CHAPTER 2

SUPER STRUCTURE

1
 Content

2.1 Beam and Slab

2.2 Column
2.3 Wall
2.4 Staircase
2.5 Roof

2
 Introduction

Superstructure

3
 Introduction
 Definition
A physical or conceptual structure extended or developed from a basic
form, or
A part of a building or other structure above the foundation.
 Introduction
• solid structures (have
Mass little or no open space
Structure inside).
• e.g. Dams

• have useable space in

Bearing
them.
Wall
• Wall holds floors and
Structure roof above them.

• usually made from wood,

reinforced concrete and
steel.
Framed • The frame made up of
Structure beam and column and it
supports the roof and all
floors, ceilings and
5 contents.
Introduction
Single storey to 4 storey
• Wood frames structure
• Reinforced concrete frames

Tall building
• Reinforced concrete frames
• Steel frames

High Rise & Skyscrapers

• Steel frames
 Introduction

Bearing Wall Structure

Mass Structure

7 Framed Structure-Steel
Load Distribution in Structure Elements

Load Distribution
 must consider not only what loading conditions might effect a
structure, but also how those loads are transferred from their
point of origin through the structure to the ground.
 design decisions concerning the structural framing system will
dictate this flow of forces
 Normally base on load from Dead load, Wind load and Life load.
- Flow of load distribution
- Roof - truss – roof beam – column – foundation
- Wall – beam – column – foundation
- Slab – beam – column – foundation
 Beam and Slab

Superstructure

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Beam
 Beam is a horizontal structure element that is capable to
withstand load primarily by resisting bending.
 The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a
result of the external loads, own weight, span and external
reactions to these loads is called a bending moment.
 Beam
 Beams are characterized by
 profile (the shape of their cross-section),
 length, and
 material.
 In contemporary construction, beams are
typically made of steel, reinforced concrete, or
wood.
 Most common types of steel beam is the i-beam
or wide-flange beam (also known as a "universal
beam" or, for stouter sections, a "universal
column") and commonly used in steel-frame
buildings and bridges.
 Other common beam profiles are the
 C-channel,
 the hollow structural section beam,
 the pipe, and the angle.
 Beam
 Beams are also described by how
they are supported:
 A simple beam is supported by a
pin support at one end and a roller
support at the other end.
 cantilever beam - A beam with a
laterally and rotationally fixed
support at one end with no
support at the other end.
 Overhanging beam - A beam
simply supported at two points
and having one end or both ends
extended beyond the supports.

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 Concrete Beam
 There are two type method of concrete beam in manufacture. One
of that is by commonly construction or we call in-situ method and
other once is by new technology that is pre-cast concrete beam.
 Both of that is different method between in-situ and pre-cast.
 In-situ concrete beam
 The disadvantages of in-situ concrete are:
1. The need for formwork
2. The time taken for the concrete to cure before the
formwork can be released for the reuse and the beam
made available as a working area
3. The very small contribution by a large proportion of
the concrete to the strength of the beam


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 Concrete Beam
 Pre-cast concrete beam
 Manufacture in the factory. Controlled quality.
 Overcome some or all of disadvantages of in-situ reinforced
concrete slab.
 Design consideration (full economy)-should be within the span,
width, loading, and layout limitation of units under
consideration, coupled with the advantages of repetition.

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 Beams Shapes

 Most beams in reinforced concrete buildings have rectangular

cross sections, but the most efficient cross section for a simply
supported beam is an I or H section.
 Other shapes, like L (angles), C (channels) or tubes, are also used
in construction when there are special requirements.
 Beam Types
There are 5 type of beam according to its function:
1) Main Beam- Main beam are the beam that stretch over from column
to column where it is main beam to transfer the whole upper load to
column that consist inside the building structural.
2) Secondary Beam: This type of beam is stretches over the main
beam. This beam is also transmitted to the load of the main beam.
The function is reduce a length that support the structure or catch
the load of structure
3) Tertiary Beam : It’s the beam across between the columns and the
main beam and its function is distribute the load from the beam to
column
4) Tie Beam: Beam that stretches over a columns and its purpose to
binding are both of the columns. This is to support stability of
structure.
5) Edge Beam: Function as binding beam to stretches between the
16 external columns
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 Beam Construction

Launching of the precast-

concrete beam for bridge
structure Reinforced Concrete Beam- Cast
in place
Beam Construction

Timber beam
 Slab
 Also known as floor
 Functional requirements of slab/floor are:
 Strength and stability (design requirements)
 Resistance to weather and ground moisture
 Durability and freedom from maintenance
 Fire safety (resisting spread and passage of fire)
 Fire safety (providing stable support for occupants to Building
evacuate regulations
 Resistance to passage of heat.
 Resistance to the passage of sound

 Common Floor Slabs materials are : Concrete and Timber

Slabs/Floors
Non- • The slab was in-contact with ground
• Construct separately with the beam.

Suspended
Slab

• The slab is supported by ground beam

Suspended and hanging above the ground

• Constructed monolithically with the beam

Slab • Act as roof or floors above ground level

 Non-Suspended Slab

• Normally located on the ground (ground slab).

• Commonly used on hard and stable ground condition.
• provides a level surface that capable to support all live or
death load.
• Transfer load directly to the ground soil below it.
• Moisture related problems is the critical condition, therefore
this slab required for water proofing.
• Suitability of this method depends on moisture content of the
soil.

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 Non-Suspended Slab (Method Statement)
Stage 1
 Casting the ground beam
25mm lower from original
depth
 Leveling and well-
compacted sub-grade and
crusher run
Stage 2
 Placing damp proof
polythene sheet and
followed by B.R.C. layer
 Casting the ground slab to
required level as specified
in the construction
drawing
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 Non-Suspended Slab (Method Statement)

Stage 3
 Leveling the slab with
gradient to fall as specified in
the construction drawing
 Applying floor hardener
finisher
Stage 4
 Forming a groove line by
diamond cutter at both end
of ground beam

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 Considerations during construction
• only use side formwork to form shape of the ground floor
• define M&E and services piping or ducting location and level
before place concrete
• Install chairs for spacer
• Set up joint inspection, joint survey (architect, engineer,
surveyor)
• check with all drawing, such as shop drawing, construction
drawing of C&S and Architect)
• Set up machineries, manpower, tools, equipment, materials,
logistic, weather forces before proceed with concreting
• Always plan for back up (during concreting)
• Pouring concrete can be done by using concrete bucket and
crane or concrete pump
• Side formwork can be removed after 1 days (depend on size
of the structure)
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 Non-Suspended Slab
(Construction Process)
 Construct base on setting out
 Define structure level. (always refer general detail drawings)
 Construct the ground floor (ground beam, backfill inside ground
beam, lean concrete, anti-termite protection, damp proof membrane,
install rebar, thickness of slab 150mm-200mm or more, concrete
density 25N/mm2, 30N/mm2 or more.
 Starter bar for next structure provide during the rebar installation.
 Used side formwork to form shape
 Define M&E and other services before placing concrete.
 Install chairs for spacer.
 Setup joint inspection.
 Setup machineries, manpower, tools, equipments, materials, logistics
and weather forces before concreting. Always plan for back-up.
 Pouring (concrete) using bucket and crane or concrete pump.
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 Side formwork can be removed after 1 day.
 Suspended Slab
 Also known as suspended floor
 Beam and slab cast together
 Continue from starter bars from
column
 Construction process
 conventional or traditional
method (cast in-situ)
 modern or industrialized method
(precast, system formwork)
 Typical method of construction
from first floor up to roof beam
 Provide a level surface that is
capable of supporting all the live and
dead loads imposed
 Provide area under need for M&E
services
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 Suspended Slab
 Main functions:
 To prepare a plane
surface
 To support loads
 Operate as a sound, fire
and heat insulator or
resistance
 As a ceiling to the
beneath floor
 The space between the
floor and ceiling can be
used to place building
equipment and materials.

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 Suspended Slab
 Suspended slab are constructed monolithically with the beam.
 Starter bar installation is continue from column.
 Are used where the condition of ground are;
 Slopes
 Has poor or uncertain bearing capacity
 Is liable to volume change (swells and shrinks)
 Can be constructed using;
 Precast reinforced concrete planks or slab
 Block and beam floor systems or
 In-situ reinforced concrete slabs

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 Suspended Slab (detail design)

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 Suspended Slab (conventional)
• Conventional or traditional method (construction procedure)
• Setting out
• Install soffit formwork for beam
• Install side formwork for beam
• Install formwork for slab
• Install rebar for beam & slab
• Install any starter bars required
• Install spacer block and chairs
• Install ducting or conduit for M&E
• Construct any required opening
• Make sure location of drop
• Joint inspection (surveyor, engineer, architect, M&E)
• concreting
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 Suspended Slab (conventional)
Advantages
• Well known
• Economy for low cost project
• Material, easy to get
• Easy to modify base on drawing
Disadvantages
• Time constrain
• no working area under the floor
• for concrete to cure
• Required skill workers
• Not so systematic (base on experience)
• Do not allow for cold joint
• Very congested
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 Suspended Slab (industrialized
method)
 modern or industrialized method of construction:
 Setting out
 Normally using system formwork (beam & slab)
 Install rebar for beam & slab at fabrication yard
 Cast slab or beam at fabrication yard (pre-stress
structure)
 Install beam or slab
 Install ducting or conduit for M&E
 Construct any required opening
 Make sure location of drop
 Joint inspection (surveyor, engineer, architect, M&E)
 Concreting (topping up)

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 Suspended Slab (industrialized
method)
 Advantage of modern or  Disadvantage of modern or
industrialized method: industrialized method:
 Fast track project  Required skill workers
 Economy for high cost  Cannot simply cut for
project opening
 Sectional slab and beam re-  Take time to study and plan
design by f/w consultant or for the system
design by consultant at  Not every contractor can
early stage afford cost and ability to
 Easy to construct and construct
maintain cleanliness
 Systematic
 Reduce +/- 50% of concrete
volume (hollow section)
 Reduce +/- 25% of
reinforcement weight
 Reduce +/- 10% of
foundation size

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 Suspended Slab (industrialized
method)

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 Suspended Slab (industrialized
method)

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 QUIZ 2
1) Give two (2) differences between the end bearing piles and
the friction piles. (4 marks)
2) List four (4) factors to be consider when selecting the type
of foundation for building construction. (4 marks)
3) Define the following:
i. Suspended slab (1 mark)
ii. Non-suspended slab (1 mark)

Duration: 20 minutes

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 Column

Superstructure

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 Column
 Definition: The vertical support which is free from all sides
taking the load of beam slab etc. and transfers the load to
the earth independently.
 Column is constructed with the help of steel bars and cement
concrete.
 In case of multi storey and frame structure building
constructions, the entire load is born by columns and the
floor area/ internal space of building is freely adjusted
according to the requirement.
 The size, cement concrete ratio and numbers of steel bars
with their diameter are available in structural drawings which
are designed according to the load born by the column and
factor of safety.

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 Column
 Construction for column starts from the footings. Starter
bar for column must be laid vertically before
foundations/footings been cast.

 After the construction of footing and pedestal the

construction of column is started.
 process of concreting almost same with ground floor but
vertical drop of concrete cannot be more than 1.5 meter high
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 The process of construction is as the following:

• Tie up all rings around and into vertical steel bars

according to design.
• Fix form work of required size with vertical steel bars.
• Lay cement concrete in form work according to design.
• Take proper curing of RCC column

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 Column

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 Column
 column can be construct in many shapes such as square, round, diamond,
tri angle, combination of any shape as designed by the architect.
 alignment and orientation of column can be either vertical or arch.
 height of column depend on structure and architect drawing.
 In column construction, the set numbers of formwork must be properly
plan by considering the recycle concept, save time and cost saving.
 Vertical bars must be installed with sufficient number of link and check
for:
 Lap length (bottom and top)
 Shape of link
 Spacer block
 Install M&E piping or ducting before install the formwork.
 Install formwork base from setting out and check verticality of the
formwork

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 Column

Steel Formwork Column

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 Column Architecture Shapes

Column arch

tilted column

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 Example of RC Column Design

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 Example of Steel Column Design

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 Column Formwork

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 Wall

Superstructure

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 Wall
 Is a continuous, usually
vertical structure, which is
thin relatively to its length
and height.
 Can be classify by location
(internal wall and external
wall)
 External wall-to provide
shelter against wind, rain
and the daily and seasonal
variations of outside
temperature (indoor
comfort).
 Internal wall-divide space
into smaller area, rooms and
compartments.
 Wall Types

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 Wall Types Solid.
 A solid wall (sometimes called a
masonry wall) is constructed
either of brick, burnt clay or
stone blocks or concrete blocks
laid in mortar.
 The blocks are laid to overlap in
some form of what is called
bonding or as a monolith, that is,
one solid uninterrupted material
such as concrete which is poured
wet and hardens into a solid
monolith (one piece of stone).
 A solid wall of bricks or blocks
may be termed as a block (or
masonry) wall, and a continuous
solid wall of concrete, as a
monolithic wall.
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 Wall Types
Framed
 A frame wall is constructed from a
frame of small sections of timber,
concrete or metal joined together
to provide strength and rigidity,
over both faces of which, or
between the members of the
frame are fixed thin panels of
some material to fulfill the
functional requirements of the
particular wall.
 Another popular construction
practice all over the world is
Frame construction i.e. beam
column construction.
 The walls required to fill the space
between beam columns are termed
as infill walls. They are also
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treated as non-load bearing wall.
Wall
Strength
and
stability

Fire
Aesthetics
safety

Durability
Resistance
Functional and freedom
to passage
of heat Requirements from
maintenance

Resistance Resistance
to airbone to weather
and impact and ground
sound moisture

Security
Internal Wall
 There are two basic
design concepts for
internal walls those
which accept and
transmit structural
loads to the foundations
are called Load Bearing
Walls and those which
support only their own
self-weight and do not
accept any structural
loads are called Non-
load Bearing Walls or
Partitions.
 Wall
Load Bearing Wall
• Walls that must support the dead load of their own weight and the
weight of subsequent bearing structural members placed upon them.
• In addition, load bearing walls must be capable to carry the load of
"live" loads that are anticipated to be placed upon the system without
deflection that can degrade or negatively impact structural integrity.

Non-Load Bearing Wall

• Non-Load bearing Wall Walls that are only intended to support
themselves and the weight of the cladding or sheathings attached.
• Non load bearing walls provide no structural support and may be
interior or exterior walls. Non load bearing walls must be braced to
resist minimum 5 psf lateral loads.

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 Wall-load bearing
 Common type of material to construct a load bearing wall are
bricks and blocks
 Functional requirements
 Strength and stability (approved doc A Building Regulations)
for the walls of small buildings;
 Residential buildings of not more than three storey's
 Small single storey non-residential buildings
 Small building forming annexes to residential buildings
(including garages and outbuilding).
 Height and Width
 Residential building max height-15m from the lowest
ground level to the highest point of any wall or roof.
 The least width of residential buildings is limited not less
than half the height.
Wall-load bearing
 Strength
 Compressive strengths of 5N/mm2 for bricks and
2.8N.mm2 for blocks for walls up to 2 storeys in
height (where the storey height not more 2.7m).
 Compressive strength 7N/mm2 for bricks and blocks
for walls of three-storey building where the storey
height is greater than 2.7m.
 Stability
 Solid wall/bricks/blocks should be at least as thick as
1/16 of the storey height (refer illustration)
 Cavity wall should have at least 90mm thick and the
cavity at least 50mm thick.
 Wall-Non load bearing
 A non-load bearing wall is a wall that does not support any
gravity loads from the building, hence does not bear any
weight besides its own.
 Both, load bearing and non-load bearing walls may see lateral
loading such as wind loads and seismic loads.
 Also, both load bearing and non-load bearing walls can serve
as shear walls to brace the building in lateral and/or
longitudinal directions.
 Non load bearing walls are walls that the weight of the roof
is not supported on.
 Any wall that runs parallel will roof joists will be non load
bearing.
 Non-load bearing wall can be removed as it will not effect
the structure integrity of a building.
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 Wall-Non load bearing

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 Other Wall type: Party Wall
The main types of party walls are:
 a wall that stands on the lands of
2 (or more) owners and forms
part of a building - this wall can
be part of one building only or
separate buildings belonging to
different owners
 a wall that stands on the lands of
2 owners but does not form part
of a building, such as a garden
wall but not including timber
fences
 a wall that is on one owner’s land
but is used by 2 (or more) owners
to separate their buildings
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 Party Wall

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 Party Wall

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 Other Wall type: Shear Wall
 Shear walls are vertical elements of the horizontal force
resisting system.
 They are typically wood frame stud walls covered with a
structural sheathing material like plywood.
 When the sheathing is properly fastened to the stud wall
framing, the shear wall can resist forces directed along the
length of the wall.
 When shear walls are designed and constructed properly,
they will have the strength and stiffness to resist the
horizontal forces.

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 Shear
Wall
•Shear walls must provide the
necessary lateral strength to
resist horizontal earthquake
forces.
•When shear walls are strong
enough, they will transfer
these horizontal forces to
the next element in the load
path below them. •Shear walls also provide lateral stiffness
•These other components in to prevent the roof or floor above from
the load path may be other excessive side-sway.
shear walls, floors, •When shear walls are stiff enough, they
foundation walls, slabs or will prevent floor and roof framing
footings. members from moving off their supports.
•Also, buildings that are sufficiently stiff
will usually suffer less nonstructural
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damage
 Wood
Studs with
plywood

Reinforced Metal
2 Wythe Studs with
brick wall plywood

Types of
Shear
Wall
Un- Reinforced
reinforced Concrete
brick wall Wall

Reinforced
CMU Wall

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 Staircase

Superstructure

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 Staircase
 A stair is a series of steps, each
elevated a measured distance,
leading from one level of a
structure to another.
 When the series is a continuous
section without breaks formed
by landings or other
constructions, the terms flight
of stairs or run of stairs are
often used.
 Other terms that can be
properly used include stairway
and staircase.
 Stairs can be made of concrete,
stone, wood, steel or combination
74 of any of these.
 STAIRCASE COMPONENTS

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 Staircase-Primary Functions
 Provide an access from one floor to another.
 Provide a safe means of travel between floors.
 Provide a degree of insulation where part of a
separating element between compartments in a
building.
 Provide an easy mean of travel between floors.
 Provide a suitable means of escape in case of fire.
 Provide a mean of conveying fittings and furniture
between floor levels.

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 Staircase Terminology
 Stairwell: the space in
which the stairs and
landings are housed.
 Stairs: a set of steps
inside the building going
from one level to
another.
 Tread: the upper surface
of a step on which the
foot is placed.

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 Staircase

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 Staircase
•Purpose
•Provide access between various level with in building
•Also use for escape in case of fire (designer have to comply with
regulation or act regarding materials, position, size and safety)
• types of staircase construction
•In-situ Single straight stairway (simply support, landing to landing)
• In-situ Staircase with landing between bottom and upper floor
•Inclined slab
•String beam
•Cranked or continuous
•cantilever
•Spiral staircase (in-situ or pre-cast)
•Pre-cast concrete staircase
•Single straight
•Cranked
•Open riser
•Metal staircase
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 Stairs-Functional Requirements
STRENGHT
•Able to support for movement between floors, including dead
and imposed load.
SAFETY IN USE
•Comply with the Building Regulation in determining the rise,
thread, headroom and dimensions of the handrails and
guarding.
•Should be constructed of materials that are capable of
maintaining strength and stability for a period of time
sufficient to escape to the outside.
FIRE SAFETY
•The steps and the width should be adequate for the safe
escape to the outside.

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 Staircase
•Single straight flight stairway
•Simple design and construction
•simply support
•landing to landing
•Space occupies

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 STAIRCASE COMPONENTS

or Baluster

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 STAIRCASE COMPONENTS
 Nosing: the exposed edge of a tread, usually projecting with a
square, rounded of splayed edge.
 Riser: the vertical member between two consecutive treads.
 Step: Riser plus tread.
 Flight: a series of steps without a landing.
 Newel: post forming the junction of flights of stairs with
landings.
 Strings: the members receiving the ends of steps which are
generally housed to the string; called wall or outer strings
according to their position.
 Handrail: protecting member usually parallel to the string and
spanning between newels.
 Baluster: the vertical infill member between a string and
handrail.
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 Reinforced Concrete Staircase

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 R.C Staircase Construction-cast-
in situ

103
 Pre-Cast Concrete Staircase
Pre-cast concrete staircase advantages
• better quality control of the finish product
• saving site space (no storage for fw and fabrication)
• stairway enclosing shaft can be utilized as a space for
hoisting or
• lifting materials during the major construction period
• can be positioned and fixed by semi skilled operative

Pre-cast concrete staircase have

• Single flight stairs
• Cranked slab stairs
• Open riser stairs
• Spiral stairs

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 R.C Staircase Construction-pre
cast

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 Roof

Superstructure

107
 ROOF
 Highest part of building structure.
 Main functions:
- To protects the occupants -keep out from rain, wind, snow,
dust etc.
- To prevent excessive heat loss in winter, and to keep the
interior of the building cool in the summer.
- Provide ventilation system to the building.
- Act as moisture, heat and noise resistance.
- To accommodate all stress encountered (load bearing member)
- To accept movement due to changes in temperature and
moisture content
 Types of Roof:-
 Types- Flat roofs : 0 – 10o
 Steep/Pitched roofs : > 10o
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 ROOF
Type of
Building

Possible
future Durability
modifications

Selection
Factors
Resistance to
Economic
Heat

Light
Aesthetic
Protection

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 FLAT ROOF
 Flat Roof
 Gradient of less than 10◦
 Slopes depends on types of roof
covers
 Low heat transfer and resistance
 Flat Roof are usually selected for
one or more of three reasons;
 aesthetic design,
 provision of a promenade roof /deck
and
 ease of covering for structures of
complex plan.

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 FLAT ROOF
Advantages

1) Design
• the design of choice for smaller structures, such as garages and extensions.
• represent the most efficient use of urban space, offer architectural freedom,
control of the down flow of water to the drainage system and energy savings.

2) Materials
Traditionally flat roofs have been constructed from asphalt or three-ply modified
bitumen (also known as felt flat roofing) with a thin layer of gravel to protect the roof
from the harmful effects of UV sunlight.
A more recent and increasingly popular design is Ethylene Propylene Diene
Monomer (EPDM), a 3mm thick rubber membrane which can be applied seamlessly
in one piece and offers a lifespan of more than 40 years (compared to the 20 years
for felt flat roofing).

3) Cost
Flat roofing is generally considered to be a more affordable option at the point of
construction and involves considerably less materials and labour than a pitched roof.
Full replacement of the roof, when the time comes, can usually be completed in a
single day.
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 FLAT ROOF
 Disadvantages

Maintenance
 Lifespan for a felt flat roof of only 20 years.
 Regular maintenance is needed to check from cracking and
leakage to the roof.

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 PITCHED ROOF
 A slope of over 10◦ of the horizontal line.
 Slopes depends on types of roof cover
 Roof shapes depends on loading and span
 Provide space for extra services, e.g.: water tank.
 Found in many forms, among which are:
 Gable Roof
 Mansard Roof
 Hip Roof
 Shed Roof
 Butterfly Roof
 Gambrel Roof
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 TYPES OF PITCH ROOF

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 PITCHED ROOF
Advantages
(1) Loft Space
 Pitched roofs, which have at least two slopes that rise to meet at a peak, are constructed
in such a way as to afford plenty of usable space in the loft area.
(2) Lifespan
 The pitched roof, if constructed properly, is almost certain to offer a much longer
lifespan than a flat roof, with materials that are more durable and weather resistant.
(3) Natural
 Installing a pitched roof also means the building can be more effectively blended in
to either the rest of the property (in the case of an extension) or to neighbouring
buildings, while also helping to retain a sense of individuality and character.

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 PITCHED ROOF
Disadvantages
Expensive
 increased expense, as the more complex design, additional building materials
and extra man-hours cost significantly more than a flat roof.
Foundations
 place a greater burden on the foundations of the building and this may
have implications for the depth of the footings.

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 ROOF CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
- Roof generally Includes:-
- RC roof beam
- Roof truss (timber, aluminium, metal)
- Roof tiles (clay, cement, PVC)
- How to construct roof beam
- Setting out
- Install soffit beam and follow by side formwork
- Install rebar
- Inspection and concreting
- Install services
- Install trusses, heat insulation and roof tiles
- Finally, install ceiling

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 ROOF TRUSS
A truss is a framed or jointed structure.
Jointed together with the aid of galvanised
mild steel nail plate connectors.
The truss comprises rafters, struts, ties and
ceiling joist (often called a ceiling tie).

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 ROOF TRUSS
Advantages:
Much faster and more economical to use
prefabricated trusses in place of rafters and joists.
It takes significantly less labour than stick framing.
A truss will span a greater distance without a
bearing wall.

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 ROOF TRUSS DESIGNS

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 TYPICAL ROOF TRUSS

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 ROOF TRUSS

125
126
 RIDGE BOARDS

COMMON
RAFTERS

VALLEY JACK RAFTERS

VALLEY RAFTER
HIP RAFTERS HIP JACK RAFTERS

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 Roofs Members
 Ridge:
 the spine of the roof;
 the apex line of the sloping roof;
 the apex of the angle formed by the termination of the inclined
surfaces at the top of a slope.
 Common Rafters:
 the main load bearing members of a roof;
 the span is between a wall plate at eaves level and the ridge.
 Hip:
 it is the ridge formed by the intersection of two sloping surfaces.
 Hipped End:
 it is the sloped triangular surface formed at the end of a roof
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 Roofs Members
 Jack Rafters: these full fil the same functions as common
rafters but span from ridge to valley rafter or from hip
rafter to wall plate.
 Hip Rafters: similar to a ridge but forming the spine of an
external angle and similar to a rafter spanning from ridge to
wall plate.
 Valley Rafters: as hip rafter but forming an internal angle.
 Wall Plate: these provide the bearing and fixing medium for
the various roof members and distribute the loads evenly
over the supporting walls; they are bedded in cement
mortar on top of the walls.
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 Roofs Members
 Ceiling Joists: these fulfill the dual function of acting as ties to the
feet of pairs of the rafters and providing support for the ceiling
boards on the underside and any cisterns housed within the roof void.
 Purlins: these are horizontal wooden or steel members, used to
support common rafters of a roof when span is large.
 Struts: these are compression members which transfer the load of a
purlin to a suitable load bearing support within the span of the roof.
 Collars: these are extra ties to give additional strength and are placed
at purlin level.

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 Roofs Members
 Eaves: the lowest edge which overhangs the wall thus giving the wall a degree
protection; also fixing medium for the rainwater gutter.
 Two types:
 Open eaves
 Closed eaves

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 Roofs Members
 Verge: the edge of a gable, running between the eaves and
ridge.
 Eaves board or fascia board: wooden board fixed to the
common rafters at the eaves.
 Barge board: timber board used to hold common rafter
forming verge.

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 THANK YOU FOR
YOUR ATTENTION

End of Chapter 2

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