Journal of Marketing Communications

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Self-concept theory: applications in advertising

George M. Zinkhan , Diana L. Haytko & Alison Ward

To cite this article: George M. Zinkhan , Diana L. Haytko & Alison Ward (1996) Self-concept
theory: applications in advertising, Journal of Marketing Communications, 2:1, 1-19, DOI:
10.1080/13527269600000001

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Published online: 24 May 2006.

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JOURNAL OF MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS 2 1-1 9 (1 996)

Self-concept theory: applications in

advertising

GEORGE M. ZINKHAN'*, D I A N A L. H A Y T K O ~A N D ALISON WARD'

'university of Georgia, Terry College of Business, Marketing Ilepartment, Athens, GA
30602, 2 ~ n i v e r s i t yof Illinois, Department of Business Administration, 350 Comnlerce West
Building, 1206 South Sixth Street, Champaign, IL 61820 and "outhwest Information
Resources, 7155 Old Katy Road, Houston, TX 77024, USA

The notion o f self-concept has been proven to be useful for thinking about a wide
variety o f marketing phenomena. Here, self-concept theory is applied to the issue o f
advertising effectiveness. T w o frameworks are developed: one from an academic
perspective (relying upon published literature) and the other from a managerial
perspective (relying upon interviews with advertising managers). An attempt is
made to bring these two approaches (academic versus practitioner) closer together.
KEYWORDS: self-concept theory; advertising effectiveness; academic perspective; man:~gerial
perspective

INTRODUCTION
Understanding why people buy allows advertising managers to bring advertising strategy in
line with consumer motivations (O'Shaughnessy, 1987). Thus, understanding synibolic
consumer behaviour may aid in the creation of effective advertising. Levy (1959) was one of
the first to argue that consulners are not functionally oriented and that behaviour is affected
by syn~bolsencountered in thc market-place. For many years, consumer resenrchers have
examined the cultural and syrnbolic meanings of products (e.g. Hirschman, 1986; Mick, 1986;
Belk, 1988; McCracken, 1988). This synlbolic meaning is often social in nature. As such,
goods and services are a type of social tool that can serve as a means of cornnlunic:~tion
between people ( G n ~ b band Grathwohl, 1967). The essence of the product, then, becomes
not only the physical product itself, but also the relationship between the product, the owner
and society as a whole (Hyatt, 1992).
Advertising is hypothesized to be a key vehicle of meaning transfer within a culture
(McCracken, 1986). Advertising acts to transfer meaning by bringing the consumer good and
a representation of the culturally constituted world together within the frame of a particular
advertisement. Upon exposure, the consumer recognizes the sin~ilaritybetween the world and
the advertisement. In this way, the consumer uses advertising images as a way of interpreting

*To whom correspondence should be addressed.

1352-7266 0 1996 Chapman & Hall

2 ZINKHAN e t al.

the \vorld. Advertisers attempt to give products 111eaning through the production of the
;~dvertisenletititself. I'roducers can intend t1i;lt products \\rill :lcquire certain meanings, b ~ ~ t
they cannot control how consumers interpret the Illessage o r the 'i~ni~ltcnded meaning' that
may arise once the advertisc~nent beconles ditfi~scd in the cultural symbol systelll (I'ollay,
1986). Upon interacting \vith advertising mcssages, the consumer intc~yrets a n d assigns
meaning to the product through the filter of sclf-concept. As such, the ~neanirlgsattributed to
the product \\:ill be based on consumers' self-concepts (Haytko, 1994). L'rovided that the
consumer values the meanings attributed to the product, thesc meanings nlay then be
jncorporatcd back into the self-concept rhroi~gh r i t ~ ~ a l(McCrackcn,
s 1086; Haytko, 1994).
'This is not to say that self-concept is a stable rnti ty. 0 1 1 the contrary, the self is continually
defined and redefined through exposure to c u l t ~ ~ r synibolism
al : ~ n dexperience with products,
inclutiing the advertising for such products. In SLII~I, the impact of a sy~ilbolic meaning
depends upon both the product syn~bol (a suljectivc menning assigned to a product) as
presented in the advertising and the consun~crs'self-image (a nicnt;ll p i c t ~ ~ rreprcscnti~~g
e an
entity) and, if thesc two dinlensions arc not congruent (i.c. the product nicarii~igcalign with
~erceptionsof the self), then the advertisi~igIn:iy be inetfective (Hong and Zinkha~i, 1995).
Since syr~~bolism plays such an i ~ ~ i p o r t a nrole
t in advertising and buyer behaviour, self-
concept is espcctcd to be n key element in influencing advertising cffkctiveness ( S i r e , 1956).
I-Iowever, to date, there has been relatively little ~rcsearch conducted in order to determine
the circumstances under which self-concept appeals in advertising \vill be et&ctive. In
addition, it is not clear \vhich self-concept (actual versus ideal) \\:ill generate the greatest
consumer response.
T h e objectives of this paper are 3-fold: (1) to summarize the nlarkcting self-concept
literature related to advertising effi-ctivc~~c.ss, (2) to exanline ho\v self-concept principles are
applied by advertisi~lgmanagers and (3) to de\:elop :I drcision diagram applying sclf-concept
theory to advertising efGctivcncss.

SELF-CONCEPT DEFINITIONS
A number of definitions have been proposed for the ternl, self-concept. Scholars d o 11ot yet
agree as to the precise coriceptualizatio~l of the term; ho\vever, ;I basic dcfil~ition is 'the
totality of an individual's thoughts and feelings having reference to llim/hcrself as an object'
(Kosenberg, 1979, p. 7). Self-concept denotes individuals' subjective t l ~ o u g l ~ t to\vards s
themselves and the images shaped by individuals about themselves (Zinkhan and H o ~ l g ,1991).
In this sense, self-concept is a type of attitude. It diKers from other :~ttitudes \\:hicti are
perceptual products of external objects bec;luse it is an in1:lge shaped by the person having it.
Self-concept is a m~~ltidimensional characteristic. A person call holcl m:lriy different rolcs in
life such as s not her, teacher, part-time student, democrat and intellectual all at the same timz.
Each of these rolcs influences the sclf-concept.
T h e definition presented above describes 'actual self-concept'. \vhich is the \\lay individuals
actually view thetilselves. While actual self-corlcept is based upon the perceptual reality of the
self, the 'ideal' is shaped by the iniagned self state (Hong and Zinkhan, 1905). Most often,
ideal self-concept is the reference point against which the a c t ~ ~ ~a l l is f conlparcd. If there is a
discrepancy between the two, the individual works to nchieve the idcal stclte. As such, the
idcal self is a motivational force driving the indi\rid~~al upward. Actual and ideal self-concepts
both have social dimensions. Third and fourth self-concepts ;ire created by considering the
image which other people are imagined to hold of the individual ('social self-concept') and
SELF-CONCEPT THEORY 3

the image that consumers of publicly visible products want other people to hold about them
('ideal social self-concept'). It is not known whether actual self-concept describes behaviour
better than ideal self-concept (Sirgy, 1982).
As mentioned above, the ideal self acts as a motive driving the consumer to an aspired
state, which Cohen (1959) ternled self-esteem. Because of self-esteem, consumers are
motivated to purchase a product to maintain a positive self-image o r to enhance the self
through an ideal image and to avoid purchasing a product which might lower their self-
esteem (Sirgy, 1982). In contrast, Kosenberg (1979) defined self-consistency as the motive to
act in accordance with self-concept and to maintain this self-concept in the face of potentially
challenging forces. Consunlers are motivated to purchase a product with an image congruent
with the self-image belief. This purchase behaviour is caused by the effort to maintain
consistency between behaviour and self-image beliefs and to avoid dissona~lceresulting fro111
behaviour/self-image belief discrepancies (Sirgy, 1982). It should also be noted that consumers
may not want to express themselves in a purchase, but rather project an image that is sccn as
desirable to others (Landon, 1974).

THE SELF-CONCEPT AND THE MEANS-END CHAIN

T h e use of the self-concept in advertising cannot be considered in isolation from more
general theories of motivation, beliek, attitudes and behaviour. Lewin's (1936) field theory
proposed that a consumer's purchase behaviour is motivated by a desire to move the currently
perceived state of self to a more desired state. It underlies contemporary means-end models
such as Grey advertising's benefit chain (Young and Feign, 1975), Dickson's (1982) person-
situation benefit segmentation and Zeithand's (1988) model of quality and value. Basically the
theory proposes that w e use products and services as instmments o r means to help us along a
path that ends at achieving the goal of moving the self to a more desired state of nature. T h e
way w e desire to change ourselves may be physical (Gatorade for quenching a thirst),
intellectual (learning through travel), spiritual (going to church) and emotional (watching a
soap opera).
T h e concept of perceived actual and desired self is integral to this theory and consequently
modern self-concept theories can be readily integrated. In the above aspirational theories of
self-concept, the perceived actual o r current self uses products and services as means to
achieve desired ends that move: the self to a more desired o r idealized self. T h e inferential
belief connections are actual state of self to means, means to ends and ends to an idealized
state of self. Thus, if the purpose of advertising is to explain h o w a product o r service works
(its instrumentality), how to use it o r how it is a better means, then such infomlation o r
claims should be connected to the actual self. This is because it is the actual self that has to
use the product o r service as an instrument and if the 'means' is not credibly connected to
the actual self then the means claims will be discounted. However, if the purpose of the
advertising is to increase demand by promoting the desired end state or pay-off then the
advertising should feature the desired o r idealized self. If the pronlised ends cannot be credibly
connected to the idealized self then the desirability of the end will be discounted.

USES OF SELF-CONCEPT THEORY IN ADVERTISING

Though self-concept can be applied to a wide variety of appeals used in advertising (Pollay,
1983), three types of appeals are emphasized here: (1) description of product attributes and/or
TABLE I . Appeals in magazine advertisements: product attribute versus ideal self-concept
Category Product o r service
Products Beef
Carlton cigarettes
Arrid deodorant
Non-alcoholic beer
Remy Martin
Mazda sports cat-
Calphalon cookware
Nike
Piaget gold watch
First colony coffee
Services Intercoiffure Salons
Ritz Carlton Hotels
United Airlines
NationsBank
American Express
Communication in schools:
non-profit
Main appeal Relevance t o self-concept
Benefits of eating steak Product attribute
Lowest tar and nicotine Product attribute
Non-whitening features Product attribute
Tastes as good as regular beer with fewer Product attribute
calories
Relaxed and comfortable feeling ldeal self-concept
Owner will stand out in a crowd ldeal self-concept
Quality cookware Product attribute
Self-image of conquering any obstacle ldeal self-concept
Wealthy image ldeal self-concept
Buyer has expensive and good taste ldeal self-concept
Glamorous and beautiful look ldeal self-concept
Relaxation and luxury ldeal self-concept
First class amenities Product benefit and ideal self-concept
Many different services offered Product attribute
Owner is self-sufficient Product attribute
Invest in our children Product benefit and ideal self-concept
SELF-CONCEPT THEORY 5

product benefits, (2) actual self-concept appeal and (3) ideal self-concept appeal. Table 1
shows somc esan~ples(dra\vn from magazine advertisements) which highlight the ditferencc
between product attribute appeals and ideal self-concept appe;lls. For instance, an
advertisement for Arrid deodorant emphasizes the 'non-whitening featnrcs of the product'
(attribute appcal). In contrast, an advertisement for M;~zdasports cars e~nphasizesIlo\v Mazd:~
owners 'stand out in a crowd' (ideal self-concept appeal). As shown in Table 1, it is possible
for a single advertisement to use both :I product-based and an itieal self-concept appeal
sin~ultaneously(as in the last atlvcrtiscment in tlie table nrhich urges consulllcrs to 'invest in
our children').

Conceptual model o f congruency, advertising effectiveness and

conspicuousness
T h e nod el presented in Fig. 1 can be used to esp1;iin the relationship between self-concept
c o n b ~ u e n c eand advertising effectiveness. Advertising effectiveness is conceptualized as br:~nd
memory and brand attitude. Advertisers may choose to focus o n either of these based or] the
objectives of the campaign and other factors such as stage of the product life cycle.
Advertisements that describe thc product or service as being congruent with the audience's
self-concept are hypothesized to be superior to advertisements for a similar product o r service
which are incongruent with audience members' self-conccpt. T h e m:ljor vatiahles moderating
the relationship between self-concept and advertising effectiveness include response mode
(memory and attitude) and product conspicuo~~sness(the degree to \vhich :I product is
consumed socially). T h e theoretical model in Fig. 1 can be used to predict tlie varying efiects
of self-concept congruency, as as whicl1 type of self-concept appeal will be most
successful bascd o n the response ]node desired.

W h e n responding to advertising, viewers arc presumed to go through a process of comparing

advertisement contents with their ow11 self-concept. Advertising effectiveness, then, varies
depending upon the degree of match bet~veen the advertisc~nc~lt( i n c l ~ ~ d i n gproduct
synlbolism) and self-concept. T h e various response niodes (memory and attitude) elicited
from viewing the advertisement contents serve to determine which self-concept (actual versus
ideal) is most influential. Is actual self-concept congruency more influential in tcrnls of
attitude formation than ideal self-concept congruency? T h e answer to this cluestio~l is 12ot
straightforward and according to a cornparis011 of research results, depends upon \vhether the
goal is to emphasize the means o r the end. Specifically, wllerl asked to rcmcnlber advertising
information (brand name and product features), actual self-concept is expected to play a more
significant role than ideal self-concept (Zinkhan and Hong, 1991). If individuals must
ren~embergiven inforn~ation,they are more likely to remember information consistc~itwith
their actual self-concept versus ideal self-concept. This is due to the fact that individuals will
better remember infomlation consistent with their actual self-schema o r their existing 'in ilsc'
knowledge structure. In contrast, when asked to evaluate the advertised product, ideal self-
concept is expected to dominate over actual self-concept (Sirgy, 1986). This is due to the h c t
that evaluation is an affective activity through \vhich the desirability of a11 o b c t is
6 ZINKHAN et al.

Congruent
Less Effetctive
Self-concept

Advertising
Effectiveness

P '7
Actual self-
concept is
Attitude

Ideal self-
concept is
more effective more effective
than ideal than actual
self-concept self-concept

Is Product
Conspicuous?
Low High

ldeal self-concept ldeal social self

is more effective is more effective
than ideal social self than ideal self-concept

FIGURE I . Self-concept and advertising effectiveness - academic theory.

detenifined. Filrtller, it is highly probable that the brarid \\rhicli enliances the self-image
towards an ideal self will be preferred. Ur;lnd prefercrice is decided by the degree to which
the brand is described as silnilar to the ideal self, w:hich rends to gratif:v the il-~tiividual'sself-
esteem.
In sulllmary, the findings suggest that when i11di\:idi131~ are rcquirc-:d to rcnzembcr a brand
n:imc, brands with images con~isteut.with their nctu;~l self-concept 21-c better rcme~nbcrcd
than those consistent with their ideal self (Sirgy, 1986; Hony and Zinkhan, 1995). Further,
when individuals are required to evaluate advertised bmnds, brands \vith images consistent
SELF-CONCEPT T H E O R Y 7

with their ideal self-concept will elicit more favourablc attitudes tow:~rdsthe brand than those
consistent with actual self-concept.

An additional issue concerns the relationship between ideal self-concept and idcal social self-
concept and which of these two self-concepts has a greatcr impact on product evaluation. In
this situation, product conspicuousness (i.c. the degree to which consumption takes place in
public) is an important moderating factor. Consumers will be niol-c conccrned with others'
responses regarding their consumption. T h e idcal social self-concept is the image that an
individual wants other people to hold about hi~ir/hcr,versus the idcal self-concept, which is
the image an individual would ideally like to be, regardless of others. I'coplc havc a basic
need for approval fro111 society and thus strive to create positive impressions of themselves in
others' minds.
Some label this the 'social approval ~notive'(Crownc and Marlowe, 1964) whicll s ~ t b s t i t ~ ~ t e s
for the self-esteem motive when consumption of ;I product is readily visible by others.
Munson and Spivey (1980, 1981) argued that two 'product expressive' self-constructs activate
product images. T h e first involves self-perception, given a preference for a specific product.
T h e second construct involves how one believes other people view l ~ i m / l ~ c rgiven , this
preference for a specific product. Schenk and Holman's (1980) view of situational self-image
is defined as the meaning of self the individual wishes others to associ;~te\\?it11 liim/her, which
includes attitudes, perceptions and feelings. T h ~ r s ,products that are conspicuo~~s, that have a
high repurchase rate or for which differentiated brands are available nright be used by
co~lsmllersto express self-image in a given purchase situation.
Therefore, if an advertised product is consumed in a public setting, the social approval
motive is stimulated, allowing for the brand 111ost consistent with a consumer's ideal social
self-concept to be preferred versus a brand that is consistent with the ideal self-concept. In
contrast, if an advertised product is nlainly consutncd in private, the brand most congruent
witli a consumer's ideal self-concept is preferred over th;~tcongruent with idcal social self-
concept, bccause the self-csteenl tnotive is more ilnportant.

METHOD
By examining how advertisers approach self-concept issues, it may be possible to draw thc
two perspectives of the academic world and advertising industry closer together. T h e goal is
to compare the strateges that xdvertisers are currently using witli the rccotnmendations that
emanate from the acadetllic literature. Based on this con~pnrison, a decision diagram is
developed to illustrate practical uses for self-concept theory.
T h e field research consisted of in-depth interviews with 24 key informants who ;ire
currently employed by advertising agencies across several departments, i.e. :lccount Inanage-
ment, creative, media and research. T h e typical interview lasted 15-30 nlinutcs and was
conlpleted in the interviewee's ofice. T h e interviews were audiotaped and transcribed
verbatim. T h e transcripts were analysed to determine the uses of sclf-concept tl~cory in
practice and to compare the pi-actical uses with the acadenlic self-concept findings.
There were t ~ v orounds of intewiews. In the first round, five a priori questions were asked
and, as information was gathered, additional questions were generated for round t\vo. A
standard fornlat was generally followed for the intcn7ie\\is; ho\vever, depending on the
advertiser's area o f speciality, some q ~ ~ c s t i o nLvcre
s slightly modified. First, a 171-iefdescription
o f the research project was provided, along wit11 definitions o f actual and ideal self-concepts.
Infor~iia~lts\\;err then asked t o describe ho\\: self-co~iccpt fits into niarketing in gcner.11, as
well as h o w it fits into specific advcrtising plans. N e x t , the following questions were asked.
( I ) Have you ever used self-concept w h e n desig~lingall ;~d\:ertisenlcntcampaign? If yes,
ple:~se elahoratc.
(2) Cnn you think o f any csainples o f ~ldvertiscrnc~it canipaigns that did ~ l s cself-concept?
l'lease describe the canipaign.
(3) Under \\hat circumstances is o n e ol' these approaches (actual versus ideal selt) preferred
over the other?
(4) Ho\v does self-concept relate to a d v c r t i s i ~ ~efkctivencss?
g
(3) T h i n k o f the ditferetlces bet\vecn product and serviccc ~ ~ l a r k e t i n gHo\v
. docs this
distinction affect the usefulness o f self-concept it1 :~dvertising?
l - h e following were added in ro~mclt w o
( 6 ) A r e there any situations in which self-concept is n o t used?
(7) H o w d o advcl-tisirlg practitioners talk about self-concept theory?
T h e textual data generated by the infbrnlants \\rere a ~ ~ ; ~ l y sby
e d t w o independent researchers
(colleagurs o f the primary researchers w h o art. tmincd it1 qunlitat~vc.d:lta n~lalysistechniql~es)
t o examine the key issues and themes that etnerged. Thcsc issues are discussed in the results
section belonr. Any quotations providcd ;Ire intended to higlilight thcmc which surhced
over se\reral intcrvicws.

RESULTS
T h e following insights are obtained ti-on1 the x~lnlysiso f the intcrvicw transcripts nnd arc used
t o create a decision d i ; l q a l l ~or1 the LISCS o f actual 31id idcal self-concept in advertising. In
general, the infornlantq hold conflicting hcliefs regarding whcrl ;~dvertiser$should enlploy sclf-
concept appeals versus \ v h c ~ i:~clvertisertshould focus OII p r o d ~ ~ attributes.
ct F~rrther,there are
different ideas about \vllcn nctu:ll selt^-concept ma); b e more ctfrctive in advertising than idcal
self-concept. S o m e informants believe that 311 a d v e r t i s c l ~ ~ c can~paign
nt can etEcti\~elymix self-
concept and product attribute appeals, wllile some believe that actual and ideal self-concept
appcals call b e c o n ~ b i n e dt o create effective commcrcinls.

Agency self-concept views

Nearly all o f those cluestioned reported th;lt they use idens th;lt ,Ire \:el-); closc to the precepts
o f sclf-cor~cept theory in planning advertising calllp;ligns. Ho\vc\.cr. t h r ten11 'self-conccl>t' is
rarely spoken. Within the advcrtising c o n i ~ l ~ ~ ~the ~ ~ i~t ~yo, t i o rol f 'self-concept' connotes
s o m e t l ~ i n g d i t f e r e ~ ~than
t the s t ; ~ ~ l d a racademic
d definition (i.e. thc totality of individuals'
thoughts and feelings having referenc:~t o him/herself as an object). G e ~ ~ r r a l l ythe , t e n n 'self-
concept' is understood as a \\In); o f thinking about \\;h(-, the target market is for a specific
product o r service and knowing \vhat moti\:;~tcs them. Ad\~crtisrrsdiscuss \vho tllc product
users arc and wh:~t their characteristics arc. r ~ t h e i -than discussing self-concept. Fro111 this
perspective, an advertising campaign tries t o o m n ~ ~ ~ ~ i iwit11 c a t ethe collsunler as if they were
SELF-CONCEPT THEORY 9

a best friend. T h e creativc director at a mid-sized agency explailicd this notion in the
following way: ' T h e real worlcl o f a writer and an art director sitting d o w n , you just say.
" W h o is this person, w h a t are they like, what d o they like t o d o ? W h a t is their drive, \vhat
kind o f movies d o they like, what kind o f C D ' s d o they like?" Y o u look for o t h e r asst>ciative
type products and you are really trying to understand this pcrson. Like they \vere arc friend o f
yours, s o you can talk t o t h e m one-on-one.'
T e r ~ n ssuch as self-concept, ideal self-concept o r ideal soci;~lself-concept are n o t used by
practitioners; howcver, the notion o f self-concept is readily understood as ~lsefulfor thinking
a b o u t t h e target market for a pt-oduct o r senrice. At1 account supervisor dcscrihcd the use o f
self-concept theory in practice in t h e following way.

It is never verbalized, and advertisers seem to comt~~unicate tlicsc thoughts anlong tl~emselvcsas
little sound bites or pictures. 'What if we did this? I<emcmbcr how so and so did such alld s ~ ~ c l i
017 some movie or ad.' So we don't, and most of us aren't really that good ;it verbal skills. l'hosc.

that are will talk ;about it Illore, but they won't ~1st:those words . . . we don't say 'you ktlo\v \vc
have to think about that ideal self-image.' 'That never comcs up. It is generally 3 given . . . it is
unspoken. You ktlo\\~what yo11 have to do to 1n:lke people react.

Several informants mentioned that self-concept provides a way o f ~111dcrst:inding\ v h ; ~ tthe

attributes and motivations o f the target market arc. Therefore, the advertising appeal reflects a
particular audience's belief patterns about themselves. From this perspective, self-concept is
composed o f t w o parts: t h e attributes o f the particular product and thc mind-set o f the
consumer. An art director at a largc agency explains this idea in the follo\ving way: 'Uasically
o u r j o b is bringing t w o points togethcr: consumer needs and t h e brand soul. W e must figure
o u t w h a t this consumer need is and then understand what the essence o f the product is and
t h e n bring these t w o togethcr. H o w you create this bridge is a subtle thing. W e don't stand
a r o u n d talking a b o u t the self-concept theory. Agencies say that they h:ive crented a ~ic\\l
approach, b u t really w e are all d o i n g tllc same thing: crcating that bridge.'
A senior agency executive suggested that self-concept is the essence o f :ill advertising and
explained it in these words.
Specifically the case that comes to mind is \vlicn I \\us the creative director for Jagu:11-.These ads
most always showed the most likely prospect for that car, which in studies upaswh:~twe called the
trophy wife. This w3s the second wife of 3 moneyed man and he tcndcd to buy the Jagu:lr for
her. She was the object in the ad. I know that sounds very c~~llous and cold, but it \\.as the heart
of the Jaguar nlarketing effort, and, 1 believe it is done tnorc times that1 not. I nlcan 111arketing
tries to identi6 the target and then creativc tncs to reflect the individual either directly by
showing them or by showing products and activities that typc of individual is likely to be
associated with. I think all of that is perfectly in line with that typc of in~;ige\v1t11 the targct.

Actual versus ideal self-concept

I n f o r ~ n a n t sw e r e given t h e academic definition o f actual and idcal self-concept and then were
asked if, in their opinion, there is a difference between these t\zro concepts. Examples w e r e
elicited t o support their opinions a n d a snmple o f these esanlples is s h o w n in Tablc 2. As
revealed in the table, agency personnel \vere quite conlfortablc with the self-concept tcnils
and applied t h e m readily t o a w i d e variety o f advertising s i t u a t i o ~ ~ Infor~nnnts
s. hnd ditrerent
TABLE 2. Self-concept examples from agency personnel

Category Product o r service Target audience Main appeal Relevance t o self-

concept
Products
Convenience Frozen food Single working people Romantic appeal ldeal self-concept
Domestic beer Blue-collar men Adventure and macho appeal ldeal self-concept
Instant rice W o r k i n g women Quick dinner Product attribute
Shopping Athletic wear Ages 16-49 years Healthy, sexy image ldeal self-concept
Distinct Tequila Up-scale educated women Cosmopolitan and party image ldeal self-concept
Speciality Luxury car Wealthy men Display o f wealth ldeal self-concept

Services
Tangible Retail grocery chain Upper income women aged Ideal family image Ideal self-concept
25-49 years
Major airline Frequent business traveller Need f o r praise f r o m the boss Ideal self-concept
Real estate company Families Portray believable lifestyles M i x o f actual and ideal
self-concept
Department store W i d e target Models are 'average' M i x o f actual and ideal
self-concept
Hospital Nurse recruitment Actual nurses enjoying hobbies M i x o f actual and ideal
self-concept
A u t o parts store Men 1 6 4 9 years Products and prices Product attribute
Fast food restaurant W i d e target Fun place t o go Product attribute
Mass transit system W i d e target Actual bus riders Actual self-concept
Craft and home warehouse W i d e target Actual customers having fun in Actual self-concept
store
Intangible Staff leasing company Small business Relieve time pressure Actual leading t o ideal
self-concept
Long distance 800 service Individuals Hope f o r broken marriage Actual leading t o ideal
self-concept
A T M card Anti-high status person Product information Product attribute
SELF-CONCEPT THEORY II

opinions o f w h e n actual versus ideal self-concept appe;~lsshould b e ~ ~ s c as d , is evident in the

following examples.
T h e research director o f ;I mid-sized agency believes that, if the appeal o f the ad\lertiscment
is t o the actual self, then the advertisement has a Iliorc fi~nctionalo r infol-mativc approach. If
the appeal is t o the ideal self, then t h e advertiscmcnt has m o r e o f an i111:lge approach. A
campaign for a n A T M card was discussed : ~ s;in example o f a functional approach (see t h e last
entry in Table 2). Focus groups had s h o w n that there xvere t w o distinct groups o f consumel-s:
those that d o n o t have a n ATM card because they feel it is evil and those w h o use their card
all the time. 111 designing t h e campaign, the dccisioll \\Ins m a d e t o focus o n the latter g r o u p
because t h e f o m l e r was believed t o b e a lost cause. T h e advertisement message provided
information a b o u t t h e product, describing \\lhen and w h e r e the A T M card could b c used.
T h e goal \\Ins t o inform current users o f n e w uses, therefore a functional : ~ p p r o a c h \vas
chosen. A campaign for frozen foods \\!as discussed as an example o f a n appeal t o the ideal self
(see the first r o w o f Table 2). From a functional standpoint, the consumers w h o arc buying
t h e product are single and t h e nieal is most often eaten alone. W h i l e the frozen food product
is better than average, it's n o t at all like a home-cooked meal. Uy transforming the frozen
dinner i n t o a glamorous event: the advertising encourages prospects t o believe a r o ~ i ~ a n t i c
episode will o c c u r w h e n eating this product. T h i s canlpaign is designed t o appeal t o the ideal
self, i.e. eating a glamorous meal \\lit11 an attractive n l e t i ~ b c ro f the opposite sex.
Several i n f o r ~ n a n t sbelieve that there is a vc~-ji slight ditfercrlcc between the t w o concepts.
T h e y claini that the goal o f advertising is to connect with the consulner o n a level that has
n o t h i n g t o d o with t h e product and, o n c e this is achieved, something is suggested t o then^.
T h e advertiser nlust find \vhat connects t h e consumer t o the product o r scrvicc, \vhether tl1.1t
is an appeal t o the actual o r ideal self, a certain type music, the story line o r I I L I I ~ I O L I ~ .A n
agency account executive termed this 'afinity marketing' and claimed that the goal is
reflecting the prospective consumer in t h e advertising. As such, :~ctualversus ideal self-concept
apl.>a"l are n o t that different. Either w o u l d b e cffcctive as l o n g as it reflecteci t h e t:rrget
audience.
A n o t h c r :rgeticy c x e c ~ l t i v ebclic\~csthat actual and ideal self-conccpt c:111be 11st.d together
i n t h e same advertisement campaign. T h a t is, actual self-concept could be used at t h c
beginning o f a n advertisement campaign t o (1) educate the consumer o n the p r o d ~ ~ benefits ct
and (2) help the consumer identify with a solution. At the e n d o f the canipaign, t h e ide:ll self
should b e s h o w n , as the figure in the advertisement reaches this ideal tllroi1g11 LISC o f the
advertised product o r service. H e also said that there are times w h e n both :rctt~al and idcnl
self-concept appeals can b e used in the same ;~dvcrtisement, ;IS s h o w n in the following
exanlplc.

This is a T V spot that I have seen and when I read the copy it alniost brought a tear to my eye.
The ad does all estreniely good job c)f touching ;I self-i~iiage a n d ;~lsoslio\\.ing this rc;ll versus
itnagitled. This has to do \vith ;I broken mnrri:~gc. T h e copy rezrds, '(Open o n divorce papers)
Man: Jane always said t1i:ct I was married to I I I ~career, nor her. She 2nd K e v i ~~noved
~ an7ay in
March. I swore to him that tie : ~ n dI werc~l'tgetting separated and for his birthday. (Cut to boy's
rooni with h:lngit~gplane modcls) Man: nlong with thc flight simulator, (Cut to MCI card) M:m:
1 send him my MCI personal 1-800 number. I told him to call tile : ~ n y t i ~ ~nightl e , or day. YOLI
do11't need a reason and you don't need to call collect. (Cut to bedroom, double bed, only one
side slept in) Man: So one day the phone rings. It was Jane. What arc you doing \\~ithan 800
number, she said. (Cut to desk with photo of yo~~ngstcr) Mali: Wli:~t:ire y c ) ~doing
~ callit~g~ t ?
Wonlan: I t \Y;IS ;I nice present you gave Kcvill. You'vc t;rlked to him Illore this month than you
 h;~vcin his \\;hole life. Man: 111aybcp e o ~ l eC : I I ~ charige. I told Ilcr. Mnybc so, shc said.' Now this
lllny 11ot be realistic that t\vo people arc goi~lgto get back togetlier hec;luse of l ~ i sSO0 number.
But. I think t l ~ r tit t o ~ ~ c h ctlie
s sclf-ilnnge of wllleollc t l i n t thinks that could liappen. I tIi111kthis
is a real ctfccrivc use because they touc-11so~llcthi~ig tlicrc that there is Iiopr: for sonlcthl~lgbcttcr.

IJroducts o r sen~ices that r c q ~ ~ i rdifFerentiatio11,

e t l ~ r o ~ ~ ga l lfocus o n unique attributes,
usually d o lot use ide:11 self-concept 3ppc.iIs, a ~ ~ o t l l einformant
r believes. Tliese ;~dvertisements
(:orlcelltrdtc 1110rc o n the product, rather tlia~i identifying \\;it11 the target through a11 i m ; ~ g e
appeal. ' O n e thing th:it :I lot o f pec~plc tend t o forget is tllat .~d\;ertisi~ig is just selling, and
inlage is definitely a part o f that. For esanzple, Wendy's is now using tray liners in their
restaurant that promote that their food Il:ls nutritional v.~lue, like l()O'%i pure bccf. T h e y are
going back t o product advertising. l3ut they do other stutF too, like using I)n\:e Thomas ill
the advertising. N o o n e \vants to bc a 43 year old d ~ r ~ n pguy. y so IIC is there t o talk about
the products' d i f f c r c n t i a t i ~ iE~cts.'
~
In s ~ ~ n i ~ i ~many
; ~ r y advertisi~ig
, pl-ofessinnals d o n o t regard ;~ctualand ideal self-concept :IS
t\vo difi>rcnt c o ~ ~ c c p t sC;e~lemlly,
. actual and ideal self-co~iccpt ;ire \vovell together in the
same advertising campaign and are viewed as different aspects o f self-i~~iage.Many o f those
inten7iewed felt that the product being advertised dcterniines the type o f appcal used. If tlie
p r o d i ~ c tbc~iefitsare easily portr;~yed,then an 3ppc;iI ~ ~ t i l j z i ~product lg ~ ~ t t r i b i ~ ot cr s the a c t ~ ~ a l
self w o ~ ~ bl de most appropriate. W h e n the product beliefits :Ire d i t l i c ~ ~ tl ot sliow, such as is
the case with fragrance o r filshion apparel, ideal self-:ippenls arc m o r e e f i c t i v e .

DECISION DIAGRAM
Figm-e 2 presents a decision d i a g r a ~ ~b.1src1 i, u p o n a d v e r t i s c ~ ~ i emanagers'
~~t use o f self-concept
a ~ p e a l s . T h e diagrsni is designed t o providr r e c o ~ i i ~ i ~ c ~ i d ~ thi or r iniallagers
s interested in
applying self-concept thcory ;md is designed t o b e ~ ~ t i l i z c dat the initial stages o f an
: ~ d v e r t i s e ~ i ~c:impaign
e~~t (as it nlay b c p.~rticul:~rl\-salient for grnrrating ideas). Also, if :I
p:lrticular product o r service is n e w t o an agency, tllc dingan1 o t c r s a g o o d starting plncc for
strategy f o r ~ l i u l ~ ~ t i oOn .f course, thc dccisior~ di:~gram callnot b e used in isolation. It is
essc~ltialt o utilize othcr research findings, ;llong with ~ i i a ~ i ; ~ g e ~espcricncc -ial rid insights, in
order to create an effective campaign. T h e diagram presents just a few: o f the many factors
which affect advertising decisions. O t h e r inlportant co~isiderations\\itiich are 11ot explicitly
modelled in the figure include the br.ttid c1i:lructrr. the ~ i i e d i u m .the cpccific campaign, thc
target market arid client influences o r opinions.
In Fig. 2, the products are di\:ided inco thrcc groups.

(1) Con\:cniencc goods - t l ~ o s egoods fill- \\:I~ich the ccxisulller regnrds tlie probable gain
from ni;lking price and qualiry c o ~ ~ ~ p , i r i s o.ISn sslii;ill C O I I I ~ I I I -to
c J the cost o f 111aki1l~
such comp.~risons.
(2) Shopping goods - those goods for which the cotlsumler regards the probable gain ti-om
making price and quality co~nparisonsas Inrge rclative t o the cost o f making such
comparisons.
(3) Speciality goods - those convenience o r shopping goods which have such a limited
niarket as to require the consumer t o make n special e f h r t t o p ~ ~ r c h a sthen1 e (Bucklin,
1902).
SELF-CONCEPT THEORY 13

7 7

Product Service

Type of
Product Service act

Focus on the Feature an Feature an Feature ideal Focus on the

product's ideal ideal self-concept service's
attributes or self-concept self-concept in the ad; attributes or
appeal to the in the ad in the ad however, if appeal to
actual self, believability is actual self-
educating the crucial, focus concept, while
consumer on on actual self- educating
attributes concept consumer on
the attributes
FIGURE 2. Self-concept and advertising effectiveness - decision diagram.

Services are divided into nvo categories: tangble and intangible. Tangible services arc directed
at people's bodies (e.g. airline services or restaurants) o r directcd at goods and other physical
possessions (e.g. dry cleaners o r equipment maintenance). 111each case, thc scrvice offers some
type of result that is physically experienced. Intangible actions are set-vices directed at people's
minds (c.g. education and theatres) o r directcd at peoplc's intangible assets ( e . g banking and
insurance; Lovelock, 1983). T h e relationship of self-conccpt thcot-y to products and services
will be discussed separately.
14 ZINKHAN e t al.

Self-concept and product advertising

C(~rrr~ciiic.rire
goods
With respect to convenience products, consumers do not ~lecessarily spend a lot of t i ~ n e
comparing alternatives and they gcncl-ally tlave full kno\vledgc o f the particular good and/or
its acccpt;lble substitutes (Bucklin, 1'302). Effective ndvertising for tllese products tends to ( 1 )
ti.nturc the product and its attributes o r (2) use nn accunl self-concept appc.ll in ordcr to
c:ducntc consumers about the product's '~ttributrs.
For csanlple, i n a recent mngazi~ieati\:ertisement for Carlton c i g ~ r e t t r s ,the appeal fucuses
o n the bellefits o f this product. T h e visunl f c ~ t u r e s3 package o f Cnrlton cigarettes and tllc
copy esplnins ho\v these cignrettes cont.lin the lowest a m o u n t OF tar a ~ l dnicotine. T h e r e is n o
reference to self-concept.

A n ideal self-concept appenl is approprlatc for slioppi~iggoods because coll.;Lllilers :Ire \\-illing
t o invest time in mdking con~parisonsbetween ;~lternativcsoffered in this c ~ t c g o r y .Usunlly,
c:onsumers lack knowledge about ~ v h a t type o f p r o d ~ ~ ctlley t \\:ant t o buy and what the
s u b s t i t ~ ~ t earc
s for tliat product (Bucklin, 1902). If the ;~dvertiseme~it prcsellts consunlrrs with
an image o f h o \ \ ~ they would like t o b e o r feel as n result of using the product, then the
ad\;ertise~nent will b e m o r e cfkcti\1c. This type o f appeal works for slioppi~lggoods, as the
audience's attention is captured arid tllc g o o d is identified wit11 :I drsired cnd state.
As an example, a recent l i q ~ ~ om<~gazine r ad\:ertiscmcnt :lppc.als t o the target's ideal self by
p o r t r q i ~ l gthe w o n d c r f ~ ~feeling
l receivcd f i - o ~drinking ~~ the alcohol. In the l i e ~ l l yMartin
a d v c r t i s c ~ ~ ~ et nwt o, nien are having 311 e n r i i h i ~ l g ,ple3sLlnt conversation ivhilc drinking cognac.
TI-re m e n appear t o be fi1t11t.r :lnd son, enjoying the i11ti111:lcy o f their situation. T h e
advcrtisc~nent is or;lngc i r ~hue, p o r t r a y i ~ ~;I g feeling o f w.~rnlthand ~ - e l : l s n t i o ~Vir\vcrs ~. can
identify with this 'ideal' feeling, as they re;ilize that this is ho\v they would l ~ k ct o fccl.
Shopping g o o d s c a n also b e ~ilarketedas luxury i t e l ~ ~ SO s , as to incrensc the i~iiage\::llue of
the advcl-tised product. 111 a coffee print advertisement, tllc visual shows the neckline o f a
\ v u r ~ ~ n\\rearing
n a necklace o f rare and e r p c ~ l s i \ ~Je\\;els.
e A china cup :111d saucer filled with
hot coffee is slightly removed from the upper Icft-hnrid corner o f the photograph. T h e viewer
111ayrlot rcnlizc that this is a coffee : i d v e r t i s c ~ ~ ~until c ~ l t re;lding the headline. T h e copy begins
'Coffees so rare and perfect, drinking t h e m is only o n e o f your options. Life's snlnll luxuries.
I3eluga. I'orches. L n l i q ~ ~ cDi;lmonds.. A I I ~w , e \vould offer, First C o l o n y cofi;'es.' T h e
advertisement tnkcs all o r d i n a ~ yproduct and ~ L I ~ I IitS into s o ~ ~ i e t l i i nesclusi\~e; g a consulllcr
\\rho drinks this coffee automatically b e c o ~ n c sn gourmet \\:it11 rich taste.

S ~ ~ c c i a l igoods
t)~
These are important, expensive items; ns n I-csult. consulncrs ;Ire \\;illing t o invest special effort
and/or energy i n making a purchnsc decision. Advcl-tisrments tor tllrse products most
typically appeal t o co~isumers' ideal self because thcsc protiucts often represent n desired state-
of-mind. In a recent niagazine advcrtise~nentfor the lusury crlr. Mazdn MX-3 GS, consunlers
are encoumged t o believe tliat o\vning this car will t r : ~ n s h r m thcni into sonleone inlportant.
SELF-CONCEPT THEORY 15

T h e advertisement's copy begins 'You're not John Iloc. W h y drive his car? A car isn't just
something you drive. It's something you \veal-.' T h c visual displays the Mazda car and
'Esteem' cleaners in the background. O n e colourful suit coat stands out from all the grey,
drab suits hanging in the cleaner's window. T h e colouiti~lsuit stancts for the Mazda o\xrner,
who will now stand out in a cro\vd.

Self-concept and service advertising

Tatgihle sewices
Retail grocery stores are a good example of a tangible scrvicc. O n e i n f o r ~ n a ~ described
lt ;I

chain of up-scale grocery stores \vhich implemented an advertisement crumpaign portraying

the target audience's self-perceptions via lifestyle o r image advertising. T h e defined target
market is high-income households which include \\/omen of 25-49 years old. T h e
advertisements, therefore, depict happy families shopping in up-scale stores and enjoying
themselves. T h e advertisements represent the stores as wholeson~eand clean, populateti \\.it11
helpful staff interacting with the fanilies. Consumers exposed to the advertisenlents identify
with the fanlilies in the stores and aspire to attain this ideal lifestyle.
With respect to a campaign for a major airline, one informant explained t1l:it the camp:~ign
focused on frequent business travellers. Research had sho\vn that the frccluent business
traveller was n ~ o s toften male, independent and entrepreneurial. However, it also showed that
this person was not the boss. T h e traveller was someone seeking approval and rewards from
the boss. T h e campaign was created around this need for praise, as it depicted a business
person being re\varded by the boss with two tickets for a vacation. This appeal to the ideal
self allows the viewer to identify with the success and recognition gained from hard work. It
is an appeal to what you can become.
Advertisements for tangible services generally focus on appealing to thc ideal self. However
onc informant suggests th:~t, if t:hc :~dvcrtiscnlcnt is to be believable, an appeal to t h e nct~ial
self nlay be nlore appropriate. Department store advertising provides some cxamplcs. ' W e
were very careful and selective about w h o the talent was and what they would represent to
the audience. T h e talent was attractive, but not niodel glamorous, so it was an attainable
thing, which sometinles works better.'

lntayqible services
These offerings are another story, as effective advertising tends to focus on either the fe:iturcs
and attributes of the service o r the actual self in order to educate the consumer about service
benefits. In a recent advertisement for NationsBank, only a jack knife is shown \\lit11 various
blades open. T h e copy below reads, 'If you're looki~lgfor a source that can provide a fiill
range of financial services, you should investigate Private Banking at NationsBank.' Both the
visual and the copy focus o n the benefits of banlung at NationsBank service features. By
connecting the intangible features to the tangible actual self, the features become more
tangible, credible and memorable, a highly desired outcome for intangible services. If
intangble features are connected to the intanpble ideal self then the c\lholc nlcssage risks
becoming so vague, wispy and ethereal that it floats in one ear and out the other.
DISCUSSION
Does a self-concept appeal in advertising guilrantcc that the cnmpaign will be effective? N o t
~lecessarily.O n e informant said 'I think self-concept is used more in the fi-ont end of a
strategy, focusing on h o w you want to approach tlie t;lrget. It cloesn't separate a good ad &or11
;I bad one. I think it's all h o w you appro:~chpeople.' Self-coticept appeals can be particularly
effective if the consumer desires to achieve a certain i n ~ a g e .Fro111 this pcrspcctive, advertisers
must discover this ideal image and then provide the consunier with a description or solutio~l
of how to achieve it. Self-concept is only effective when the consunier \v;r~~ts to be like the
;~dvertiscdimage and the irnage is realistic. As one infornlant put it

That is how the lottery works. I nlcali you scr yourself as h:lvilig a lot of rlionry J I livirlg
~ a life
of luxury. 1 chixlk everyone has an ideal self-conccpt, wh:~t they ur:int to be. Hut. I th111k th:~t
people try to over-intellcct~~alize ad\.crtising and once you over-an<~lystt,there is nothllig left of
interest in the conlmercial; it's just a scrics of copy points that do11.t Inovc ~ ~ e o p lThat's
r. \vlierr
advertisitig goes awry. If you want to sliow romconc t1i:lt'~ 18. just slio\v somconc th:it is 18.
don't over-allalyse this person to the point \vIiere this prrsoti is so 18 tliat they don't evrti ex~st.
Through tlie analysis, we lose tlie hutrlanity and thz things that connect (1s as people.

In general, agency personrlel believe that using self-concept in an advertising campaign docs
not guarantee success. Sonletinies a campaign is succcssfi~l beca~rsc it breaks established
~midelitles.For example, the first advertisements for the Infiniti line of a ~ ~ t o n i o b i l enever
s
showed the car, just serene scenes with bc;~utifill niusic in the background. These
:~dvertiscmcntsachieved high recall a r ~ dawareness (ttie initial goal of the campaign), though
they broke tradition in ternis o f automobile advertising. 111 contrast, a c a d c ~ ~ l iresearchers
c
I~clievc that cffcctiveness is detined by the consulner response mode. For example, if
the desired response mode requires the audie~ice to renlember the advertised brand, an
appeal to the actual self is more effective than an appeal to the ideal sclf. Further, if the goal
is to attain f;~vour:lhle :~ttitudeto\v;lrds the advertised bn11d, a n :lppral to the ideal self is
best.

Academic and practitioner world views

As stated earlier, it is difficult to devise a set o f rules to guide advertisers in the creation o f
effective advertising. Sonietimcs it is cluite effective to go against the norm a ~ i ddcvisc an
:~dvertisementcontrary to what the competition is doing. Depending upon the circu~iista~ices,
;iny o f the following approaches 111ay lead to etfectivc ad\.crtisi~ig: ( 1 ) featuring product
benefits, (2) portraying the target audietlce's r~ctualself-imagc. (3) portraying tlie target's ideal
self-concept image or (4) some combination. Several inf'orriiarits discussed the idea that self-
concept theory gwides advertisir~gdevrlopnient t l i o ~ ~ gi th is 110t ~ p c ~ i l !I-eferred
. to as such. In
sunimarizing the pr:~ctitioner view, when asked how tclf-concept relates to advertising
effectiveness, one informant said

Well, I think it is the essence of it, in :I nlacro sense. I think that ic \vherr the Etrategy of
advertising cornes in. That's the correct id1:lltific:ltion of thc t:irgct :lnd really undentnnding what
that target's actual thinking. being, and activities are all about. Bccauce wh:~tyou .ire trying to do
is hit :I ncrve end that \\,ill turn a \v.lnt into a ncxxi. So. I t11i11k tliat if you correctly identify the
SELF-CONCEPT T H E O R Y 17

target and understand them, you arc boriding with the csscncc of their i~n:ige,and I think that is
the corc central ideal of all advertising Now, that is not the execution:il, you c:ln do that in all
sorts of clever ways. 1 think that if you have correctly figured out this person's self-image, then
yo11 have a good chance of talking to them. So, therefore, it can be very etkctive.

When comparing the self-concept literature to the actual uses of these concepts by
advertising practitioners, it is helpful to refer to and compare the 'manager-inspired' decision
diagram (Fig. 2) and the 'academic theory' diagrani (Fig. 1). Following acadenuc theory,
advertising effectiveness is achieved by first determining the desired response mode ( n ~ e m o ~ y
o r attitude) and then using the appropriate self-concept image in the advertisement. In
contrast, agency personnel first emphasize the type of product or service and the specific
target market and then devise the most effective advertising approach. Overall, the goal of
advertising is to produce a desired response from the viewing nudicncc. According to those
interviewed, the n ~ o s t common goal is the actual purchase of the product o r service;
however, there are times when the goal is to change attitudes or create brand awareness.
Therefore, it is difficult to devise one set of guidelines to :lid advertisers in knowing when to
use actual self-concept versus ideal self-concept or when not to use self-concept appeals in arl
advertisement campaign.
Whether actual o r ideal self-concept is more effective is based upon thc product and the
individual, making it highly situational. Advertisers should be a\tTarc of other hctors
influencing purchase behaviour, such as discretionary i n c o n ~ c ,public versus private use of the
product or social desirability of the product.

SUMMARY
T o date, academic self-concept research has typically focused on generating new knowledge
and much less attention has focused on possible organizational uses for this theory. C;encrally,
advertisers are not aware of the acadenuc research on self-concept. This is not surprising,
since most of the self-concept litcrat~~re is published in journals not readily accessible tts
advertising managers. T h e goal of this paper is to bring discussion of' self-concept theory to
the forefront, thereby bridging the gap between academic research and advertising practice.
Advertising professionals art: quick to see parallels between self-concept theory and
advertising practice. Agency personnel quite readily understand the principles of self-concept
theory (once it is explained to them) and they can provide many ex;lmples of self-concept
theory in practice o r use (see Tables 1 and 2). Typically, academic studies d o not directly
discuss the target market for a particular product o r service. Fro111 the practitioner perspectivc.
the target market has potentially the greatest influence o n the type of appeal useti in a
particular c a m p a i p . Thus, researchers should consider incorporating this important variable
into their n~odelsand theories of advertising effectiveness. Knowledge transfer can flow in
both directions. Researchers can learn from managers and managers can learn fro111 academics.

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BIOGRAPHIES
George M . Zinkhan (PhD, University of mi chi gat^) is the Coca Cola Professor of Marketing
and Ilepartment Head at the Univcrsity of Georgia. H e has published more than 100 articles
in the areas o f advertising, promotion and knowledge developnlcnr. I-le reccntly completed a
4-year tern1 as editor of the Jorrrnnl o j Advcrtirir~gand a 3-year tcrtn as book rcvic\v editor for
the Jourt~nl of ~Vnrketit~f.He serves as a consultant for various public and private organizations,
including the Federal Trade Commission.
Alison Ward is an account executive at Southwest Inforniation Resources. She holds an
MBA from the University of Houston and has worked in the advertising industry in both
France and the US.
Iliana Haytko is currently a visiting lecturer in marketing at the Ullivcrsity of Illinois :it
Urbana-Champaign. Ms Haytko holds a bachelors in advertising fro111 the University of
Colorado, a masters in advertising from the Urliversity of Illinois, an MUA in niarketing at
the University of Wisconsin and is completing a Phll) in marketing at the University of
Wisconsin. Her interests are in advertising agency managenlent and agcl~cy/client rclation-
ships. Ms Haytko spent 6 years in the agency business, most recently at LOIS/USA in
Chicago as an account supervisor. Her previous experience includes work for T h e B l o o n ~
Agclicy and Tracy-Locke, Inc. in Dallas and Keller-Crescent in Evansville, Indiana.