to increase the likelihood of it recurring (e.g., praising desired behavior)
Punishment: Any event that follows a response and decreases the likelihood of it recurring
(e.g., a spanking)

Types of Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement: Involves adding something to increase a response.
Negative Reinforcement: Involves removing something in order to increase a response

Types of Punishment
Positive Punishment: occurs when we introduce
something to stop an unwanted behavior.
Negative Punishment: when we take something
away after an undesirable behavior occurs.

Intermittent Schedules of Partial Reinforcement

Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR): A set number of correct responses must be made to obtain a
reinforcer.
Variable Ratio Schedule (VR): Varied number of correct responses must be made to get a
reinforcer.
Fixed Interval Schedule (FI): The first correct response made after a certain amount of time
has elapsed is reinforced; produces moderate response rates.
Variable Interval Schedule (VI): Reinforcement is given for the first correct response made
after a varied amount of time

Modeling or Observational Learning

(Albert Bandura)
Model: Someone who serves as an example in observational learning
Occurs by watching and imitating actions of another person or by noting consequences of a
person’s actions
Occurs before direct practice is allowed

Steps to Successful Modeling

Pay attention to model.
Remember what was done.
Be able to reproduce modeled behavior.
If a model is successful or his/her behavior is rewarded, behavior more likely to be imitated.