MODULE 1. AN APPROACH TO ACADEMIC WRITING Dr. BENILDA N.

VILLENAS 1

Academic Writing
Dr. Benilda N. Villenas
MODULE 1. AN APPROACH TO ACADEMIC WRITING

Graduate students face a variety of writing tasks as they work toward their chosen
degrees. Naturally, these tasks will vary from one degree program to another. They are,
however, similar in two respects. First, the tasks become progressively more complex and
demanding the farther you go in the program. Second, they need to be written “academically.”

Considerations in Academic Writing

Audience

Even before you write, you need to consider your audience.

 Understand your audience’s expectations and prior knowledge because this will affect
the content of your writing.

Purpose and Strategy

 Audience, purpose and strategy are typically interconnected.

 If the audience knows less than the writer – the writer’s purpose is instructional.
 If the audience knows more than the writer – the writer’s purpose is usually to display
familiarity, expertise and intelligence.

Organization

 Information is presented to readers in a structured format.

 Use appropriate patterns of organization.
 One common strategy is to organize information in terms of problem-solution. It has
four parts:
1. Description of a situation
2. Identification of a problem
MODULE 1. AN APPROACH TO ACADEMIC WRITING Dr. BENILDA N. VILLENAS 2

3. Description of a solution
4. Evaluation of the solution

Description of a
situation

Identification of
a problem

Description of a
solution

Evaluation of a
solution

Some Other Ways of Organizing Information

 Comparison-contrast
 Cause-effect
 Focusing on one cause and multiple effects as in an earthquake or describing
multiple causes and one effect as in global warming
 Classification
 Categorizing as suggested by the following example:

“Earthquake effects on underground structures can be grouped into two

categories: (1) ground shaking and (2) ground failure such as liquefaction, fault
displacement, and slope instability.
Style
MODULE 1. AN APPROACH TO ACADEMIC WRITING Dr. BENILDA N. VILLENAS 3

 make sure communications are written in the appropriate style.

 observe consistency
 determine whether voice should be active or passive
 use acceptable style in terms of area of study

LANGUAGE FOCUS: The Vocabulary Shift

 One distinctive feature of academic writing style is choosing the more appropriate
formal alternative when selecting a verb, noun, or other part of speech.

Verbs

English often has two (or more) choices to express an action or occurrence. The choice is
often between a phrasal verb (verb + particle) or prepositional verb (verb + preposition) and a
single verb.

Example:

According to some biologists, coming up with clear proof of the decreasing numbers of
frogs has been difficult. (less formal style)

According to some biologists, offering clear proof of the decreasing numbers of frogs has
been difficult. (academic style)

e.g. Poor
Scientists are looking into innovative ways to combat AIDS.
Better
Scientists are determining innovative ways to combat AIDS.

Nouns and Other Parts of Speech: Choosing the More Formal Alternative

English has a rich vocabulary derived from many languages. Because of this, there may
be more than one way to express an idea. You should strive to choose words that are less
informal in nature and also precise.
MODULE 1. AN APPROACH TO ACADEMIC WRITING Dr. BENILDA N. VILLENAS 4

LANGUAGE FOCUS: Formal Grammar Style

Recommendations for Maintaining a Formal Academic Style

1. Generally avoid contractions (but keep in mind that in some fields it may be okay to use
them)
 Export figures won’t improve until the economy is stronger.
 Export figures will not improve until the economy is stronger.

2. Use the more appropriate formal negative forms.

 not…any no
The analysis didn’t yield any new results.
The analysis yielded no new results.

 not…much little
The government didn’t allocate much funding.
The government allocated little funding.

 not…many few
This problem doesn’t have many viable solutions.
This problem has few viable solutions.

3. Limit the use of run-on expressions such as and so forth and etc.
These semiconductors can be used in robots, CD players, etc.
These semiconductors can be used in robots, CD players, and other electronic devices.

4. Avoid addressing the reader as you (except when you are writing a textbook or
instructional material).
You can see the results in Table 1.
The results can be seen in Table 1.

You can classify individuals as Morning Types (MTs), Evening Types (ETs), or Neither Types
(NTs).
Individuals can be classified as Morning Types (MTs), Evening Types (ETs), or
Neither Types (NTs).

5. Be careful about using direct questions. In some fields they are common, while in other
they are not.

e.g. What can be done to lower costs?

It is necessary to consider how costs may be lowered.

or
We now need to consider how costs may be lowered.

6. Place adverbs within the verb.

MODULE 1. AN APPROACH TO ACADEMIC WRITING Dr. BENILDA N. VILLENAS 5

In academic writing adverbs are often placed midposition rather than in initial or final
positions. In informal English adverbs often occur at the beginning or end of sentences.

e.g. Actually, very little is known about the general nature and prevalence of scientific
dishonesty.
Very little is actually known about the general nature and prevalence of scientific
dishonesty.

This model was developed by Krugman originally.

This model was originally developed by Krugman.

7. Consider whether you should split infinitives.

Although the prescriptive view of grammar condemns the use of split infinitives
(placing an adverbial modifier between to and the infinitive as in to sharply rise), they are
sometimes used to avoid awkwardness or ambiguity.

e.g. We need to adequately meet the needs of those enrolled in the program.
Neural networks have the ability to correctly classify new patterns.

8. Aim for an efficient use of words.

Use as many words you need to express your points; try to use no more than you really
need.

e.g. It may be difficult to make a decision about the method that we should use.
Choosing the proper method may be difficult.

There are some inorganic materials that can be used by bioengineers in the process of
tissue engineering that have been shown to be very promising.
Some inorganic materials used in tissue engineering have shown great promise.

Flow

 moving from one statement in a text to the next

 establishing a clear connection of ideas

Lasers have found widespread application in medicine. Lasers play an important role in the
treatment of eye disease and the prevention of blindness. The eye is ideally suited for laser surgery. Most
of the eye tissue is transparent. The frequency and focus of the laser beam can be adjusted according to the
absorption of the tissue. The beam “cuts” inside the eye with minimal damage to the surrounding tissue
—even the tissue between the laser and the incision. Lasers are effective in treating some causes of
blindness. Other treatments are not. The interaction between laser light and eye tissue is not fully
understood.
MODULE 1. AN APPROACH TO ACADEMIC WRITING Dr. BENILDA N. VILLENAS 6

Here’s the rewritten text:

Lasers have found widespread application in medicine. For example, they play an
important role in the treatment of eye disease and the prevention of blindness. The eye is ideally
suited to laser surgery because most of the eye tissue is transparent. Because of this
transparency, the frequency and focus of the laser beam can be adjusted according to the
absorption of the tissue so that the beam “cuts” inside the eye with minimal damage to the
surrounding tissue—even the tissue between the laser and the incision. Lasers are also more
effective than other methods in treating some causes of blindness. However, the interaction
between laser light and eye tissue is not fully understood.

LANGUAGE FOCUS: Linking Words and Phrases

 Linking words and phrases can help a writer maintain flow and establish clear
relationships between ideas.

Examples:

o Subordinators – although, even though, because, since, while, whereas

o Sentence connectors – furthermore, in addition, moreover, therefore, as a result,

consequently, hence, thus, in other words, that is, in contrast, however, on the other
hand, conversely, for example, for instance, on the contrary, as a matter of fact, in fact

o Phrase linkers – in addition to, despite, in spite of, because of, due to, as a result of,
unlike

 Semicolons join two completely independent sentences and work much like a full stop.

Air traffic delays due to high traffic volume have increased considerably over the last decade;
these delays have become a major public policy issue.

 Semicolons can be used with sentence connectors. Note the use of comma after the
connector.

Increasing the size of airports is one solution to traffic congestion; however, this is a long-term
solution whose benefits may not be seen for many years into the future.

 Because semicolons are a “stronger” type of punctuation (they mark a stronger break in the
flow of ideas) than commas, they can be used to chunk longer sentences into parts.

In recent years, GNP growth rates have varied considerably for the countries in this study
(China, 6%; U.S., 3%; Japan, 1%).

 In addition, semicolons can be used to separate rather long items in a list.

MODULE 1. AN APPROACH TO ACADEMIC WRITING Dr. BENILDA N. VILLENAS 7

Some of the solutions to the air traffic delay problem include increasing the size of airports that
routinely experience major flight delays; overhauling the air traffic control so that more flights can be
safely handled; and increasing landing fees during peak periods.

 Sometimes a dash is used to introduce a list as well. Often, dashes are used to intrude into a
sentence with some additional information.

The beam “cuts” inside the eye with minimal damage to the surrounding tissue—even the tissue
between the laser and the incision.

LANGUAGE FOCUS: this + Summary Word

 Another way to maintain flow is to use this/these + a noun to join ideas together.

ESL lecturers know that students need to understand the differences between formal and
informal language. However, this understanding cannot usually be acquired quickly.

What does this understanding refer to?

Consider the following sentences:

In recent years, the number of students applying to Ph.D. programs has increased
steadily, while the number of places available has remained constant. This situation has
resulted in intense competition for admission.

The phrases in italics contain a summary noun or word that refers back to the idea in
previous sentence.

Summary words may be expanded into phrases to add clarity. However, long and
complicated summary phrases may be unnecessary. Consider the following opening sentences
and options a-e. Which of the options would you choose as the third sentence?

In the past, flood impact assessments have focused primarily on the economic
losses resulting from a flood. Now, however, emphasis is also being placed on the
potential environmental benefits.

a. This will result in a more complete picture of the gains and losses from a flood.
b. This expansion will result in a more complete picture of the gains and losses from a flood.
c. This expansion of focus will result in a more complete picture of the gains and losses from
a flood.
d. This expansion in assessment focus will result in a more complete picture of the gains and
losses from a flood.
e. This expansion in assessment focus with regard to flooding will result in a more complete
picture of the gains and losses from a flood.

Finally, we need to say something about the use of it or this to refer back to
something in the previous text.
MODULE 1. AN APPROACH TO ACADEMIC WRITING Dr. BENILDA N. VILLENAS 8

Presentation

1. Consider the overall format of your written work.

Does your paper look as if it has been carefully prepared?
Are there clear paragraphs?
Is the line spacing appropriate?
Have you used standard fonts and sizes?

2. Proofread for careless grammar mistakes.

Do subjects and verbs agree?
Have the appropriate verb tenses been used?
Have the articles a, an, and the been used when necessary?
Is the used too much?

3. Check for misspelled words, even if you have spell-checked your work.
Has correct homophone been used?
Did the spell-checker miss anything?

Reference:

Swales, J. M., & Feak, C. B. (2004). Academic writing for graduate students. Essential tasks and skills
(2nd ed.). USA: The University of Michigan Press.
MODULE 1. AN APPROACH TO ACADEMIC WRITING Dr. BENILDA N. VILLENAS 9

EXERCISES FOR MODULE 1

Name: _____________________________________________ Score/Rating:____________________

Exercise 1. Edit the following passage by adding semicolons or commas where necessary.

Although most major companies provide their employees e-mail accounts as well as
internet access many of these companies are concerned about potential abuse and monitor their
employees’ use of these media. In fact more than 75% of all major corporations report that they
monitor their employees’ use of e-mail and internet access either by spot-checking or constant
surveillance. Businesses have many reasons for monitoring e-mail and internet use for example
they may be concerned about protecting sensitive company information or they may be worried
about lawsuits arising from sexual harassment because of mass mailing of offensive jokes. In
addition there may be concerns about productivity. Recent studies have shown that nearly 86%
of employees use e-mail and cruise the web for personal reasons thus leading many companies
to ban unproductive e-mail, such as jokes, and to restrict web access.

Exercise 2. Supply the linking words and phrases that enhance the flow of the following
passages.

It has long been documented that individuals in an organization may voluntarily carry
out tasks that are not part of their regular job duties. ______________, individuals may go above
and beyond the call of duty to help coworkers, prevent problems or volunteer to stay late when
not expected to do so. This behavior is intended to help others in the organization itself and is
often referred to as organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). _______________ it is recognized
that OCB is important for an organization to effectively function; there is debate among
researchers as to how OCB can be encouraged and rewarded. This debate is further complicated
when considering the role of OCB in multinational corporations pursuing global diversity. Most
OCB research has focused on Western cultures; ____________________ it is not clear whether
these research findings can be extended to other cultures, ________________ suggesting a need
to investigate OCB as it exists in other cultures, particularly those described as “collectivist.”
MODULE 1. AN APPROACH TO ACADEMIC WRITING Dr. BENILDA N. VILLENAS 10

Name: _____________________________________________ Score/Rating:____________________

Exercise 3. Word Choice and Diction. Read the following sentences and try to determine the
appropriate word or phrases. Circle the correct answer.

1. Journal editors trace bad writing to author’s shortsightedness (e.g., i. e.), lack of
knowledge about their intended readers.

2. Students who are (conversant in, conversant with) numbers are inclined to pursue
science-related careers.

3. An automobile cannot (collide, crash) with/into an electric post.

4. The laboratory instructor was (expecting, anticipating) a brownout so he brought five

rechargeable lamps.

5. The best person to judge a scientific squabble is a/an (disinterested, uninterested)

scientist himself.

6. Birthday (celebrants, celebrators) this month will be given a special treat.

7. This (biannual, biennial) journal on microbiology should come out in 2008, 2010, 2012,
and 2014.

8. The flash floods (wrecked havoc, wreaked havoc) in the experimental station.

9. The (blast off, blastoff) ceremonies will take place at Cape Canaveral late this year.

10. Even twins (differ with, differ from) (one another, each other) in their genetic make up.
MODULE 1. AN APPROACH TO ACADEMIC WRITING Dr. BENILDA N. VILLENAS 11

Name: _____________________________________________ Score/Rating:____________________

Exercise 4. Choose a verb from the list that reduces the informality of the sentence. Note that
you may need to add tense to the verb from the list. Write down any other single
verbs that you think could also work in the sentences.
review maintain develop cause eliminate
reach determine investigate decrease constitute

1. The six leading causes of death in the U.S.—coronary heart disease, stroke, lung cancer,
colon cancer, diabetes, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease—are mainly brought
on by overeating, a lack of exercise, and cigarette smoking.
________________

2. Scientists are looking into innovative ways to combat AIDS.

________________

3. The purpose of this paper is to try to figure out what is lacking in our current
understanding of corrosion and corrosion protection in concrete.
________________

4. Researchers have recently come up with hybrid vehicles that use a fuel-cell engine and a
battery-assisted power train.
________________

5. Rice and aquatic products make up a major part of the diet of the people in Mekong
Delta, Vietnam.
________________

6. The use of touch screen voting systems could get rid of many problems associated with
traditional paper-based ballots.
________________

7. Worldwide consumption of pesticides has gone up to 2.6 million metric tons.

________________

8. Although labor unions in the U.S. have been able to keep up their membership numbers
over the last two decades, they have been losing their political strength.
________________

9. The number of mature female green turtles that return to their primary nesting beach
has gone down from 1,280 ten years ago to 145 today.
________________

10. The U.S. Defense Threat Reduction Agency looks over nearly 25,000 export license
applications to make sure that no equipment or materials are sent to places where they
could be used to make advanced weapons.
________________
MODULE 1. AN APPROACH TO ACADEMIC WRITING Dr. BENILDA N. VILLENAS 12

Name: _____________________________________________ Score/Rating:____________________

Exercise 5. Brevity and Conciseness. Read the following sentences and replace the
underlined words or phrases to make the sentence more effective.

Example: Scientists are looking into innovative ways to combat AIDS.

Better
Scientists are determining innovative ways to combat AIDS.

1. The areas for the experiments were prepared in accordance to common standard
preparation practices.

2. Results would seem to indicate that the problem may be somewhat complicated.

3. The economy is at the present moment stable.

4. You will need a tube which has a length of 3 m for the experiment.

5. The technician was told that the procedural mistake should happen neither now nor in
the future.

6. The symposium will be held in the edifice in the immediate vicinity of the gate.

7. Disease spreads fast because people expectorate freely in the streets.

8. The soil also needs to rest subsequent to each planting season.

9. The cement plant should cease its operations prior to the onset of the rainy season.

10. People look up to scientists because the latter are erudite men.
MODULE 1. AN APPROACH TO ACADEMIC WRITING Dr. BENILDA N. VILLENAS 13

Name: _____________________________________________ Score/Rating:____________________

Exercise 6. Reduce the informality of each sentence.

1. You can use this model to analyze the effects of several parameter changes.
__________________________________________________________________

2. OK, what are the reasons that coffee prices have fallen? There’re a lot of possibilities.
__________________________________________________________________

3. You can see the difference between these two approaches to designing underground
subway stations clearly.
__________________________________________________________________

4. Recent research has shown that the arms are used commonly for protection during a fall
to the ground.
__________________________________________________________________

5. So far there hasn’t been any comprehensive study looking into the role of smiling in
getting the initial trust of individuals.
__________________________________________________________________

6. There are some studies that have been conducted that bamboo could be used by builders
more widely than it is now as a construction material.
__________________________________________________________________

7. These special tax laws have been enacted in six states: Illinois, Iowa, Ohio, etc.
__________________________________________________________________

8. There isn’t very much research on the use of oil palm shell as coarse aggregate in the
production of concrete.
__________________________________________________________________
MODULE 1. AN APPROACH TO ACADEMIC WRITING Dr. BENILDA N. VILLENAS 14

Name: _____________________________________________ Score/Rating:____________________

Exercise 7. Identify the usage and spelling errors by rewriting the following paragraph:

Their is considerable doubt weather this solution will be affective. The initial reaction
too the report has not been complementary. In fact many observers belief that collapse of the
system is eminent.

Exercise 8. There are numerous small mistakes in grammar in the following passage. Identify
and correct them.

The discovery of fossil fuels have a big effect on development of cities. The use of the
automobile has become most important element supporting the modern society. And, since a
few decade ago, the finiteness of natural resources is a source of heated controversy. The cities
and its development will certainly be affected.
Greater focus on accessible public transportations is one change in current urban
planning discussions. It widely believes that there will be an effort to redesign cities in order
promote the use of public transportation.
MODULE 1. AN APPROACH TO ACADEMIC WRITING Dr. BENILDA N. VILLENAS 15

Name: _____________________________________________ Score/Rating:____________________

Exercise 9. Revise the following draft, taking into account suggestions for revision that
appear at the end. Be sure to consider whether the suggestions are reasonable or
not.

Turkey is located in a region that is shaken by severe earthquakes. They occurred almost
every year. Central Anatolian Fault Zone is one of the most active fault zones in the world, and
it lies along the northern part of the country, going from southeast to northwest. The reason of
that most of these severe earthquakes causes a lot of damage and death of many people is not
only the nature of the fault zone, but also that there are many cities and highways settled on it.
Because of the ignorance of this big giant in the regional planning of the country. There is no
way that big cities can’t be affected from severe shakings in each year. The most serious damage
occurred in August 1999. It affected a big area as wide as two kilometer and caused
approximately 20,000 people death and millions dollars physical damage in three cities. In
recent years, some early warning systems have been developed to be aware of the upcoming
shakings. Although these can make warnings as short as 10 second before the shakings, if there
is a well-planned rescue organization, it may help to decrease, at least, the death rates in the
earthquakes.
MODULE 1. AN APPROACH TO ACADEMIC WRITING Dr. BENILDA N. VILLENAS 16

Name: _____________________________________________ Score/Rating:____________________

Exercise 10. Now that you have become more familiar with some of the conventions of
academic writing, write a one-paragraph problem solution text about a problem
in the country that you are familiar with. Your audience is a group of Filipino
professors interested in the issue or problem.