CHAPTER 4.

0
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY AND
STREETS

1
Topic Outlines

4.1 Sight Distances – Stopping and Overtaking Sight Distance

4.2 Horizontal Alignment – Curves and Superelevation

4.3 Vertical Alignment – Crest and Sag Vertical Curve

4.4 Road Cross Sectional Element

4.5 Intersection – At Grade and Grade-separated

4.6 Traffic control devices – traffic signal, sign, marking and

channelization

4.8 Traffic calming

4.9 Provision for Cyclist and Pedestrians

2
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the topic, students should be
able to:
 Calculate and produce road alignment design.
 Understand and provide sketch of road section
(include drainage and facilities).
 Understand on the provision provide sketches of at-
grade and grade-separated interchanges.
 Design appropriate traffic control system at the
designed junction.

3
INTRODUCTION

4
Examples of road physical appearance
as seen from various angles.

5
Examples of road physical appearance
as seen from top.

6
Major Elements of Road Geometry

• Sight distances,
• Horizontal alignment,
• Vertical alignment,
• Cross-section, etc.

Each element is designed in accordance with various

standard of practices such as JKR, LLM, AASHTO,
HCM 2000 etc. to meet traffic flow characteristics.

7
Why Must We Follow The Standard Code
Of Practice In The Design?:

• To ensure uniformity in the design,

• To ensure smooth and safe traffic

movements, and

• To assist engineers in designing the

engineering details of the road sections.

8
Aspects Considered in Road Design

• Function – to serve as inland linkage between

locations for moving people and goods.
• Safety – roadways must be designed with safety
characteristics.
• Comfort – road features must be designed and built
for comfort riding quality.
• Economic – in terms of construction and vehicle’s
operating costs.
• Aesthetic – roadways must be built as an element
of the environment; its design must include
aesthetical values to suit the existing environment.
9
Road Hierarchy For Design Purposes
In Malaysia (Rural)
Table 1

Average 3,000 1,000 150

daily traffic > 10,000 to to to < 150
(veh/d) 10,000 3,000 1,000

Road
R6 R5 R4 R3 R2 R1/R1a
Hierarchy

Entry/Exit
full semi semi semi none none
control

Source: Arahan Teknik Jalan (8/86)

10
Criteria That Govern The Geometry
Design
1) Terrain – Influences the design of both horizontal
and vertical alignments. Earthworks and construction
costs usually depend on the vertical alignment and
terrain.

Road terrain is divided into 3 types, i.e:

(i) Level – if the average slope of the contour is less
than 3%
(ii) Rolling – if slope in the range of 3-25%.
(iii) Mountainous – if slope greater than 25%.

11
Criteria That Govern The Geometry Design
(cont..)
2) Design Speed – The highest speed which can be
safely achieved for design and physical characteristic
that will affect the vehicle operation.
Design Speed (km/h)
Road Terrain
Hierarchy
Level Rolling Mountainous
R6 120 100 80
R5 100 80 70
R4 90 70 60
R3 70 60 50
R2 60 50 40
R1 40 30 20
R1a 40 30 20
12
Criteria That Govern The Geometry
Design (cont…)
3) Design Traffic Volume & Ingress/Egress Control –
The ADT stated in Table 1 may be taken as an
estimate of traffic at the end of the design life of the road to
build.
The ingress/egress control (Table 1) depends
on the requirements and its suitability with the
type of the road to build.

4) Design Vehicle – Weight, size, and operational

characteristics of a vehicle determine the design of the
basic elements of a road section, i.e., radius of road
bends, pavement width, uphill and downhill gradients, etc.
Standards for design vehicle are stipulated in Arahan
Teknik (Jalan) 8/86. 13
Factors Influencing Road Geometric Design

1. Functional classification of the highway

being designed
2. Expected traffic volume & vehicle mix
3. Design speed
4. Topography of the area
5. Level of service to be provided
6. Available funds
7. Safety
8. Social & environmental factors
 Topic 4.1
Sight Distance Concept –
Stopping and Overtaking
Sight Distance

15
Sight Distance
Sight distance is length of road ahead which all
objects are visible by the driver while driving. The
distance is influenced by factors such as:

• Driver’s perception & reaction time,

• Deceleration & acceleration rates,

• Friction between tyre and road surface,

• Height of the driver’s eyes & objects on the road, etc.

16
Criteria Measuring Sight Distance
• Height of driver’s eye
The eyes of the average driver in a passenger
vehicle are considered to be 1.07m (3.5ft) above the
road surface.

• Height of the object

A height of object of 150mm is assumed for
measuring stopping sight distance and the height of
object for passing sight distance is 1.32m (4.25ft)
both measure from the road surface

17
 Topic 4.1.1
Stopping Sight Distance
(SSD)

18
Definition of SSD
•A distance acquired by a driver
driving at a specified speed, to
stop his vehicle safely once he
notices any obstruction or warning
on the road.

• For safety, all highways must be

designed for minimum stopping
sight distance (SSD).
19
Minimum Stopping Sight Distance

Assumption: There in gradient, G = 0%.

20
Design
Consists of two components:
(a) Distance travelled during perception time (d1):

d1 = 0.28Vt meter

V = vehicle’s speed (km/h)

t = perception–reaction time (sec) – usually take 2.5s

(b) Distance travelled during braking (d2):

2 2
V −U
d2 = meter
254( f + G )
V = initial speed (km/h)
U = final speed (km/h) = 0 if vehicle stops
G = gradient of the road (+ve for uphill –v= for downhill)
f = side friction between road surface and tyre
21
Design (cont..)

∴ Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

= d1 + d 2
= (0.28Vt) + {(V2 – U2)/254(f + G)} meter

d1

d2

22
Some Examples Of The Application Of
Sight Distance Design
• To ensure that safety elements are included in the
geometry design.
• To determine the locations of warning/reminder system
to the drivers/users.
ZON HAD LAJU

SIMPANG
70
300 METER
DI HADAPAN 500 METER
DI HADAPAN

23
Example 4.1:
A man driving his car at the speed of 80km/hr on a
level and straight road, has the perception and reaction
time of 2.5s. If the side friction changes linearly from 0.40
for the the speed of 20km/ hr to 0.30 for the speed of 100km/hr,
determine the SSD for the driver.
Solution:
v = 80km/hr,
t = 2.5s
f = 0.325 ~ 0.33 (from interpolation)
G = 0% (means that : a level and straight road )
a) Distance travelled during perception
d1 = 0.28Vt
= 0.28 x 80km/hr x 2.5s = 56m
24
Example 4.1 (cont..):
Solution:
b) Distance travelled during braking
V 2 −U 2
d2 =
254( f + G )
80 2 − 0 2
d2 =
254(0.33 + 0 )
= 76.4m

∴ SSD = d1 + d2
= 56m + 76.4m
= 132.4m ~ 140m
25
Example 4.2 :
A man driving his car at the design speed of 80km/hr on a
-3% road, has the perception and reaction time of 2.5s.
If the side friction changes linearly from 0.25 for the the
speed of 20km/ hr to 0.10 for the speed of 100km/hr, determine
the SSD for the driver.
Solution:
v = 80km/hr,
t = 2.5s
f = 0.138 ~ 0.14 (from interpolation)
G = -3%
a) Distance travelled during perception
d2 = 0.28Vt
= 0.28 x 80km/hr x 2.5s = 56m
26
Example 4.2 (cont..):
Solution:
b) Distance travelled during braking
V 2 −U 2
d2 =
254( f + G )
80 2 − 0 2
d2 =
254(0.14 − 0.03)
= 229.1m

∴ SSD = d1 + d2
= 56m + 229.1m
= 285.1m
27
 Exercise 4.1:

Solution:

28
 Topic 4.1.2
Overtaking/Passing Sight
Distance (OSD@PSD)

29
Definition of OSD

A minimum distance acquired

by a driver to get off his lane and
speed up to overtake the car in
front, on a 2-lane (2-way) road
and then get back into the
actual lane safely, without any
interference to the oncoming
vehicle of opposite lane.
30
The Distance

Oncoming vehicle
Overtaking Overtaken
in the opposite lane
vehicle vehicle

d1 d2 d3 d4
D

Overtaking Sight Distance, D

= d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
31
The Distance (cont..)
d1 = Distance for driver to decide whether it is safe to
overtake and to accelerate to overtaking speed.
This time period has been described as hesitation time
and is about + 3.5s for comfortable overtaking
condition.
= 0.278 t1 (V-m+0.5at1) meter
t1 = hesitation time (usually 3.5s)
V = average speed overtaking (km/hr)
m = difference speed of overtaking and overtaken vehicle
a = average acceleration (km/hr/s)
d2 = distance traveled in opposing lane (overtaking distance)
= 0.278Vt2 meter
V = average speed (km/hr)
t2 = time taken by overtaking vehicle being on the
opposing lane 32
The Distance (cont..)
d3 = Clearance distance to opposing vehicles (30-90m)
d4 = Distance traversed by an opposing
vehicle
= 2/3 d2

33
In general PSD
0.278t1 (V - m+0.5at1) + 0.278Vt2 + (30 – 90) + 2/3 d2

34
Minimum Passing Sight Distance

35
Exercise 4.2

Calculate the minimum passing sight distance required

for a two-lane rural roadway that has a posted speed
limit of 70km/h. The local traffic engineer conducted a
speed study of the subject road and found the following:
average speed of the passing vehicle was 75km/h with
an average acceleration of 2.3 km/h/sec, and the
average speed of impeder vehicles was 64km/h. The
distance between the passing and impeder vehicles was
55 m. Take t2 = 10s

Ans: 470 m
36
 Topic 4.2
Horizontal Alignment

37
Overview

• It concerns with the design of the road section

as it is seen from bird’s eye view –is it a straight
section or a road bend?.

• If a road bend is required, what is the shape and

the radius of the bend?
- Base on a simple circular curve
- Base on a spiral curve (i.e. a combination of a
circular curve and transition curves)

38
39
Circular Curve (Physical Property)

V 2
R= _________________ meter
127 (e + f)

R
V = design speed in km/h
e = superelevation
f = road surface friction

40
Example 4.3: Curve Radius
A curving roadway has a design speed of 110 km/hr. At one
horizontal curve, the superelevation has been set at 6.0%
and the coefficient of road surface friction is found to be
0.10. Determine the minimum radius of the curve that will provide
safe vehicle operation.
Solution:
V = 110km/hr,
e = 0.06
f = 0.10
V2
R=
127(e + f )

110 2
R=
127(0.06 + 0.10) = 595.5m ~ 600 m
41
Circular Curve (Geometric Property)

PI = external angle

L
PC
PC PT

42
Circular Curve (Geometric Property)
PC = Point of curve (the beginning point of horizontal curve)
PI = Point of tangent intersection
PT = Point of tangent ( the ending point of horizontal curve)
T = Tangent length
= ∆
R tan
2
M = Middle ordinate
 ∆
= R1 − cos 
 2
E = External distance =  1 
R − 1
 cos(∆ / 2 
43
Example 4.4: Determine Stationing
A horizontal curve is designed with a 600 m radius and is
known to have a tangent length of 52 m. The PI is at station
CH 2000. Determine the stationing of the PT.
Solution:
CH 2000
∆
T = R tan
2
∆
T = 600 tan
2
∆ = 9.9o
Rπ∆
L=
180
= 104m
PC = PI – T = 2000 – 52 = CH 1948
PT = PC + L = CH 1948 + 104 = CH 2052
44
Transition Curve
• When vehicles enter or leave a circular
horizontal curve, the gain or loss of
centrifugal force cannot be effected instantaneously,
considering safety and comfort.

• In such cases, the insertion of transition curves

between tangents and circular curves warrants
consideration.

45
Transition Curve (cont..)
A properly designed transition curve provides
the following advantages:

• A natural, easy to follow path for drivers such that

the centrifugal force increases and decreases
gradually as a vehicle enters and leaves a circular
curve
• A convenient desirable arrangement for
superelevation runoff
• Flexibility in the widening of sharp curves
• Enhancement in the appearance of the highway.

46
Spiral Curve (Geometric Property)

A B C
θ
LB

R
D
V3
BC = DE =LT =
R 46.7 qR
E
θT
CD = LB = R{(θ - 2θT)rad}
α θT

L
θT =
2R

Total length, L = BCDE = 2LT + LB

47
Example 4.5:
A curve of a road section is designed with a combination
of circular and transition curve and the design parameters
are given below:

Design speed = 90km/hr

Central angle of curve, θ = 15o
Side friction, f = 0.12
Superelevation, e = 6%
Radial accelaration, q = 0.9m/s

Determine the minimum radius of circular curve, the length of

transition curve and the total length required for above criteria.

48
Example 4.5 : (cont).....
Solution:
V2 90 2
R=
127(e + f )
= = 355m
127(0.06 + 0.12)

V3 903
LT = = = 49m
46.7 qR 46.7 x0.9 x355
L 49
ΘT = = = 0.069rad
2R 2 x355

LB = R{(θ - 2θT)rad}
= 355{0.2618 – (2x 0.069)}
= 44m

Total length, L = 2LT + LB = 2(49) + 44 = 142m

49
Types Of Horizontal Curves

Four types of horizontal curves:

1. SIMPLE. The simple curve is an arc of a circle

(view A, fig. 11-2). The radius of the circle
determines the sharpness or flatness of the
curve.

2. COMPOUND. Frequently, the terrain will

require the use of the compound curve.
This curve normally consists of two simple
curves joined together and curving in the same
direction (view B, fig. 11-2).
3. REVERSE. A reverse curve consists of
two simple curves joined together, but
curving in opposite direction. For safety
reasons, the use of this curve should be
avoided when possible (view C, fig. 11-2).

4. SPIRAL. The spiral is a curve that has a

varying radius. It is used on railroads. Its
purpose is to provide a transition from the
tangent to a simple curve or between
simple curves in a compound curve (view
D, fig. 11-2).
 θ

C
L
R L Total road alignment,
R
θ T = 2L + C

1) Transition length, 2) Curve,

L = v3/qR  v in m/s C = R(θ-2Φ)rad
Or L = V3/46.7qR Φ = L/2R

in km/h
 Centrifugal force, P

 Acts horizontally outwards

through the center of gravity of
80

Km/j

the vehicle P

P=

 Centrifugal ratio, P/W

Moving on
 Two effects track by
turning the
i) Tendency to overturn steering

ii) Tendency to skid laterally

 Tendency to overturn

 Moment = P x h resisted by restoring

moment = W(b/2)
 Thus, Ph = W(b/2)
P/W = b/2h

Danger of
P/W ≈ b/2h overturning
 Tendency to skid laterally

G  Avoid o/turning &

P
skidding
W
h

b
- P/W < b
Ra Rb
- P/W < f
P = f (Ra+Rb) = fW
Superelevation, e
• In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal
force to reduce the tendency of the vehicle to
overturn or skid, the outer edge of pavement is
raised with respect to the inner edge, which is
known as superelevation, e

P
e
1
F
α

57
Superelevation, e (cont..)
• The max rates of e usable are controlled by
several factors such as climatic conditions,
terrain conditions and frequency of very
slow moving vehicles, vehicles speed. Max rate
of 0.10 is used for rural and 0.06 for urban

P
e
1
F
α

58
Stopping Sight Distance, SSD

SSD

m
CL highway
Obstruction

CL inside lane

59
Stopping Sight Distance, SSD (cont..)

SSD

60
Stopping Sight Distance, SSD (cont..)
2
v
SSD = 0.28vt +
254 ( f ± G )

** Take v in km/hr and t in s. The answer is straight away

in “meter”.

 28.65SSD 
m = R 1 − cos 
 R 

61
Example 4.6:
Question:
A horizontal curve having a radius of 800m forms part of a
two-lane highway that has a posted limit of 80km/hr. If the
highway is flat at this section, determine the minimum distance a
large billboard can be placed from the centre line of the inside lane
of the curve, without reducing the required SSD. Assume
perception-reaction time as 2.5 s and f= 0.10.

Solution:
R = 800m
v = 80km/hr
t = 2.5s
f = 0.10
62
Example 4.6 (cont..)
Solution (cont..):
v2
SSD = 0.28vt +
254 ( f ± G )
80 2
SSD = 0.28 x80 x 2.5s +
254 (0.10 − 0)
= 56m + 252m
= 308m

 28.65SSD 
m = R 1 − cos 
 R
 28.65(308) 
m = 800 1 − cos  = 14.8m
 800 
63
Horizontal Curve Fundamentals
Figure 16.19: Layout of a Simple Horizontal curve:

R = radius of circular curve

T = tangent length
= deflection angle / central
angle of the curve
M = middle ordinate
L = length of curve
PC = point of curve (beginning
point)
PT = point of tangent
PI = point of intersection
E = external distance
64
Geometric and trigonometric analysis of
Figure 16.19, give:

∆ ∆
T = R tan M = R (1 − cos )
2 2
( 28.65S )
M = R (1 − cos )
R
S-sight distance (m)
R=radius of curve (m)
 
 1 
E = R − 1
 cos( ∆ )  π

 2 
 L= R∆
180
65
Stopping Sight Distance and
Horizontal Curve Design
As in vertical curve design, adequate Stopping Sight Distance must
be provided in the design of horizontal curves (Refer Figure 4.1).

copyright@Tey Li Sian 66
 When a vehicle is being driven around a
horizontal curve, an object located near the
edge of the road may interfere with the view of
the driver, which will result in a reduction of the
driver’s sight distance ahead of her.
 When such a situation exists, it is necessary to
design the horizontal curve such that the
available sight distance is at least equal to the
safe stopping sight distance.
 For example, sight distance restrictions on
horizontal curves occur when obstructions are
present shown in Figure 3.12:
67
68
 When such an obstruction exists, the stopping sight
distance is measured along the horizontal curve from the
center of the traveled lane (the assumed location of the
driver’s eyes).
 As shown in Fig. 3.12, for a specified stopping distance,
some distance, Ms (the middle ordinate of a curve that has
an arc length equal to the stopping distance), must be
visually cleared so that the line of sight is such that sufficient
stopping-sight distance is available:

πRv  Rv − M s 
−1
SSD = cos ( )
90  Rv 

where, Rv = radius to the vehicle’s traveled path

70
From:
π
 We know (Figure 16.19): L = R∆
180

So from Figure 3.12, π

 SSD = Rv ∆ s
180
180 SSD
 Rearrange ⇒ ∆s =
πRv
∆s 90 SSD
 Substitute into M s = R (1 − cos )
πRv
 Rearrange ⇒ πRv  −1 Rv − M s 
SSD = cos ( )
90  Rv 

71
Middle Ordinate

M = R [ 1 – cos (28.65S) ]
R
M = middle ordinate or
distance from the
centerline of the lane
nearest the obstruction(m)
S = sight distance (m)
R = radius of curve (m)
11/13/2018 copyright@Tey Li Sian

73
11/13/2018 copyright@Tey Li Sian

74
75
 Example 4.7:

Calculate the minimum radius of a simple circular curve

ْ The design speed is 80
with an external angle of 100◌.
km/h, the corresponding value of f is 0.13 and the
maximum design value for superelevation is 0.10. Also
calculate the design value for e for a curve that has a
radius of 245 m

Solution:

76
Example 4.8:

A horizontal curve on a highway is designed with 600 m

radius, 3.6 m lane width and 120 km/h design speed. If
the minimum SSD is 200 m, determine the distance that
must be cleared from the inside edge lane in order to
provide sufficient sight distance.

Solution:

77
 Topic 4.3
Vertical Alignment

78
Overview
• Straight line connected by vertical curve with the
objective:

- To give a gradual change from one tangent grade

to another without neglecting the drivers comfort.

- To avoid humps

- To provide safe sight distance for vehicles to stop and

manouver.

79
80
81
82
Main Components
i) Uphill and downhill slope (gradient)
• A good slope/gradient is when a vehicle can be
controlled well in the condition of high gear for uphill
slope and without having to brake for downhill slope.
• Vehicle performance (especially HGV) depends on the
slope condition and length.
• HGV speed will be affected if the uphill gradient is too
slope and long.
• Critical slope length is the maximum length of uphill
slope that HGV can go through without losing much
speed.

83
Main Components (cont..)

ii) Summit curve

• Main criteria - :
- provision of minimum slipping
sight distance
- adequate drainage
- comfortable in operation
- pleasant appearance
Notes: Summit – the highest point
84
Type of Vertical Curve
There are 2 types of vertical curve which are:
i) Crest vertical curve

ii) Sag vertical curve

85
 Length of Crest Curve (cont..)
i) For S > L

Lmin = 2S −
(
200 H1 + H 2 ) 2

A= G1+ G2
A
H1 H2
H1 = Height of eye above road
surface (1.07m @ 3.5ft)
L
H2 = Height of object above road
surface (0.15m @0.5ft) S

S = Sight distance
A = algebraic differences in grade
404
in % , |g1 – g2| ∴ Lmin = 2S −
A
86
 Length of Crest Curve
i) For S < L
AS 2
Lmin =
(
200 H1 + H 2 )
2

H1
A= G1+ G2

H2
H1 = Height of eye above road
surface (1.07m @ 3.5ft)
S
H2 = Height of object above road
surface (0.15m @0.5ft) L

S = Sight distance
A = algebraic differences in 2
AS
grade in % , |g1 – g2| ∴ Lmin =
404
87
88
89
Example 4.9
Question:
A crest vertical curve is to be designed to join a +3% grade
with a -3% grade at a section of a two-lane highway.
Determine the minimum length of the curve if the design speed
of the highway is 80km/hr and S<L. Assume that the perception-
reaction time is 2.5s and the friction is 0.3

Solution:
v2
SSD = 0.28vt +
254 ( f − G )

80 2
SSD = 0.28 x80 x 2.5s +
254 (0.30 − 0.03)

90
Example 4.9 (cont..)
Solution:

= 56m + 76.35m
= 132.4m

AS 2
Lmin =
404

6.0(132.4 2 )
Lmin =
404
= 260m

91
Length of Sag Curve
S

i) For S > L
200( H + S tan β )
Lmin = 2S −
A
H1 = Height of headlight above road surface (0.6m @ 2ft)
β = Inclined angle of the headlight relative to the horizontal plane
of car (1o)
S = Sight distance
120 + 3.5S
∴ Lmin = 2S −
A 92
Length of Sag Curve (cont..)
ii) For S < L
AS 2
Lmin =
200( H + S tan β )

H1 = Height of headlight above road surface (0.6m @ 2ft)

β = Inclined angle of the headlight relative to the horizontal plane
of car (1o)
S = Sight distance

2
AS
∴ Lmin =
120 + 3.5S

93
Length of Sag Curve (cont..)
iii) Minimum length for the comfort criterion
• Vehicle traverses a sag vertical curve, both gravitational and
centrifugal forces act in combination, resulting in greater
effect than crest curve.
• Comfort ride difficult to measure due to factors i.e weight
carried, body suspension, tyre friction, etc.
• A Comfortable ride will be provided if the radial acceleration
<1ft/sec2.
• Minimum length for comfort criterion
Av 2 **v in mi/hr. Answer
Lmin = in unit “feet”. Must
46.5 convert to “meter”.
• Appearance (rule of thumb) **In unit “feet”..Must
Lmin = 100 A convert to “meter”.
94
Comfort Criteria:

L = AV2
395

V = design speed (km/h)

L = length of SVC (m)
A = g2 – g1 (%)
96
Example 4.10
Question:
A sag vertical curve is to be designed to join a -3% grade
with a +3% grade at a section of a two-lane highway.
Determine the minimum length of the curve if the design speed
of the highway is 80km/hr. Assume that the perception-reaction
time is 2.5s and the friction is 0.3.
Solution:
v2
SSD = 0.28vt +
254 ( f − G )
80 2
SSD = 0.28 x80 x 2.5s +
254 (0.30 − 0.03)

= 56m + 93.3m
= 149.3m
97
Example 4.10 (cont..)
Solution:
* Determine whether S < L or S > L for the headlight sight
distance criterion.

For S > L,
120 + 3.5S
Lmin = 2 S −
A
120 + 3.5(149.3)
Lmin = 2(149.3) −
6
Lmin = 191.5m
∴S < L …This condition does not
apply

Try for S < L

98
Example 4.10 (cont..)
Solution:
* Determine minimum length criterion
Av 2
Lmin =
46.5
6(49.7 mi / hr 2 )
Lmin =
46.5
= 318.8 ft @ 97.2m
* Determine minimum length for general appearance
Lmin = 100 A
Lmin = 100(6)
= 600 ft @ 183m
∴ Take Lmin = 183m (take the largest length)
99
Exercise 4.3
Question:
Determine the minimum length of a crest vertical curve
between a +0.5% grade and a –1.0% grade for a road with
a 100 km/h design speed. The vertical curve must provide
190 m stopping sight distance.

Solution:

100
Exercise 4.4
Question:
Determine the minimum length of a sag vertical curve
between a -0.7% grade and a +0.5% grade for a road with
110 km/h design speed. The vertical curve must provide
220 m stopping sight distance.

Solution:

101
 Headlight sight distance at
a sag vertical curve.
A photo taken at night at a
sag vertical curve that shows
how much of the roadway is
visible ahead via headlight
Illumination.
Horizontal stopping sight
distance.

A photo showing vehicles traveling

through a tunnel on a curved
portion of road.
The tunnel wall at right obscures
the view ahead around the curve.
 Topic 4.4
Road Cross Sectional
Element

103
Typical Elements of Highway Cross-section
Right-of-Way

shoulder Traffic Traffic shoulder

reserve lane lane reserve

(a) single-carriageway road

Right-of-Way

shoulder Traffic Traffic shoulder

reserve lane Road lane reserve
Median

(b) dual-carriageway road

104
105
 Cross-Sectional Elements
• Undivided highway – travel lanes &
shoulders
• Divided highway – travel lanes,
shoulders & medians.
• Other elements – roadside barriers,
curbs (US), gutters, guardrails &
sidewalks depends on road type.

Curb, gutter, and storm drain

1. Width of travel lanes
* vary between 10 and 13 ft, usually 12 ft
(3.66 m)
* two lane, two way rural road – 10 & 11 ft
* traffic volume low – 9 ft

2. Width of shoulders
* function – stopping facility for vehicles
- lateral support for the
pavement structure
* widths at least 10 ft & 12 ft (high trucks,
volume & speed)
* minimum width 6-8 ft may be used
3. Medians
* the section of divided highway that separates
traffic moving in opposite directions
* measured from edge to edge
* functions – provide recovery area for out-of-
control vehicles
- separating opposing traffic
- provide stopping areas
(emergencies)
- provide storage area for right & U
turn vehicles
- provide refuge for pedestrians
- reducing the effect of headlight
glare
 * medians can be raised, flush or
depressed.
* widths generally range from 2 ft to 80 ft or
more.

4. Median & Roadside barriers

* median barriers – provide protection for
vehicle enter the opposite direction.
* roadside barriers – protect vehicles from
crashing onto hazards along the side of
the road.
Median barriers Depressed

Flush Raised
5. Curbs & gutters
* curbs are used to delineate pavement edges
& pedestrian walkways, also to control
drainage.
* Constructed of PCC or bituminous concrete
* classified either barrier or mountable curbs.
* barrier curbs – prevent vehs from leaving
highway (height:6-8”)
* mountable curbs – permit vehs to cross over
(height:4-6”)
* gutters/ditches – drainage facility for the
road.
* located at the pavement side of the curb
6. Guardrails
* used to prevent errant vehicles from leaving
the roadbed at sharp horizontal curves & at
high embankments.
* placed at embankments with heights greater
than 8 ft.

7. Sidewalks
* provided mainly on urban streets to facilitate
the safe movement of pedestrians.
* particularly at areas adjacent to schools,
transit stops, parks & shopping centers
* minimum width 4 ft in residential areas
(range: 4 – 8 ft)
 Cable barriers

Guardrails
 Too rigid a guardrail "bounces" a car back into oncoming traffic.

Too weak a guardrail "pockets" a vehicle with a resultant abrupt impact.

8. Cross Slopes/ Camber
* facilitate the drainage of surface water.
* Two lane & multilane highway without
medians are sloped from middle downward
to both sides.
* Divided highway by either crowning the
pavement in each direction or by sloping
the entire pavement in one direction.
* AASHTO recommends:
a) 1.5-2% for high-type pavements
b) 1.5-3% for intermediate-type
pavements
c) 2.0-6% for low type pavements
 Grades
Max grades are based on the design speed &
design vehicle.

Type of Design Speed

Topography
50 km/h 65 km/h 80 km/h

Flat 8 7 6

Rolling 9 8 7

Mountainous 11 10 9
 A dual carriageway or divided
highway is a road or highway in which
the two directions of traffic are
separated by a central barrier or strip of
land, known as median.

Single carriageway is the British

designation for the most common type of
road; one with no physical separation
(median) between opposing flows of
traffic. It usually has two or more marked
traffic lanes, one in each direction,
although narrow rural roads and
residential streets may have no markings.
 Topic 4.5
Intersection Design - At
Grade and Grade Separated
Intersection

120
Overview
• Intersection are important part of a road system.

• Their capacity controls the volume of traffic

within the network.

• The term intersection refer to both intersections and

junctions – where two or more roads cross or meet.

121
Types of Conflict
• Four basic types of intersection conflicting
maneuvers:
- Diverging
- Merging,
- Crossing and
- Weaving

• The number of conflict points depends on:

- Number of approaches
- Number of lane on each approach
- Type of signal control
- Extent of channelization
- Movement permitted
122
Diverging & Merging conflicts

123
Conflicts at 4 leg intersection

124
Types of Conflict

 Geometric design of transportation facilities

must provide for the resolution of traffic
conflicts.
 Conflicts may be classified as
1. Merging – vehicles enter the traffic stream
2. Diverging – vehicles leave the traffic stream
3. Weaving – vehicles cross path by first
merging & then diverging
4. Crossing – vehicles cross path directly
Intersection & Interchanges

Merging Diverging

Weaving
Crossing
 Three basic ways of resolving crossing conflicts:

1. Time – sharing solutions

* right-of-way (priority) to particular movements for
particular times
* ex: signalized intersection
2. Space – sharing solutions
* covert crossing conflicts into weaving conflicts
* ex: traffic circles or rotary
3. Grade separation
* eliminate the crossing conflict by placing the
conflicting streams at different elevations.
* ex: freeway interchanges & highway-railway
grade separation
Factors Influencing the Intersection Design (i-iv)

i) Traffic volume & characteristics

• Design peak hour volume.
• Needs of commercial vehicles should be considered.
• Operating speeds and turning path requirement, type of
traffic control.
• Pedestrian, buses requirement.

ii) Topography and environment,

• Alignment and grade of approach roads,
• Need for drainage,
• Extent of interference with public
utilities, proper access

129
Factors Influencing The Design (cont..)
iii) Economics,
• Variation should be justify by
commensurate benefit to traffic.

iv) Human factors

• Drivers tend to act according
to habit,
• Tend to follow natural path of
movement, and
• May become confused when surprised
130
Desirable Minimum Spacing
Depends on factors:
• Weaving distance

• Storage length required for queuing traffic

• Length of right turning lanes

131
132
Type of Intersection

• At Grade Intersection

• Grade Separated Intersection

• Channelization

133
Intersection & Interchanges

 Reduce no of conflicts
 Control relative speed
 Coordinate design and traffic
Importance controls
principles
in a good  Follow natural path
design  Separate conflicts points
 Adequate ‘storage’ space at
intersection
Favor the heaviest and fastest
flow
 Topic 4.5.1
At Grade Intersection

135
Definition
• An at-grade intersection is a junction at which
two or more transport axes cross at the same
level (or grade).

• With areas of high or fast traffic, an at-grade

intersection normally requires a traffic control
device such as a stop sign or traffic light or
railway signal to manage conflicting traffic

136
What type of traffic control device that
can be seen from here?

137
Intersection & Interchanges

 Basic types:
1. T or three-leg
intersections
At-grade 2. Cross or four-leg
intersection intersections
3. Multileg intersections
T / Y / 3 leg Intersection
Intersection & Interchanges

 Types of T or three-leg intersections:

a) Plain T Intersection
* for minor or local road
* for rural two-lane highways that carry
light traffic

b) T intersection (with left turn lane)

* locations with higher speeds & turning
volumes – potential rear-ends collision
* add surfacing/flaring to separate left-
turning vehicles from through vehicles
Intersection & Interchanges

c) T intersection (with divisional island & right

passing lane)
* right-turn volume from through road onto
minor road is high.
* an auxiliary lane may be provided
* space for through vehicles to maneuver
around the right-turning vehicles.

d) T intersection with divisional island &

turning roadway
* channelized T intersection
* both left & right turn storage lane
* for locations where volumes are high
* will probably be signalized
Plain, rural, light traffic

High speed & turning

volumes,
surfacing/flaring

141
 Auxiliary lane

Channelized

142
 Two Way Left Turn Lane
TWLTL

Through Lane
Intersection & Interchanges

 Types of cross or four-leg intersections:

a) Plain four-leg Intersection

* for minor or local road
* minor road crosses a major highway
* low turning volumes

b) Four-leg intersection (with divisional island)

* turning volumes are frequent
* add divisional island
* common in suburban areas where
pedestrians are present
 Intersection & Interchanges

c) Four-leg intersection (with divisional island & left/

right turn roadway)
* for a two-lane highway that carries moderate
volumes at high speeds or operates near capacity

d) Four-leg intersection (channelized)

* four four-lane approaches
* carrying high through & turning volumes
* usually signalized
Plain, minor road Divisional island

Divisional island &

right turn ways

146
Channelized

147
Intersection & Interchanges

• Multileg
Intersections
Have five or
more
approaches
Should be
avoided
 Intersection skew at
90 degrees.

Intersection skew at
75 degrees.
 Traffic Circles:
A circular intersection that provides a circular traffic
pattern with significant reduction in the crossing
conflicts points.
 Types:
1. Rotaries
* large diameters greater than 300ft
* allowing speeds exceeding 48 km/h.
2. Neighborhood traffic circles
* much smaller than rotaries, lower speed
* used as traffic calming and/or as an
aesthetic device
* consists of pavement marking rather than
raised island.
3. Roundabouts.
* Have specific characteristics:
• Yield control at each approach
• Separation of conflicting traffic
movements by pavement markings or
raised islands.
• Allow travel speed of less than 48km/h
• Parking usually not allowed within the
circulating roadway.
 Topic 4.5.2
Grade Separated
Intersection

152
Definition
• Grade separation is the process of aligning a
junction of two or more transport axes at
different heights (grades)

• To avoid disrupting the traffic flow on other transit

routes when they cross each other.

• Also known as interchange.

• Type of separation structure:

- Overpass
- Underpass
153
Which one is Overpass & Underpass?

154
Grade separated

 Intersecting road at different

elevation
 Purpose:
- Permit cross flow at different levels w/out
interruption
– eliminate bottlenecks because of higher
volume of traffic
– prevent accident
– reduce delays
 High-capacity stack
interchange between
Interstates 105 and 110 in
Los Angeles, California.

Diamond Cloverleaf Trumpet

http://www.cbrd.co.uk/reference/interchanges/
Grade separated with
ramps (Interchanges)
 A typical cloverleaf interchange
with collector/distributor roads

Trumpet interchange
near Arnhem, Netherlands

A typical diamond interchange

 Intersection Control
• Purpose:
a) assign the right of way to drivers
b) facilitate highway safety by ensuring
the orderly and predictable
movement of all traffic on highway.

• Control may be achieved by using traffic

signals, signs or markings that regulate,
guide, warn and/or channel traffic.
• Guidelines are provided in the Manual on
Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD)

• To be effective, a traffic control device must

a) Fulfil a need
b) Command attention
c) Convey a clear simple meaning
d) Command the respect of road users
e) Give adequate time for proper response
• To ensure that a traffic control device
possesses these five properties, the MUTCD
recommends that engineers consider the
following five factors:

a) Design – size, colour & shape

b) Placement – within the cone of vision
c) Operation - consistent
d) Maintenance – regularly maintained
e) Uniformity – similar devices.
 Topic 4.5.3
Channelization

162
Definition
• The direction of traffic flow at intersections to
definite path, by means of traffic markings,
islands or others.

• An unchannelized intersection is the simplest type

but is the most dangerous and inefficient.

163
164
 Effect of Channelization

Before Channelization After Channelization

165
The Purpose
Channelization serves the following purpose:
• Separation of conflicts
• Control of angle of conflict
• Control of speed
• Protection of traffic
• Protection of pedestrians
• Elimination of excessive intersectional area
• Blockage of prohibited movement
• Location of traffic control devices

166
The Principles (i – viii)
The design channelized intersection should also
be governed by the following principles:
i) Motorist should not be required to make more than one
decision at a time.
ii) Sharp reverse curves and turning paths greater than 900
should be avoided.
iii) Merging and weaving area should be as long as possible, but
other area of conflict between vehicles should be reduced to
minimum.

167
The Principles (cont..)
iv) Crossing traffic streams that do not weave or merge
should intersect at 900 but a range of 60-1200 is
acceptable.
v) The intersecting angle of merging streams should be such
that adequate sight distance is provided.
vi) Refuge areas for turning vehicles should not interfere
with the movement of through vehicle.
vii) Prohibited turns should be block wherever possible.
viii) Decisions on the location of essential traffic control devices
should be a component of the design process.

168
Channelization
 AASHTO defines: -
Separation of conflicting traffic movements
into definite paths of travel by traffic islands
or pavement markings to facilitate the safe
& orderly movements of both vehicles &
pedestrians.
Increased
capacity
Proper channelized
Enhanced safety
intersection
Increased driver
confidence
 Blockage of Location of
prohibited traffic control
movement devices

Control of
speed Purposes of Pedestrian
channelization protection
Separation
of conflicts Traffic
protection
Elimination of
Control of
excessive
conflict
intersectional
angle
area
Control speed Traffic protection

Prohibited movement
Location of control device

Control of angle
171
Channelization
Channelization

Channelization at
T-intersetion

Channelization at 4-leg
intersection
 Intersection & Interchanges
Example of channelization
Manoeuvre (Improved)
Higher speed roads with right
turn channelization at an
intersection. An acceleration
lane is present and sloping
curbs are painted.
Manoeuvre (Unimproved)
Higher speed roads with
right turn channelization at
an intersection but with no
acceleration lane; curbs are
not painted.
 Pavement markings can
be used to delineate
travel lanes within wide
intersections.

A traffic island in Germany

 TOPIC 4.6
Traffic Control Device

176
Introduction
 Purpose is to convey message to road users.
 Objective: To establish a user-friendly street and
road system that is adequately and clearly
understood by all users thereof.
 May either contain instructions which the road user is
required to obey; warning of hazards which may not be
evident; or information about routes, destinations and
points of interest or leisure.
 Road traffic control devices:-
1. Road Marking

2. Road Sign

3. Traffic Island

4. Traffic Signal

177
1. Road Marking
 Any kind of device or material that is used on a
road surface in order to convey official information.

 Are made of lines, pattern, words, symbols or reflector

on the pavement, kerb, side of island or on fixed
objects near the roadway.

 Purpose is to control or regulate the traffic.

 Markings are made using paints (light reflecting

paints) in contrast with color and brightness of the
pavement or background.
178
1. Road Marking (cont..)
Types of markings
 Pavement marking
- Center lines
- Lane line
- No passing zone
- Turn marking
- Stop lines
 Kerb marking
- Parking regulation

179
2. Road Sign

 Types Road Traffic Sign

i. Regulatory Signs (enforced by law)
- Mandatory-speed limit
- Prohibitory-no entry
ii. Warning Signs
iii. Informatory Signs

 Characteristics of Road Traffic Sign

- Shape
- Colour
- Symbol/Lettering

180
181
3. Traffic Island
 A median strip, a strip in the middle of a road. It can also
be a narrow strip between roads that intersect at an
acute angle.
 Types of traffic island based on function
i. Divisional island
eg. Median along highways
ii. Channelizing island
- Used to guide traffic into proper channels through
the intersection area
~ Reduce conflicts
~ Establish desired angles of crossing and diverging
~ Serve as convenient locations for other traffic control
devices
~ Refuge island for pedestrians
~ Useful when the direction of flow is to changed 182
Examples of Traffic Island:-

183
4. Traffic Signal System
 A signaling device positioned at a road intersection,
pedestrian crossing, or other location.
 Its purpose is to indicate, using a series of colors
(Red - Amber - Green), the correct moment to stop, drive,
ride or walk, using a universal color code (and a precise
sequence, for those who are color blind.
 Type of traffic signal
i. Fixed time controlled traffic signal system:..
ii. Vehicle actuated traffic signal system:..
iii. Linked/coordinated traffic signal system;
- Simultaneous system
- Single alternate system
- Double alternate system
- Flexible system
iv. Area traffic signal system:..
184
 TOPIC 4.6.1
Intersection Control Design:–
1. UnSignalized &
2. Signalized

185
4.6.1.1 Intersection Control
Design – UnSignalized
(Arahan Teknik Method)

186
Refer & Study from the Laboratory :

Junction Capacity Study

PART I:

Capacity and LOS of Unsignalised

Intersection

187
4.6.1.2 Intersection Control
Design – Signalized
(Webster Method)

188
Traffic Signal Control System

DEFINITION:

Traffic signal includes all mechanical – or

electrical – controlled devices used to
control, direct, or warn drivers or
pedestrians.

189
Objective and Function

 To provide right–of–way to vehicles on

each approach to increase traffic
handling performance.

 To provide efficient traffic movement and

safety.

 To reduce traffic conflict points, traffic

delay, etc.

190
Objective and Function (cont..)
 Conflict points at a junction are the points at which
there are possibilities of two or more vehicles will
collide if vehicles from opposing directions are
allowed to move simultaneously.

191
Conflict Areas at Intersection

Crossing
How many crossing,
Diverging diverging and merging
Merging conflicts are there?
Advantages and disadvantages of traffic control:

Advantages Disadvantages

Provide orderly traffic Can cause delay –

movement during off-peak
Reduce frequency of Accident frequency
certain accident (right (rear-end) may increased
angle and pedestrian) Red-runners
Used to interrupt heavy
traffic at intervals to allow
other traffic to go.
 Types of Traffic Signal

3 types
Pre-timed Semi-actuated Fully actuated
•Preset time & phases •Vehicle detector on •Vehicle detectors at all
•Constant cycle length minor street approaches
•Simple & cheap •Green always at major •Each phase subjected
•Effective in progressive street unless minor to min to max green time
signal system street actuation occurs •Some phase skipped –if
•Can be operated in diff •2-phase plan no demand
timing plans •Cycle length maybe •Cycle length-varies
•Less efficient in varies •Termination of phase-no
fluctuating demand •Good for low-moderate actuations within spec
demand time @when max green
time
•Flexible form
General Criteria for Selecting The Type of Junction
Total 2–way traffic on major road and highest volume on
Type of minor road (veh/h)
junction
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

Stop–
controlled
Traffic
Signal
Interchange

MINI SMALL CONVENTIONAL

Roundabout

195
4.6.2 Terminologies and
Definitions

196
1. Signal Aspect or Indications

RED :  STOP (DON’T GO)

AMBER :  (i) Drivers approaching the stop-line
must slow down and ready to stop
as the right-of-way is about to
end, and
(ii) Drivers who have already crossed
the stop-line must proceed and
clear the junction quickly.

GREEN :  Drivers have the right-of-way

GREEN : Proceed to follow the indicated direction
ARROW
197
2. Cycle Time, Co

A period for a complete

sequence of signal
indications (aspects), i.e.,
green followed with amber,
and followed with red period.
0 sec t1 t2 t = CO

A cycle time, CO

198
3. Traffic (Signal) Phases

The portion of a signal cycle time

allocated to any single combination of one or
more traffic movements simultaneously
receiving the right-of-way during one or
more intervals.
Phase Sequence:
A predetermined order in which the phases
of a cycle occur.

199
3. Traffic (Signal) Phases (cont..)
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

Timing Diagram: I
0 sec. t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 CO
Phase 1 a R

Phase 2 a R

Phase 3 a R

200

One cycle time, C

 4. All Red Period, R
The part or parts of the signal cycle time during which
the signal indications do not change. This short
period of time is to ensure all vehicles/pedestrians have
cleared the junction before the next traffic phase is
given right-of-way
Timing Diagram:
I
0 sec. t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 CO
Phase 1 a R

Phase 2 a R

Phase 3 a R

One cycle time, CO 201

 5. Intergreen Period, I
A period of time from end of the green indication
of a phase to the beginning of green indication
for the next phase.
I=a+R
Timing Diagram:
I
0 sec. t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 CO
Phase 1 a R

Phase 2 a R

Phase 3 a R

One cycle time, CO

202
4.6.3 Elements To Consider
In The Design Of A Traffic
Signal Control System

203
1. Selection of Traffic Phases
A minimum number of phases for any junction is = 2
But, it is important to consider the need to provide
separate phases for right–turning vehicles based on the
following criteria:

• Traffic volumes
• Traffic delays
• Accident records
• Geometry

204
General Guideline For Provision Of Separate
Right–turning Phases:
(a) Traffic Volume
i. Product of right–turning traffic volume and through volume
of the conflicting direction ≥ 50,000; or
ii. Total right –turning traffic ≥ 100 veh/h during peak hour; or
iii. Number of right–turning vehicles left in queue ≥ 2 veh/cycle at
the end of green period.
(b) Traffic Delay
i. Average delay to the right–turning vehicles ≥ 35 sec/veh.

(c) Accidents involving right–turning vehicles

i. 4 or more accidents/year or 6 or more accidents for a period
of 2 years on one particular approach; or
ii. 6 or more accidents/year or 10 or more accidents for a period
of 2 years on both opposing approaches. 205
2. Saturation Flow, S
The maximum flow of vehicles passing the stopline
during green period.
Variation of vehicle flow rate passing the
stopline during a green period

Saturation flow, S
Flow rate, veh/sec

l sec. Lost time due to

late start, l sec. Lost time due to
early stop
Effective green period

206

0 sec. time
 QN = Observed or
expected traffic
flow in the given
movements (pcu/h)

SN = Saturation flow for

the given movement
(pcu/hr)

W = Width of the lane for

the movement (m)

IF W ≥ 5.5 METER THEN: S = 525*W PCU/H

IF W < 5.5 METER THEN: USED TABLE BELOW FOR S

W (meter) 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

S (pcu/h) 1845 1885 1965 2210 2560 207
The actual saturation flow (S) of a particular movement
is governed by several factors:
• Percentage of right–turning traffic ( FR )
• Percentage of left–turning traffic ( FL )
• Turning radius ( FT )
• Gradient ( FG )

Therefore, S must be corrected to take account of the effects:

(i) Saturation flow for mixed movements lane:
S’ = S x FR x FL x FG pcu/h
(ii) Saturation flow for exclusive turning lane:
S’ = S x FT x FG pcu/h
FR, FL, FT, and FG can be obtained from the respective
208
Tables given.
From Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 13/87
3. Optimum Cycle Time, Co
1.5L + 5
CO = _____________ SECONDS

1–Y
Where:
n n n
L = ∑ (I − a ) + ∑ l and Y = ∑ yi
i =1 i =1 i =1

L = Total lost time per cycle in seconds

I = Intergreen period in seconds
A = Amber period in seconds
l = Lost time due to starting delay, usually 2s
Yi = Demand/Saturation Flow Ratio = qi / si
210
4. Timing Setting
GN = gN + l + R

KN = gN + ln – an I

Phase N a R

l gN = yN (CO – L)/Y
Cycle time, CO

gN = Effective green period for phase N

GN = Actual green period for phase N
KN = Controller setting green period or the displayed green period
for phase N
211

l = Lost time due starting delay, usually 2s.

Example
Question:
Design a traffic signal system for an intersection in
which the traffic flow information is shown in the table
below and the turning action can be neglected. Show
the phase diagram and phase timeline.
Phase 1 Phase 2
From North South East West
To All All All All
Flow, q (pcu/hr) 1075 1338 587 1187
Saturated flow, s (pcu/hr) 3840 5760 2880 3200

Intergreen Period, I1=5s , I2=6s

Lost time, l = 2s
All Red, R1 = 2s , R2=3s
Amber, a = 3s 212
Example (cont..)
Solution:
Choose 2 phase diagram as the turning action can be
neglected.
Phase 1 Phase 2
From North South East West
To All All All All
Flow, q (pcu/hr) 1075 1338 587 1187
Saturated flow, s (pcu/hr) 3840 5760 2880 3200
Y= q/s 0.28 0.23 0.20 0.36
Ymax 0.28 0.36

From table above, Y= Σ(Ymax) = (0.28+0.36) = 0.64

Total lost time, L = Σ (I -a) + Σl
= {(5-3) + (6-3)} + (2+2) = 9s 213
Example (cont..)
Solution (cont..):
Optimum Cycle Time, C0 shall be 40s < Co< 120s
1.5L + 5
CO = _____________ seconds
1–Y
1.5(9) + 5
CO = _____________ seconds
1 – 0.64
Co = 51.4s , 120s….Okay! Calculated result
But, Co can be taken as 1.5 calculated result. To make the
calculation easier, take Co = 60s (51.4 < Co < (1.5x51.4)
Further calculation is based on Co = 60s

214
Example (cont..)
Solution (cont..):

Effective Green Period for each phase, gN = yN (CO – L)/Y

∴ Phase 1, g1 = 0.28 X (60-9)/ 0.64 = 22.3 ~ 22s
∴ Phase 2, g2 = 0.36 X (60-9)/ 0.64 = 28.7 ~ 29s

Displayed green period, kn = gi + li - ai

∴ Phase 1, k1 = 22 + 2 - 3 = 21s
∴ Phase 2, k2 = 29 + 2 – 3 = 28s

215
Example (cont..)
Solution (cont..):
Timing Diagram

Phase 1 Green (k1) a R1 Red k1

Phase 2 Red Green k2 a R2 Red

21s 24s 26s 54s 57s 60s

One cycle time, Co = 60s

216
 Traffic Signal Design (2-phase)
The approach to a traffic signal controlled system listed as
follows:
a. Intergreen time 3.5 sec for N/S, 4 sec for E/W
b. Lost time 1.5 sec for N/S, 2 sec for E/W
c. Amber time 3 sec for both approaches
d. Lane width 3.5 m for N/S, 4.0 m for E/W

Approaches North South East West

Flow, q 505 652 760 872
Saturation flow, S = 525w 1837.5 1837.5 2100 2100
y = q/S 0.275 0.355 0.362 0.415
y critical 0.355 0.415
1. Ymax = 0.355 + 0.415 = 0.770
2. L = (1.5 + 2) + [(3.5 – 3)N/S + (4 – 3)E/W] = 5 sec
3. Co = 12.5/0.23 = 54.3 sec  55 sec
4. Since yE/W > yN/S  let E/W phase 1 and N/S
phase 2
5. Hence, g1 = 0.415 x (55 – 5) / 0.77 = 26.9 sec
6. g2 = 0.355 x (55 – 5) / 0.77 = 23.1 sec
7. k1 = 26.9 + 2.0 – 3 = 25.9 26 sec
8. k2 = 23.1 + 1.5 – 3 = 21.6 22 sec
 Phase 1 (E/W) 2 (N/S)

Green 26 22
(sec)
Amber 3 3
(sec)
Red 26 30
Time phase diagram (sec)
Co (sec) 55 55
Phase 1 (East-West)
0 26 29 55 sec
k=26s a=3s r=26s

Phase 2 (North-South)
0 30 52 55 sec
r=30s k=22s a=3s
Webster Method
(Fixed/Pretimed Signals)
Equation:

1. Optimum Cycle Length, Co = 1.5L + 5

1-Y
2. Total lost time, L = ∑ ℓ + R

3. Effective green time, Ge = y (C – L)

Y
4. Actual green time, Ga = Ge + ℓ - a
Example 8.5: Signal Timing Using the
Webster Method
Phase A Phase B Phase C Phase D
(W) (E) (N) (S)
LANE LT TH& TH& LT LT TH& LT TH&
RT RT RT RT

q 234 976 676 135 26 194 371 322

s 1615 3700 3700 1615 1615 3700 1615 3700

y 0.145 0.264 0.183 0.084 0.016 0.052 0.230 0.087

= q/s
ymax 0.264 0.183 0.052 0.230

Y= 0.729
∑ymax
Optimum Cycle Length, Co = 1.5L + 5
1-Y

Total lost time, L = ∑ ℓ + R ℓ = lost time

= (4 x 3.5) = 14 sec R = total all red

Co = 1.5(14) + 5 = 95.9 sec round up to nearest 5 sec

1 – 0.729
Total Effective Green Time
Effective green time, Ge = y (C – L)
Y
GeA = 0.264 (100 – 14) = 31 sec
0.729
 GeB = 0.183 (100 – 14) = 21.5 sec
0.729
GeC = 0.052 (100 – 14) = 6 sec
0.729
GeD = 0.230 (100 – 14) = 27 sec
0.729

Actual green time, Ga = Ge + ℓ - a

GaA = 31 + 3.5 - 3 = 32 sec

GaB = 22 + 3.5 - 3 = 22 sec
GaC = 6 + 3.5 - 3 = 7 sec
GaD = 27 + 3.5 - 3 = 27 sec
Time Diagram

Phase A B C D
Green 32 22 7 27
Amber 3 3 3 3
Red 65 75 90 70

Phase Diagram
G = 32 sec R = 65 sec

R = 35 sec G = 22 sec R = 40 sec

R = 60 sec G = 7 sec R = 30 sec

R = 70 sec G = 27 sec
Highway Capacity Method
 The capacity, c
c = s (g/C)
Where
c = capacity
s = saturation flow rate
g = effective green
C = cycle length
 The ratio of flow to capacity (v/c)
(v/c) = X = __v___
s (g/C)
Where
X = (v/c) ratio
v = actual flow rate

 Critical v/c ratio for the whole intersection, Xc

Xc = ∑ (v/s) __C___
C-L
Example 8.6 : Determining Cycle
Lengths from v/c Criteria
A four phase signal system is to be designed for a major
intersection in an urban area. The flow ratios are:
Phase A (v/s) = 0.25
Phase B (v/s) = 0.25
ymax
Phase C (v/s) = 0.20
Phase D (v/s) = 0.15

If the total lost time (L) is 14 sec, determine:

1. The shortest cycle length that will avoid oversaturation
2. The cycle length if the desired critical v/c (Xc) = 0.95
3. The critical v/c (Xc) if a cycle length of 90 sec is used
Solution:
1. Avoid oversaturation, Xc = 1.00
Xc = ∑ (v/s) __C___
C–L
1 = (0.25+0.25+0.20+0.15) __C___
C – 14
C = 93.3 round up to 95 sec.

2. 0.95 = 0.85 __C___

C – 14
C = 133 round up to 135 sec.

3. Xc = 0.85 __90___
90 – 14
Xc = 1.01 (This will result in oversaturation)
 TOPIC 4.7
Traffic Calming

229
Traffic Calming
INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERS
Traffic calming involves changes in street
alignment, installation of barriers, and other
physical measures to reduce traffic speeds
and/or cut-through volumes, in the interest of
street safety, liveability, and other public
purposes.
reducing vehicle speeds
education
enforcement
improving safety
engineering

enhancing quality of life

Traffic Calming

 Traffic calming measures can be separated

into two groups based on the main impact
intended:

1. Volume control measures are primarily

used to address cut-through traffic problems
by blocking certain movements, thereby
diverting traffic to streets better able to
handle it.

2. Speed control measures are primarily

used to address speeding problems by
changing vertical alignment, changing
horizontal alignment, or narrowing the
roadway.
Traffic Calming

Speed control measures

Vertical Horizontal Horizontal
Deflection Deflection Narrowing
Road Humps Traffic Circles Centre Island
Narrowing
Raised Roundabouts
Intersections
Textured Chicanes
Pavements
Traffic Calming

Road Humps

* Raised section on the roads in a perpendicular direction

to the roads.
* The height of the raised section ranges from 7.5-10 cm
Advantages
Inexpensive cost
Very effective in slowing down traffic
Easy for cyclist to cross
Disadvantages
Cause discomfort
Creating noise & air pollution.
Traffic Calming

Raised intersections

* Flat raised areas covering an entire intersection, with

ramps on all approaches and often with brick or other
textured materials on the flat section. They usually raise
to the level of the sidewalk.
Advantages:
√ improve safety for both pedestrians and vehicles
√ If designed well, they can have positive aesthetic value
√ They can calm two streets at once
Disadvantages:
They tend to be expensive, varying by materials used
Their impact to drainage needs to be considered
They are less effective in reducing speeds than Speed
Humps, Speed Tables, or Raised Crosswalks.
Traffic Calming

Textured Pavements

* Textured and colored pavement includes the use of

stamped pavement or alternate paving materials to create
an uneven surface for vehicles to traverse.
* Textured pavements are good for "main street" areas
where there is substantial pedestrian activity and noise is
not a major concern.
Advantages:
√ can reduce vehicle speeds over an extended length
√ If designed well, they can have positive aesthetic value
√ an intersection, they can calm two streets at once
Disadvantages:
generally expensive, varying by materials used
If used on a crosswalk, they can make crossings more
difficult for wheelchair users and the visually impaired
Traffic circles
* Traffic circles are raised islands, placed in
intersections, around which traffic circulates.
* They are good for calming intersections, especially
within neighborhoods, where large vehicle traffic is not
a major concern but speeds, volumes, and safety are
problems.

Advantages:
√ very effective in moderating speeds and improving
safety
√ If designed well, they can have positive aesthetic value
√ at an intersection, they can calm two streets at once
Disadvantages:
They are difficult for large vehicles (such as fire
trucks) to circumnavigate
They may require the elimination of some on-street
parking
Landscaping must be maintained, either by the
residents or by the municipality
Roundabouts
* Roundabouts require traffic to circulate
counterclockwise around a center island. Unlike
Traffic Circles, roundabouts are used on higher
volume streets to allocate right-of-way between
competing movements.

Good for:
 Locations with a history of accidents;
 Intersections where queues need to be minimized
 Intersections with irregular approach geometry
 Providing inexpensive-to-operate traffic control as an
alternative to a traffic signal
 Handling a high proportion of U-turns
 Locations with abundant right-of-way
 Advantages:
 can moderate traffic speeds on an arterial
 generally aesthetically pleasing if well landscaped
 enhanced safety compared to traffic signals
 can minimize queuing at the approaches to the
intersection
 less expensive to operate than traffic signals

Disadvantages:
Same as traffic circles

This roundabout includes a fully landscaped

center island & splitter islands.
The splitter island helps to guide approaching
traffic onto a counterclockwise path around
the center island.
Chicanes
* Chicanes are curb extensions that alternate from one side
of the street to the other, forming S-shaped curves.
Chicanes can also be created by alternating on-street
parking, either diagonal or parallel, between one side of
the street and the other.
* Good for locations where speeds are a problem but noise
associated with Speed Humps and related measures
would be unacceptable.
Advantages:
 discourage high speeds by forcing horizontal
deflection
 easily negotiable by large vehicles (such as fire
trucks) except under heavy traffic conditions

Disadvantages:
must be designed carefully to discourage drivers from
deviating out of the appropriate lane
Curb realignment and landscaping can be costly,
especially if there are drainage issues
may require the elimination of some on-street parking
Center island narrowing
* A center island narrowing is a raised island located along
the centerline of a street that narrow the travel lanes at
that location.
* Center island narrowing are often landscaped to provide
a visual amenity. Placed at the entrance to a
neighborhood, and often combined with textured
pavement, they are often called "gateway islands.“
* Fitted with a gap to allow pedestrians to walks through at
a crosswalk, they are often called "pedestrian refuges."
* Center Island Narrowing are good for entrances to
residential areas, and wide streets where pedestrians
need to cross.
Advantages:
 increase pedestrian safety
 If designed well, they can have positive aesthetic
value
 reduce traffic volumes
Disadvantages:
Their speed-reduction effect is somewhat limited by
the absence of any vertical or horizontal deflection
They may require elimination of some on-street
parking
Traffic Calming

Volume control measures

Full Closures (Cul-de-sac)

* Full street closures are barriers placed across a street
to completed close the street to through-traffic, usually
leaving only sidewalks open.
Advantages:
√ able to maintain pedestrian and bicycle access
√ very effective in reducing traffic volume
Disadvantages:
require legal procedures for street closures
cause circuitous routes for local
residents and emergency services
may be expensive
may limit access to businesses
Traffic Calming
Traffic Calming

Half Closures
* Half closures are barriers that block travel in one
direction for a short distance on otherwise two-way
streets. They are good for locations with extreme traffic
volume problems and non-restrictive measures have
been unsuccessful.
Advantages:
√ able to maintain two-way bicycle access
√ effective in reducing traffic volumes
Disadvantages:
causes circuitous routes for local
residents and emergency services
They may limit access to businesses
Depending on the design, drivers may be able to
circumvent the barrier
Traffic Calming

Diagonal Diverters
* Diagonal diverters are barriers placed diagonally across an
intersection, blocking through movements and creating two
separate, L-shaped streets. They are good for inner-
neighborhood locations with non-local traffic volume problems.

Advantages:
√ Do not require a closure per se, only a redirection of existing
streets
√ Able to maintain full pedestrian and bicycle access
√ Reduce traffic volumes
Disadvantages:
cause circuitous routes for local
residents and emergency services
may be expensive
may require reconstruction of
corner curbs
Traffic Calming

Median Barriers

* Median barriers are islands located along the

centerline of a street and continuing through an
intersection so as to block through movement at a
cross street.

They are good for:

 Local street connections to main streets where
through traffic along the continuing local street is a
problem
 Main streets where left-turns to and/or from the side
street are unsafe
Traffic Calming

Advantages:
√ can improve safety at an intersection of a local street
and a major street by prohibiting dangerous turning
movements
√ can reduce traffic volumes on a cut-through route that
crosses a major street

Disadvantages:
require available street width on the major street
limit turns to and from the side street for local residents
and emergency services
Reduce speed (Alternative
Way)
 Topic 4.8
Provision – the action of providing or supplying

Provision for Cyclist and

Pedestrians

251
Pedestrian Facilities

 Pedestrian facilities should be provided at

all intersections in urban and suburban
areas.

 In general, design of the pedestrian

facilities of an intersection with the most
challenged users in mind—pedestrians
with mobility or visual impairments should
be done.
 Geometric design elements for pedestrian:
a) Sidewalks
b) Overpass or tunnels
c) Raised islands
d) Auto free shopping streets
e) Traffic calming

 Traffic control measures that may assist

pedestrians:
a) Crosswalks
b) Traffic signs & signals
c) lighting
253
Overview
• Bicycle and pedestrian lane ;
- That part of highway specifically reserved for the
exclusive use of bicycle riders

• Bicycle lanes can be described by striping, signing or

pavement marking. These lanes should always be one-
way with traffic. Minimum width under ideal condition is
4ft – 5ft.
1ft = 0.3048m

• Design speed for bicycle lane according to

ASSHTO is 20mi/hr for paved paths.
1mi = 1.609344km
254
Overview (cont..)

255
256