CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Fungi are mistakenly assigned to the plant kingdom for they are non-motile and

also get their nutrients from their substratum, they were once considered to be plants

because they grow out of the soil and have rigid cell walls. Eventually, it is realized that

fungi are way too different from plants. This is the reason why in classification, fungi are

separated from plants. In order to describe fungi based on their lifestyle, Sumbali G.

(2005). Fungi show its great diversity due to its thallus (plant-like structure) organization.

The thallus of different fungi ranges from single cells to massive multinucleate growths.

Majority of fungi, except unicellular ones, are composed of unique, thread like

filamentous structures. Each of these filaments was known as hyphae and they branch

to surround and infiltrate the material where the fungus feeds (Webster and Weber,

2007).

According to Pushpa and Purushothama (2012), mushrooms are seasonal

fungi which occupy diverse niches in nature in the forest ecosystem. They

predominantly occur during the rainy season and also during spring when the snow

melts. Mushrooms are in fact the 'fruit' of the underground fungal mycelium. They are

macromycetes forming macroscopic fruiting bodies such as agarics, boletes, jelly fungi,

coral fungi, stinkhorns, bracket fungi, puffballs and bird’s nest fungi. They are fleshy,

sub fleshy, or sometimes leathery and woody and bear their fertile surface either on
lamellae or lining the tubes, opening out by means of pores. The lamellate members are

called agarics and the tube bearing poroid members, as boletes and polypores.

The number of macrofungi in Asia including the Philippines is relatively high.

Mueller et al. (2007) estimated the species of macrofungi in tropical Asia to be between

10,000 and 25,000 species. In Burma, Thaung (2007) reported 24 orders, 56 families,

117 genera and 176 species of macrofungi. On the other hand, Swapna et al. (2008)

reported a total of 778 species of macrofungi belonging to 43 families and 101 genera in

India. Li et al. (2011) stated that there were 275 species of macrofungi classified into

122 genera and 52 families in China while Bolhassan et al. (2012) identified 60 species

of macrofungi from five families in Peninsular Malaysia. In the Philippines, most

taxonomic work on macrofungi focused on general descriptions of Basidiomycota

(Musngi et al. 2005), though several researchers documented the different macrofungi

found in many mountainous areas of the country. Daep and Cajuday (2003) studied the

mushroom diversity of Mt. Malinao, Albay and documented nine species of

Tricholomataceae, three species of Coprinaceae, two species species of Pluteaceae

and one species of Auriculariaceae. Biadnes and Tangonan (2003) assessed the

basidiomycetous fungi in Mt. Apo in Mindanao and recorded 87 species representing 25

genera. In Mt. Makiling, Laguna, Quimio (1996) surveyed the Agaricales. Musngi et al.

(2005) also described four species of Auricularia from the campus of Central Luzon

State University in Muñoz, Nueva Ecija. In addition, Sibounnavong et al. (2008) reported

8 species of macrofungi in Puncan, Carranglan.

Though fungi said to be megadiversed, there had been only few surveys done to

prove how diversed it is. Fungi, being new to science continued to be discovered.
Currently, the rate of discoveries in fungal survey is about 800 species per year. This

figure however, is limited only by the human resources devoted to inventorying,

exploring and describing. Somewhat worrying 26% of the fungidescribed since 1980s

have been by mere 50 authors, several of whom are now dead or retired (Hawksworth,

2006).

Furthermore, there have been few studies regarding the mycodiversity in the

Philippines specifically in Mindanao. Most of these studies specially published studies

are late dated. Due to this, continued surveys on fungal diversity are being encouraged

in order to improve the existing data base of mycotaxonomy in the country.

General Objective:

This study aimed is to assess the macrofungi species in Mananum Bag-o.

Specific Objective:

a.) To identify and describe the macrofungal species in the area;

b.) To determine the relative abundance of the macrofungal species in the

area; and
c.) To determine the diversity of macrofungal species in the area.

Scope and Limitations

The focus of this study is on collecting and identifying macrofungi in Mananum
Bag-o, Medina, Misamis Oriental. The study will note the substrates where the
specimens are found. The identification of the specimens will be based on their macro
morphologies. Identification of the specimens was based on their external morphology
of the fruiting body of the macrofungal species collected. Though molecular analysis is
important in identifying fungi, this will not be included in the study. This is due to the
unavailability of the equipments needed near the area where the study is conducted.
However, UP Los Baños and UP Diliman are known to offer this kind of service.
Significance of The Study

Studies on the taxonomy and diversity of macro fungi are gaining importance as
many macro fungi are becoming extinct and facing threat of extinction because of
habitat destruction (Sandhya D., et al., 2012). This study may get the attention of people
about taking good care of the environment and by being responsible of their actions.

To the future researchers, that this study can be used as reference by other researchers

who might be interested to conduct similar or related studies.

To the students, that the findings of this study will provide the students to do a hands-on project
about biodiversity of mushrooms

To the teachers, that this study will provide additional scientific information about the

importance of mycodiversity of mushrooms.

To the farmers, that this study may serve as a way to help them widen their knowledge

about the biodiversity of mushrooms and their benefits.

Definition of Terms
Fungi. Any one of a group of related plants (such as molds, mushrooms, or yeasts) that

have no flowers and that live on dead or decaying things.

Mushrooms. A fungus that is shaped like an umbrella; especially: one that can be eaten.

Hyphae. One of the threads that make up the mycelium of a fungus, increase by apical

growth, and are transversely septate or nonseptate.

Diverse. Made up of people or things that are different from each other.
Thallus. A plant body that lacks differentiation into distinct parts (as stem, leaves, and

roots), does not grow from an apical point, and is characteristic of organisms formerly

classified as thallophytes.

Substratum. A layer of something (such as soil or rock) that is under another layer.

Mycology. The scientific study of fungi.

Mycodiversity. Diversity of fungi.

 CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Taxonomy of Mushrooms

Global fungal diversity has been estimated between 1.5 and 5.1 million species,

making fungi among the most diverse groups of organism on our planet. There are

approximately 20,000 described species of macroscopic fungi or “mushrooms”, which

mostly correspond to basidiomycetes. The total number of mushroom forming species

has been estimated at between 53,000 and 110,000. This would suggest that only 18%

38% of all the mushrooms have been documented. Also, because they are often cryptic

with rare fructifications of short duration and because it may be difficult to accurately

identify them, little information is available about geographical range and habitat

specificity (Dewsbury, Stephenson & Moncalvo 2013).

The formation of checklists for future comparison is vital to our understanding of

changing fungal diversity. They can supply information such as the range of a species.

Each mushroom (as well as all organisms) exhibit habitat preferences. These

preferences in conjunction with historical factors define a species range. By knowing

whether a species occurs only in a restricted geographical area versus being

widespread, conservation efforts can be better informed and directed. The world is

currently undergoing drastic changes. Although there is argument regarding the

magnitude and causes of this change (such as pollution, habitat destruction and climatic
change), there is little doubt that it is occurring. By forming checklists we create the

possibility of future studies to determine changes in ranges, population level,

extirpations and extinctions. (Dewsbury, Stephenson & Moncalvo 2013)

In Macrofungal diversity where Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes belong,

Mueller et al. (2008) reported that based on their compiled data, 21,679 names of

macrofungi were compiled. However, approximately 35, 000 macrofungal species were

estimated to be “unknown” by the contributing authors. This would give an estimated

total of 56, 679 macrofungi. The compiled list however, has not included the data from

most areas like Europe, Africa, western Asia, or tropical eastern Asia. Even so,

combining the list of names with the estimates from contributing authors is in line with

their calculated estimate of between 53,000 and 110, 000 macrofungal species derived

using plant/macrofungal species ratio data. The estimates developed in this study were

consistent with a hypothesis of high overall fungal species diversity.

Importance of studying Mycodiversity

According to Hawksworth (2009), it is important to stress that the task of

describing the fungi on earth is not just an esoteric academic exercise, but it is

necessary to understand what fungi are ‘out there’ that may have beneficial attributes or

potential threats to, for example, food security. Without names and descriptions,

organisms cannot be recognized when encountered or communicated about it.

Mushroom species are the indicators of the forest life support system (Stamets,

P., 1993). The presence or absence of fungal species is a useful indicator to assess the

damage or the maturity of an ecosystem. Data on their diversity in different vegetation

types is important for planning and managing ecosystem biodiversity (Engola, Eilu,

Kisovi, Munishi & Olila 2007.) The knowledge of biodiversity at the community and

species level is more important for monitoring the effectiveness and effects of natural

and artificial disturbances (Packham, May, Brown, Wardlaw & Mills 2002). The purpose

of the present survey was to identify the mushrooms up to genus and species level, to

record and to compare the diversity of mushrooms to other areas and to bring

awareness among people to conserve mushrooms.

Danger to extinction

According to Michael Gillings (1999) we are currently in the sixth great wave of

extinction, fully comparable with those great extinctions we have detected in the fossil

record. Species of all kinds are disappearing forever from the planet, and fungi are no

exception. Loss of fungal biodiversity is occurring at all levels of organization. Initially,

there can be loss of genetic diversity within species. If this loss becomes extreme, it

may cause a reduction or cessation of fruit body production in local areas. As the

distributions of all species contract because of habitat fragmentation or other

anthropogenic factors, the species diversity in any particular area declines because of

local extinction events. The final event is complete extinction of a particular species in

all parts of its former distribution. The process of local extinction is already well

advanced, with over 1000 species being listed as extinct or threatened in various

regions of Europe (Lizon 1993, Ing 1996).

The threats to fungal diversity are, by and large, the same processes that

threaten the diversity of all living things. These threats are: Loss of natural habitats; Air

and soil pollution; Coextinctions caused by loss of plant species; Pesticide and fertilizer
use; Expansion of agricultural monocultures; Over-collection; and Loss of genetic

diversity.

A particularly worrying trend, given their central role in forest ecosystems, is the

number of ectomycorrhizal species listed as threatened (Lizon 1993). These species

are often associated with endangered ecosystems such as ancient forests, unimproved

grassland and lowland bogs (Ing 1996). Recovery or re-establishment of these

ecosystems will depend on preservation of their fungal diversity.

Increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, methane and other greenhouse gases

are causing global warming. This warming will have effects on fungal biodiversity.

Firstly, it may have effects on assemblages of mycorrhizal fungi and the colonisation of

plants by these fungi (Staddon and Fitter 1998). Secondly, as climatic zones move to

higher latitudes, the distributions of fungal species will change. There is evidence that

this migration is already happening (Ing 1996). Thirdly, global warming will be

accompanied by rising sea levels, which in turn will further threaten the already

endangered fungi of coastlines and dune systems (Rotheroe 1996).

Fungal habitats, like all natural habitats, are being lost at a rapid rate. The

ongoing fragmentation of landscapes through land use conversion (forest to plantation

or agriculture, unimproved grassland to pasture) and changes in management of

landscapes are two causes of such habitat loss (Lizon 1993, Ing 1996). Ongoing human

industrial and urban development sequesters more and more of the available land.

Rising sea levels, caused by global warming, will drown more fungal habitats, as

mentioned above. Ironically, draining other habitats, such as bogs and marshes,

threatens a different suite of fungal species.

Macrofungi in Asia

Studies on the taxonomy and diversity of macro fungi are gaining importance as

many macro fungi are becoming extinct and facing threat of extinction because of

habitat destruction. Present study deals with the diversity of macrofungi in semi

evergreen and moist deciduous forest of Amarkantak where more than 50 samples

were collected which is situated in Madhya Pradesh in India. Amarkantak is located at

22°40_N 81°45_E/ 22.67°N 81.75°E. It has an average elevation of 1048 meters (3438

ft ) More than 85% of annual average rain fall is received during the monsoon month

extending from June to September. The mean annual rain fall for Amarkantak is about

1619.9 mm. distributed over ninety two average annual rainy days. The mean daily

temperature ranges from 10.90C (January) to 39.10C (May) with relative humidity of %.

Amarkantak region is known for diverse macro fungal population. Extensive surveys

were conducted from July 2010 to September 2010. Where collection, characterization,

preservation and photo of macro fungal carried the genera like are Agaricus, Amanita,

Nyctalis, Russula, Boletus, Macrolapiota, Ganoderma, Termitomyces were identified.

Out of 50 samples only 16 samples were identified up to species level. This preliminary

study shows that the forest is very rich in mushroom diversity. (Sandhya, Mahendra,

Chauhan and Pandey, 2012)

According to Tan and Lee (1999), Malaysia’s primeval rainforests are replete with

a great diversity of mushrooms, many yet undiscovered. Heavy rains after dry spells

usher in the fruiting seasons. Saprophytic Agaricus, Lepiota, Marasmius, coprophilous

Coprinus, Psathyrella, Psilocybe, and ectomycorrhizal Amanita, Cantharellus, and

Russula are common. Aphyllophorales such as Amauroderma, Polyporus,

Schizophyllum, and Trametes abound. So do Cyathus, Geastrum, Calvatia, and

Cookenia. Culture collections maintained in institutions (apart from FRIM’s) are mainly

non-indigenous comprising mushrooms cultivated for food or medicine, mainly from

Lentinula, Pleurotus, and Ganoderma. Universiti Putra Malaysia and FRIM have the

highest culture collection of cultivated and forest mushrooms respectively. The rich

diversity of mushroom germplasm in forests faces extermination.

Luo Xin chang (1999) reported that the total number of fungal species is

evaluated as 1,500,000 in the world and fungi are regarded as the second largest group

of organisms in the biosphere after the arthropods. Chinese total numbers of fungal

species are evaluated about 197,400 in which 28,200 species belong to mushroom Out

of 28,200 species of mushroom; there are 14,100 species of edible mushrooms 5,132

species of medicinal mushrooms estimated based on the method (Chang 1994) .87 1

species of known 1000 species of edible mushrooms were described and reported in

1998 in China, which is only 6. 1% of evaluated number. At present, there are about

more than 90 species of mushroom can be cultivated successfully through artificiality or

mycelia fermentation in China.

Macrofungi in the Philippines

The Philippine is a tropical country consisting of some 7,000 islands, with only

2000 islands inhabited. The boundaries are Bashi Channel on the North, the Sulu and

Celebes Seas on the South, Pacific Ocean on the East and South China Sea on the

West. The country has a total land mass of 300,439 km2 and the islands are

geographically divided into 3 main areas, namely Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The

climate can be either dry or wet throughout the year. Being an archipelago, the country
is endowed with a vast expanse of coastal and inland water resources which is

approximately seven times larger than its inland resources. Despite this however, the

country, with its agricultural based economy, is abound of natural resources (forests,

mountains, mangroves etc.) favorable for growth of fungi including the mushrooms. This

is according to the paper presented in a workshop "Diversity, Conservation and

Utilization of Mushroom Genetic Resources in Asia Pacific Region, Sydney Australia,

Oct.12-16, 1999.

Majestic Mt. Makiling, in Laguna, Philippines, with its luxuriant tropical vegetation,

forms a prominent part of the landscape as one travels 50 miles south from Manila,

along a superhighway on the border of a lake called Laguna de Bay. The mountain has

long been considered a naturalists' paradise. Its higher plant flora comprises about 160

families of vascular plants while the number in the whole Philippine island is

approximately 200. As one will know, the Philippines offer a rich field for the study of all

phases of tropical biology and probably, no place affords more favorable opportunities

than the Mt. Makiling which, it being a national park can be considered an excellent

mycological sanctuary for permanent records of fungi including a source of mushroom

genetic resources in the country. Spanish botanists, who subsequently visited the

Philippines after it was discovered in 1521, found a rich flora on this part of the continent

and established series of expeditions to collect plants, including fungi. There were many

evidences that the areas they collected on were the Mt. Makiling area. With the coming

of the Americans at the start of the 20th century and the subsequent birth of the science

of mycology with the establishment of the University of the Philippines at the foot of the

mountain, Mt. Makiling became the most heavily collected mountain in the country. The
first mycological herbarium, considered that time, the best in the Indo Malaya region,

became the repository for many type specimens in the country and the subsequent

years became to be known as the golden era of Philippine mycology. Practically 60% of

the known Philippine fungi originated from Mt. Makiling (Pancho, 1973). Other favorite

sites for collection of plants, insects, and fungi are the forests of nearby Mt. Banahaw

and Mt, Isarog in Southern Luzon, Cordillera Mountain in Central Luzon and the Mt. Apo

in Mindanao. Collections deposited at the Mycological Herbarium at the UPLB Museum

of Natural History also come from these mountains. (Quimio, 1999)

Musngi, Abella, Lalap and Reyes (2005) described the four species of Auricularia

(A.auricula, A. fuscossucinea, A. polytricha, A. tenuis), which were collected in the

campus of the Central Luzon State University. Identification was based on their hyphal

zonation. From each species, various strains were identified (i.e. 3 strains for A.

auricula, 5 strains for A. fuscossucinea, 13 strains for A. polytricha and 4 strains for A.

tenuis). Seven host trees for Auricularia were noted as follows: rain tree (Samanea

saman), coconut (Cocos nucifera), ipil – ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), mahogany

(Sweitenia mahogany), mango (Mangifera indica) and rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis).

Among these host trees, rain trees supported the highest number of Auricularia species

identified.

The species of macrofungi found in ancestral domains and resettlement areas of

Aetas in three provinces of Luzon are presented in this paper. A total of 76 species of

macrofungi were collected from May to October 2011. Fifty-three of the macrofungi

were identified up to species level while 23 were identified up to genus level only. The

macrofungi belonged to 23 taxonomic families. Some of the collected macrofungi were

recorded only in either the ancestral domain (Auricularia polytricha) or in resettlement

areas (Ganoderma sinense and Pleurotus sajor-caju). The majority of the fungi were

recorded during the rainy season. Many of the collected fungi were not also utilized by

the Aeta communities. This is the first comparative report of macrofungi in ancestral

domains and resettlement areas of the Aetas in Central Luzon. (De Leon, Luangsa-ard,

Karunarathna, Hyde, Reyes, and dela Cruz. 2013)

Relative Abundance