Rapid, Long Range Inspection of Chemical Plant Pipework Using Guided Waves

Rapid, long range inspection of chemical plant pipework using guided
waves
D. N. Alleyne, B. Pavlakovic, M. J. S. Lowe, and P. Cawley
Citation: AIP Conf. Proc. 557, 180 (2001); doi: 10.1063/1.1373757

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RAPID, LONG RANGE INSPECTION OF CHEMICAL PLANT
PIPEWORK USING GUIDED WAVES
1 1 2 2
D.N. Alleyne , B. Pavlakovic , MJ.S. Lowe and P. Cawley
Guided Ultrasonics Ltd, 17 Doverbeck Close, Nottingham, NG15 9ER, UK
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College, London SW7 2BX, UK
Abstract. Instrumentation for long range, guided wave inspection of pipework is now commercially
available. This paper discusses the principles of the method and reviews the results of site experience.
The technique was originally designed to work on pipes that were either un-coated or covered with,
for example, epoxy paint. Recent tests have shown promising results with more attenuative coatings
and these are discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Corrosion in pipework is a major problem, particularly in the oil, gas, chemical and
petro-chemical industries. Since a significant proportion of industrial pipelines are
insulated, this means that even external corrosion cannot readily be detected without the
removal of the insulation, which in most cases is prohibitively expensive. There is therefore
an urgent need for the development of a quick, reliable method for the detection of
corrosion under insulation (GUI). The problem is even more severe in cases such as road
crossings where the pipe is underground (often in a sleeve) for a limited distance;
excavation of the pipe for visual or conventional ultrasonic inspection can cost upwards of
$50k so a technique to address this problem would be particularly beneficial.
The use of cylindrical guided waves propagating along the pipe wall is potentially a
very attractive solution to this problem since they can propagate a long distance under
insulation and may be excited and received using transducers positioned at a location where
a small section of insulation has been removed. There has been a considerable amount of
work on the use of guided waves for the inspection of pipes and tubes, most of which has
been on small (typically 1 inch) diameter heat exchanger tubing (see, for example, [1-4]).
The authors have developed a guided wave technique designed for the screening of
long lengths of pipes for corrosion. It seeks to detect corrosion defects removing of the
order of 5-10% of the cross sectional area of the pipe at a particular axial location. It is
designed to operate on pipes in the 2-24 inch diameter range, though in principle, it could
be used on both smaller and larger pipes.
Fig 1 shows the group velocity dispersion curves for a 6 inch, schedule 40 steel pipe.
There are about 50 modes below 100 kHz and in order to obtain signals that can reliably be
interpreted, it is essential that only one of them be excited. In most guided wave testing, the
CP557, Review of Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation Vol. 20, ed. by D. O. Thompson and D. E. Chimenti
©2001 American Institute of Physics l-56396-988-2/01/$18.00
180
Frequency (kHz)
Figure 1. Dispersion curves for 6 inch, schedule 40 steel pipe.
sensitivity of the test is a function of the signal to coherent noise ratio, the coherent noise
being caused by the excitation of unwanted modes. This coherent noise cannot be removed
by averaging, whereas if low signal levels cause a poor signal to random noise ratio,
significant improvements can be obtained by averaging. The original implementation of the
technique used the L(0,2) mode (the terminology used to describe cylindrical guided modes
is discussed in [1]) at frequencies around 70 kHz. This mode is very attractive to use for
long range testing [5-7] since it is practically non-dispersive in this frequency range. Its
mode shape is similar to that of the SQ mode in plates at low frequency-thickness products,
the particle motion being predominantly axial and the strain being roughly uniform through
the pipe wall. It is therefore well suited to the detection of corrosion which may initiate at
either surface of the pipe.
Alleyne and Cawley [6] reported the development of a dry coupled piezoelectric
transducer system for the excitation of the axially symmetric L(0,m) modes in pipes. It
comprises a ring of piezoelectric elements which are clamped individually to the pipe
surface; no coupling fluid is required at the low ultrasonic frequencies used here.
Initial site trials of the technique carried out in the research phase have been reported
previously [5,7]. Propagation distances of approaching 50 m were obtained and by using
two rings of transducers it was shown to be possible to obtain uni-directional propagation.
Signal to coherent noise ratios of better than 40 dB were obtained on site, approaching 50
dB being obtained on clean pipe in the laboratory.
SENSITIVITY AND IDENTIFICATION OF NON-AXISYMMETRIC FEATURES
Guided waves such as L(0,2) that have relatively uniform stress distribution over the
cross-section of the pipe are sensitive to changes in cross section of the pipe. The
reflectivity of guided waves is governed by very different rules than those for bulk waves;
181
with guided waves, it is possible to find defects whose size is much smaller than a
wavelength. A series of laboratory tests [8] has been carried out to determine the reflection
from simulated defects and these have been confirmed in field trials. The depth and
circumferential extent of the defect are the main determinants of the reflection obtained, so
most calibration tests were done with notches of different depth and circumferential extent.
At a given defect depth, the reflection coefficient is directly proportional to the
circumferential extent and the reflection coefficient of a half wall thickness notch with a
circumferential extent of half a pipe diameter (16% of the pipe circumference) is
approximately 5% (-26 dB). This was the original target for defect detection set by the
industrial partners and so a 40 dB signal to coherent noise ratio was very satisfactory.
The axial length of a defect such as a corrosion patch does influence the reflectivity to
some extent; in some exceptional cases, a resonance phenomenon occurs in which the
reflections from the start and end of the defect cancel each other, so a greatly reduced
reflection is seen back at the transducers. This occurs at discrete frequencies for defects
with a sharp beginning and end so this danger can be overcome by testing at at least two
frequencies. The effect is much more severe with machined calibration defects than with
real corrosion patches that tend to be much less regular.
The initial site trials reported in [5,7] showed that corrosion defects of the target size
could reliably be identified. However, echoes were also seen from butt welds since the weld
caps are not generally removed so the weld presents a change in acoustic impedance. This
makes it difficult to identify defects at welds and also introduces the possibility of a weld
being incorrectly identified as a defect. This problem can be overcome by measuring the
extent of mode conversion produced by a reflector.
If an axially symmetric mode is incident on an axially symmetric feature in the pipe
such as a flange, square end or uniform weld, then only axially symmetric modes are
reflected. However, if the feature is non axially symmetric such as a corrosion patch, some
non axially symmetric waves will be generated. These propagate back to the transducer
rings and can be detected. If the L(0,2) mode is incident, the most important mode
conversion is to the F(l,3) and F(2,3) modes which have similar velocities to the L(0,2)
mode in the operating frequency range (see Fig 1). The amount of mode conversion
obtained depends on the degree of asymmetry, and hence on the circumferential extent of
the defect. Fig 2 shows the direct reflection and the mode converted reflections from a full
% of Circumference 100
Figure 2. Measured and predicted reflection coefficients for a through-thickness notch in a 3 inch, schedule
40 steel pipe at 70 kHz as a function of the notch circumferential extent. (L(0,2) mode input.
(After [9], with permission from ASME.)
182
wall thickness notch as a function of circumferential extent for an L(0,2) mode input. At
low circumferential extent (which is the region of interest for the detection of critical
corrosion in practical situations) the mode converted F(l,3) reflection is almost as large as
the direct reflection so if these two reflections are of similar size, it can be concluded that
the feature is localized to a small region of the circumference. The results of Fig 2 are for a
3 inch pipe, but similar results are obtained with other sizes. Further details can be found in
[9]-
COMMERCIAL IMPLEMENTATION
The field trials reported in [5,7] employed two rings of transducers in order to excite
the L(0,2) mode in a single direction. However, there is a second axially symmetric mode
with particle displacements primarily in the axial and radial directions, L(0,l). This has a
much lower velocity than L(0,2) in the operating frequency range above 35 kHz as shown
in Fig 1, but it is excited by the two ring system. The presence of reflections of this mode
can make interpretation of the results less reliable so it is desirable to remove it. It is
possible to suppress the L(0,l) mode by adding further rings of transducers. The original
commercial implementation of the system used three rings, but the Guided Ultrasonics Ltd
Wavemaker 16 system uses four rings which gives improved suppression.
The use of three or four rings adds to the cost of the system and also to the mass,
which becomes significant when larger pipe sizes are being tested. An alternative to the
longitudinal, L(0,2), mode is to use the torsional, T(0,l) mode. This has the advantage of
being non-dispersive across the whole frequency range (see Fig 1) and there is no other
axially symmetric torsional mode in the frequency range, so axially symmetric torsional
excitation will only excite the T(0,l) mode. This means that only two rings of transducers
are required in order to obtain single mode, unidirectional excitation. Torsional forcing can
be achieved by simply rotating the same transducers used for the L(0,2) mode through 90°
so that they apply force in the circumferential, rather than axial direction. When the T(0,l)
mode is reflected from a non-axially symmetric feature, mode conversion is primarily to the
F(l,2) mode, rather than to F(l,3) as in the L(0,2) case shown in Fig 2. As in the case of an
incident L(0,2) mode, at low circumferential defect extents, the amplitudes of the reflected
incident and mode converted modes are similar. The torsional mode also has the advantage
that it will detect longitudinal cracks, whereas the longitudinal modes are essentially
insensitive to thin defects parallel to the pipe axis. However, a disadvantage of this
sensitivity to axial features is that the torsional mode reflects relatively strongly from
support brackets that are welded axially along the pipe. Large reflections from these
features reduces the range of the test and also make it more difficult to detect corrosion at
the brackets. In this relatively unusual case, the longitudinal mode may be preferable. In
practice, the more convenient, torsional mode is most commonly used, but in occasional
special applications the longitudinal mode is employed.
The Guided Ultrasonics Ltd Wavemaker 16 instrument and transducer assembly for a
3 inch pipe are shown in Fig 3a. The instrument is battery operated and is connected to the
rings by a flexible cable. The test is controlled by a portable PC that is connected to the
instrument by an umbilical cable. In some cases it is convenient for the operator of the PC
to be adjacent to the test site, but on other occasions it is better for the computer and
operator to be in a van which can be up to 50m from the test site. Solid rings of the type
shown in Fig 3 a are manufactured for pipe diameters up to 8 inch, but above this they
become bulky so a flexible, pneumatic clamping arrangement is used; a prototype system is
shown in Fig 3b. The assemblies shown in Figs 3a and 3b are for the torsional mode; each
183
Figure 3. (a) Guided Ultrasonics Ltd Wavemaker 16 instrument and transducer rings for 3 inch pipe; (b)
flexible, pneumatically clamped transducer rings for larger diameter pipe.
contains two rings of transducers so that unidirectional excitation and reception can be
obtained, as discussed above.
The sensitivity of guided waves to defects in the pipe wall is a function of frequency.
In general, the sensitivity of the test decreases as the frequency is reduced, but the effect is
not always severe; this issue will be discussed in a future paper. The frequency used does
affect the spatial resolution and the range. The speed of the torsional (T(0,l)) wave is about
3.2 km/s, while that of the extensional (L(0,2)) wave is about 5.4 km/s. Therefore at 50
kHz, the wavelengths are 64 mm and 108 mm respectively. In order to limit the frequency
bandwidth of the excitation and so to ensure that only the desired modes are generated,
Wavemaker 16 uses windowed toneburst excitation [10] which limits the bandwidth. A 5
cycle toneburst is often used; the bandwidth can be further reduced by increasing the
number of cycles. This increases the power input and helps to increase the range. However,
there is a cost in spatial resolution, though Wavemaker 16 employs a special signal
processing technique to minimize this effect.
Fig 4 shows typical reflections from symmetric and asymmetric features; the increase
in the mode converted signal can clearly be seen in the asymmetric case and this is a key
element of the defect identification scheme. The Wavemaker 16 software identifies welds
and computes a distance-amplitude correction (DAC) curve for the welds. It then calculates
the defect call level by comparison with the weld echo level and the calculated output
amplitude, knowing that a typical site weld is a -14 dB reflector.
TESTING PIPES WITH ATTENUATIVE COATINGS
Insulation like mineral wool has very low acoustic impedance and is not strongly
adhered to the pipe so it has virtually no effect on either the torsional or extensional waves,
184
(a)
reflection of
mode converted incident mode
reflection
mode converted (b)

reflection of
reflection
incident mode
Position along pipe

0.5m
Figure 4. Typical signals from (a) axisymmetric feature e.g. weld; (b) corrosion.
and so presents no problem. If the pipe is immersed in a low viscosity liquid such as water,
energy can be carried away from the pipe in the form of longitudinal waves (but not shear
waves since water does not support shear). The rate of energy loss into the liquid is
proportional to the radial displacement at the pipe surface since it is the radial displacement
that couples into longitudinal waves in the water. The torsional wave has no radial
displacement so it is unaffected by non-viscous liquid loading on the outside (or inside) of
the pipe, which is a further attraction of this mode. The L(0,2) mode has small but non-zero
radial displacement, and so it loses energy slowly into a fluid surrounding the pipe. Typical
attenuation rates caused by immersion in water are less than 0.5 dB/m which does not
present a significant problem. However, liquid filling the pipe does affect the velocity
dispersion curves and must be accounted for when setting the operating frequency.
If the pipe is coated by a viscous substance such as bitumen, or a solid such as epoxy
or GRP, then both shear and longitudinal modes can couple between the pipe and the
coating. The attenuation is then controlled by the properties and thickness of the coating,
the displacement of the pipe surface in all directions (radial, circumferential and axial) and
the frequency. Typical loss rates at a test frequency of 60 kHz in the L(0,2) mode are less
than 0.5 dB/m for thin (less than 1 mm) paint or epoxy coatings, around 0.5 dB/m for a few
mm of GRP or spun epoxy and 3-10 dB/m for bitumen. This means that the test range on
bitumen coated pipes is severely reduced. However, it can be increased by switching to
lower test frequencies and this is exploited in Wavemaker 16, though at a cost of reduced
resolution and sensitivity. If the pipe is buried in soil, the attenuation rate depends on the
properties of the soil and how well it is compacted onto the pipe. The losses when the pipe
is buried in concrete can be even more severe. However, the lengths involved are often
quite short and the concrete is often not well bonded to the pipe wall, which greatly reduces
the attenuation. Again, the range can be increased by reducing the frequency.
Fig 1 shows that in a 6 inch diameter pipe, the L(0,2) mode becomes dispersive below
about 20 kHz as it drops towards its cut-off frequency at about 10 kHz. This cut-off
frequency is dependent on the pipe diameter so in a 2 inch pipe, the L(0,2) cut-off is at
about 30 kHz and testing is not feasible much below 50 kHz. This limits the improvements
that can be gained by reducing the frequency in lossy systems. However, the symmetric
torsional mode, T(0,l), does not have a cut-off frequency so this mode can be used at lower
frequencies on pipes of any diameter.
185
1 .£
-F5 -F4 -F3 -F2-F I +F1 +F2 +F3 +F4 +F5
1.0 -
>0.8-
E 0.4 -
(a)
0.2 -
nn ^ _^ ^^Ji. i™,,
-10 10
Distance (m)
i .z
-F5 -F4 -F3 -F2-F I +F 1 +F2 +F 3 +F4 +F 5
1.0 -
5,0.6 -
|0.4- (b)
<0.2 -
nn ififlfciim.to/^^ •tk^J^=^W W^li^feA^ fey
-10 10
Distance (m)
+F2 +F3+F4
asymmetric
component symmetric (c)
component
0.0 5.0 10.0

Distance (m)
(d)
Figure 5 Inspection of 10 inch pipe passing through earth wall, (a) 29 kHz; (b) 21 kHz); (c) from other side of
wall; (d) photograph of corrosion.
186
Fig 5 shows an example of the success of reducing the frequency of operation. A 10
inch pipe was paritally wrapped as it passed through a short earth wall. Fig 5a shows the
result obtained at 29 kHz. The transducer location is the origin in the middle of the plot;
the schematic diagram at the top indicates the pipe configuration, the buried section being
shown between echoes -F2 and -F3. For clarity, the DAC curves have been removed from
this black and white copy of the colour screen. The attenuation through the buried section is
higher than expected (as evidenced by the very small weld signal marked -F4). Since it was
determined that the buried section was not adequately inspected, the frequency was lowered
and the test was perfomed again. At 21kHz (Fig 5b), better penetration of the earth wall
was obtained. The weld echo (-F4) is now larger and small echoes can be seen at the point
where the pipe exits the wall. The somewhat non-symmetric nature of these echoes (as
well as their shape) indicates that there is likely to be corrosion at this location (beginning
at the location marked -F3). Fortunately, access could be gained to the other side of the
earth wall for more testing. From this side, the corrosion at the beginning of the earth wall
is very evident as the large echo with large asymmetric component marked +F2 in Fig 5c.
A rough approximation of the size of the corrosion can be obtained by using the DAC
curves. This technique reveals that the average cross sectional loss is about 10-15 percent;
a photograph of the corrosion is shown in Fig 5d.
CONCLUSIONS
Guided wave inspection of pipes is now implemented commercially. The technique

offers the possibility of rapid screening of long lengths of pipework for corrosion and other
defects. A test range of 50m (25m in each direction) is commonly obtained from a single
transducer position. Minimal surface preparation is required and the transducers can be
attached in less than 1 minute so long lengths of pipe can be tested in a day. The technique
is well suited for the inspection of pipes buried at road crossings and in this application, the
ability to reduce the effect of attenuation by reducing the test frequency is particularly
beneficial.
REFERENCES
1. Silk, M. G., and Bainton, K. F., Ultrasonics, 17, 11 (1979).

2. Bottger, W., Schneider, H., and Weingarten, W., Nuclear Eng. and Design, 102, 356
(1987).
3. Rose, J.L., Ditri, J.J., Pilarski, A., Rajana, K. and Carr, F.T., NDT & E International,
27,307(1994).
4. Mohr, W. and Holler, P., IEEE Trans Sonics and Ultrasonics, SU-23, 369 (1976).
5. Alleyne, D.N. and Cawley, P., Materials Evaluation, 55, 504 (1997).
6. Alleyne, D.N. and Cawley, P., J NDE, 15, 11 (1996).
7. Alleyne, D.N., Cawley, P., Lank, A.M. and Mudge, P.J., in Review of Progress in
QNDE, Vol 16, eds D.O. Thompson and D.E. Chimenti (Plenum, New York, 1997)
p!269.
8. Alleyne, D.N., Lowe, MJ.S. and Cawley, P., ASME J Applied Mechanics, 65, 635
(1998).
9. Lowe, M.J.S., Alleyne, D.N. and Cawley, P., ASME J Applied Mechanics, 65, 649
(1998).
10. Alleyne, D.N. and Cawley, P., NDT&E International, 25, 11 (1992).
187

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Citation: AIP Conf. Proc. 557, 180 (2001); doi: 10.1063/1.1373757

Additional information on AIP Conf. Proc.

Guided Ultrasonics Ltd, 17 Doverbeck Close, Nottingham, NG15 9ER, UK

Figure 1. Dispersion curves for 6 inch, schedule 40 steel pipe.

SENSITIVITY AND IDENTIFICATION OF NON-AXISYMMETRIC FEATURES

TESTING PIPES WITH ATTENUATIVE COATINGS

mode converted (b)

Position along pipe

0.0 5.0 10.0

Guided wave inspection of pipes is now implemented commercially. The technique

1. Silk, M. G., and Bainton, K. F., Ultrasonics, 17, 11 (1979).

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