DR RDP’s Biology Notes (XI Std

DR RDP’S NOTES FOR SELF STUDY
MAHARASTRA STATE BOARD’S
XI SCIENCE BIOLOGY
DR. RDP’S
BIOLOGY NOTES
DR. RDP’s SELF STUDY NOTES (XI –BIOLOGY) 1

STD. XI SCIENCE BIOLOGY

CHAPTER NAME OF TOPIC PAGE
SECTION-I 04-96
1 DIVERSITY IN ORGANISM 04
2 KINGDOM PLANTAE 17
3 BIOCHEMISTRY OF CELL 23
4 CELL DIVISION 32
5 MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS 38
6 PLANT WATER RELATIONS AND MINERAL 71
NUTRITION
7 PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 84
SECTION-II 98-175
8 KINGDOM ANIMALIA 98
9 ORGANIZATION OF CELL 112
10 STUDY OF ANIMAL TISSUES 127
11 STUDY OF ANIMAL TYPE- COCKROACH 136
12 HUMAN NUTRITION 144
13 HUMAN RESPIRATION 155
14 HUMAN SKELETON AND LOCOMOTION 167

SECTION-I
BOTANY

Chapter 1: DIVERSITY IN ORGANISMS
1.1 Diversity in living organisms:
 Variety of living organisms existing on the earth is known as Diversity.

 There are about 5-30 million species of plants and animals on earth.
 To remember the characteristics of all these organisms, it is necessary to study them
systematicallyaand scientifically.
 It can studied by using taxonomy or systematic.
1.2 Systematics:
SYSTEMATICS: “Systematics is the scientific study of identification, taxonomy, classification

and nomenclature of different kinds of organisms and relationship among them.”
TAXONOMY: It is the branch of biology which deals with the study of collection,
identification, classification, nomenclature and preservation of plants and animals.
OBJECTIVES OF SYSTEMATICS/TAXONOMY:
 To know various kinds of plants on the earth.

 To give scientific names to species
 To study their affinities, distribution, habits, features and economic importance.
 To have a reference system for all organisms.
 To demonstrate the diversities of organisms and their phylogenetic relationship.
 To ascertain no+menclature i.e. for every organism there should be a scientific name.
CLASSIFICATION:
 It is the arrangement of organisms or groups of organisms in distinct categories in

accordance with a particular and well established plan.
 The classification is based on similarities and dissimilarities among the organisms.
 The term classification was coined by A.P. de Candole.
Why is the Need of Classification?
 There are large numbers of living organisms found on earth.

 These organisms show variation in shape, size, structure, habit, habitat, nutrition, etc.
 It is very difficult to remember their characteristics without their proper arrangement.
 The classification helps to explain unity in diversity of organisms.
 It gives specific and scientific names to the organisms which are universal.
 It reveals the relationships among various groups of organisms.
 The classification places them amongst those which have a common characteristic.

TAXANOMIC HIERARCHY:
 The main aim of a taxonomic study is to assign each organism an appropriate place in a
systematic framework of classification.
 The scientific grouping of different taxonomic categories in a descending order on the
basis of their ranks or positions in classification is called taxonomic hierarchy.
 In the system of classification the terms like ‘taxa’ and ‘categories’ are often used.
Taxon:
 Taxon is a group of organisms used to represent concrete unit of classification.
 The unit or taxon may be large or small.
 The term taxon was coined by H.J. Lam in 1948 for plants.
Category:
 A category is a rank or level in the hierarchial classification of organisms.
 Various taxa are assigned definite categories according to their taxonomic status.
 In hierarchy of categories Kingdom is the highest and species is the lowest category.
Table 1.1: Classification of Chinarose and Cobra.
Category Taxon
Kingdom Plantae Animalia
Division/ Phylum Angiospermae Chordata
Class Dicotyledonae Reptilla
Sub- class Polypetalae Diapsida
Series Thalamiflorae -
Order Malvales Squamata
Family Malvaceae Elapidae
Genus Hibiscus Naja
Species rosa-sinensis Naja
UNITS OF CLASSIFICATION:
Kingdom Division/ Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

Hierarchy of taxonomic categories:
SPECIES: It is the basic unit in the system of classification. Members of a species usually breed
true from generation to generation to generation.e.g. All the plants of potato (Solanum
tuberosum) are grouped under the species tuberosum.
GENUS: It is a group of closely related species, which resemble one another in certain
characters. Solanum indicates name of the genus. A genus includes one or many species.
FAMILY: A family represents group of closely related genera. The genera like Hibiscus, Sida,
Gossypium, Abutilon, etc. belong to the family Malvaceae.
ORDER: It is a group of closely related families which resemble in major charactors. For
example families Malvaceae, Tiliaceae, etc. belong to the order Malvales.
CLASS: It is a group of related orders.e.g.class-Dicotyledonae includes orders Malvales,

Rosales, etc.
DIVISION: It is a category composed of related Classes e.g. Division Angiospermae includes

two classes, Dicotyledonae and Monocotyledonae. In animal classification instead of Division
the category Phylum is used.
KINGDOM: It is the highest taxonomic category e.g. all plants are included in the kingdom
Plantae while all animals are included in Kingdom Animalia.
NOMENCLATURE:
 The art of naming an object is a science called nomenclature.

 All known objects are given names, plants and animals also are identified by a name.
 Their main purpose is to communicate and to indicate relationship.
1. VERNACULAR NAMES:
 The names are given to organisms in a particular region and language by local people.
 Plants and animals are known by different names in different parts of the world.
 People of different states and regions use different common names for a single plant.
 The local or vernacular names are short, familiar and easy to follow.
 But these names do not communicate the necessary information.
 They do not indicate proper relationship and are not universal.
 For example: In India Ipomea batatas is recognized by various names like Sweet
Potato (in English); Shakarkand (in hindi); Meetha Alu ( in Assamese and Bengali );
Kandmul ( in Telugu); Ratalu (in Marathi) and Jenasu ( in Kannada) etc.
 A single name is used for several species e.g. The name "lily" is used to describe many
bulbous flowering plants like - water lily, spider lily, etc.
 Vernacular names may be misleading e.g. Starfish, Jelly fish, Silver fish are not fishes.

2. SCIENTIFIC NAMES:
 These names are based on some criteria and principles.

 These names are accepted all over the world.
 These names are binomial which are easier and meaningful.
 These names were earlier polynomials e.g. Sida acuta (Malvaceae) was named as
chrysophyllum follis, ovalis supreme glabris parallel striatis subtus, tomento sonitidis.
 Such long names are difficult to remember. Hence to make it easier and meaningful
binomial system of nomenclature was introduced.
3. BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE:
 A system of nomenclature of plants or animals in which the name consists of two words
or parts or epithets is called binomial nomenclature.
 The credit of giving binomial system of nomenclature goes to Carolus Linnaeus.
 He used this system in his book “Species Plantarum” published in 1753.
 According to this system the scientific name of Sunflower is Helianthus annuus.
 In the above name the first word Helianthus indicates name of the genus (generic name)
and the second word annuus denotes name of the species (specific name).
 The Binomial Nomenclature system follows certain rules.
Rules for Bionomial Nomenclature:
 The name of the plant or animal is composed of two Latin or Latinised or Greek words.
 Generic name is a simple noun which comes first and always begins with capital letter.
 Specific name is descriptive adjective which come later and begins with small letter.
 The names should be based on some special characters of the plant or animal.
 The scientific name must be underlined separately if written or printed in italics.
 Usually the name of the author, who gave name to plant or animal, is also written in full
or in abbreviated form after the scientific name.
 Mentioning the author’s name after the species name is called citation.
 E.g. Mangifera indica L. where L. stands for Linnaeus.
 To avoid the confusion no two generic names in any kingdom can be same.
 However, the species name can be repeated. E.g. Mangifera indica, (Mango) and
Azadirachta indica (Neem).
 When a single species is described under different names by different authors, these
names are called synonyms.
 In such cases the name under which the species is first described is considered to be
valid.
ADVANTAGES OF BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE:
i) The names are simple, meaningful and precise.

ii) These are standard as they do not change from place to place or country to country.
iii) These names avoid confusion and uncertainty created by local or vernacular names.
iv) The organisms are known by the same name throughout the world.
v) The binomials are easy to understand and remember.
vi) It indicates phylogeny (evolutionary history) of organisms.
vii) It helps to understand inter-relationship between organisms.
1.3 Classification of living organisms:
FIVE KINGDOM SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION:
 The two kingdom system of classification was introduced by Carl Linnaeus.

 The system recognized two kingdoms of organisms as – Plantae and Animalia.
 However, this system was found inadequate for classification of some organisms like
bacteria, fungi, Euglena, etc.
 Haeckel suggested the third kingdom Protista to include these organisms.
 The recent system of classification proposed by R.H. Whittaker in 1969 is a five
Kingdom system.
 This system shows phylogenetic relationship between organisms.
 The five kingdoms are:
1. Monera
2. Protista
3. Fungi
4. Plantae
5. Animalia.

Criteria used for Five Kingdom Classification:
 Cell organization - the organism is either prokaryotic or eukaryotic.

 Body organization - the organism is either unicellular or multicellular.
 Mode of nutrition - the organism is either autotrophic or heterotrophic.
 Life style - the organism is producer, consumer or decomposer.
 Habitat - aquatic, land, marshy areas, detritus, desert, glacial, etc.
 Reproduction - asexual, vegetative, sexual, etc.
1. KINGDOM: MONERA
1. The organisms are microscopic, unicellular and prokaryotic.

2. The organisms possess a primitive (prokaryotic) type of nucleus i.e. nucleus is without
nuclear envelope, nucleolus, nucleoplasm, histone protein and true chromosomes.
3. The cell wall is rigid and composed of peptidoglycan.
4. The organisms are unicellular as in eubacteria or filamentous as in cyanobacteria.
5. The cells are without cell organelles like chloroplasts, mitochondria, etc.
6. The organisms are either motile or non-motile.
7. The locomotion is due to gliding movement or flagella. Cilia are absent.
8. The organisms are autotrophic, heterotrophic, parasitic or saprophytic.
9. The autotrophs are photoautotrophs (Cyanobacteria) or Chemoautotrophs (Thiobacillus).
10. The mode of reproduction is either asexual or with the help of fission or budding.
Example: 1. Archaebacteria e.g. – Methanobacillus, Thiobacillus, etc.
2. Eubacteria e.g. – Rhizobium, Clostridium, etc.
3. Cyanobacteria e.g. – Nostoc, Anabaena, etc.
4. Actinomycetes e.g. – Streptomyces, Mycobacterium, etc.
2. KINGDOM: PROTISTA
1. The organisms are unicellular and eukaryotic.

2. They are mostly aquatic, however some are terrestrial.
3. They are with or without cell wall. If cell wall is present it is composed of cellulose.
4. They contain cell organelles e.g. mitochondria, chloroplasts, ER, Golgi complex, etc.
5. Nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, nucleolus and helical DNA and histone proteins.
6. They are either motile or nonmotile. These are cilia, flagella, pseudopodia, etc.
7. They show photosynthetic, holozoic, saprophytic and parasitic mode of nutrition.
8. They store reserve food material in the form of glycogen, starch and fat.
9. They reproduce by asexual or sexual method.
10. Asexual reproduction by mitotic or amitotic cell division and sexual reproduction
without formation of embryo.
11. Zygote directly develops into young individual.

Protists may further be classified into:
1. Plants like protists: They are autotrophic, have cellulosic cell wall and stored
reserved food as starch e.g. Dinoflagellates, Diatoms.
2. Animallike protists: These are heterotrophic, lack cell wall and store reserve food as
glycogen e.g. Amoeba, Paramoecium etc.
3. Fungi like protists: They are saprophytic, lack cell wall e.g. Slimemoulds.
4. Euglenoids: These are photosynthetic aquatic or heterotrophs e.g. Euglena.
3. KINGDOM: FUNGI
1. It is a unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms, showing extracellular digestion.

2. The organisms are unicellular (Yeast) or multicellular and filamentous (Penicillium)
3. Unicellular fungi have many nuclei (Plasmodium) or single nucleus (Yeast).
4. Multicellular fungi with mycelium which has thread or fibre like called hyphae.
5. The hyphae are with septa (septate) or without septa (aseptate).
6. The hyphae are multi-nucleated (coenocytic).
7. The cell wall in fungi is composed of chitin or fungal cellulose or both.
8. The fungi contain of well-organized organelles except the chloroplasts.
9. These are heterotrophic, parasite, saprophytes and predators, some are symbiotic.
10. Fungi show vegetative, asexual and sexual modes of reproduction.
11. These are classified further as:
1. Phycomycetes:
 These are commonly called as algal fungi.
 They grow on moist and dampsoil on decaying matter.
 They reproduce by spores.
 E.g. Mucor, Rhizopus, Albugo.
2. Ascomycetes:
 These are commonly called as sac fungi.
 Body contains septate hypae.
 Reproduction by ascospores (asexual) and by Conidia (sexual).
 E.g. Penicillium, Apergillus, Neurospora, etc.
3. Basidiomycetes:
 These are called club fungi.
 They have branched, septate hypae.
 No asexual reproduction, sexual by basidiospores and vegetative by fragmentation.
 E.g. Agaricus, Ustilago, Puccinia, etc.
4. Dueteromycetes:
 These are imperfect fungi.
 Reproduction by asexual method only.

 These are mainly decomposers, few are parasitic.
 E.g. Alternaria, Trichophyton, etc.
4. KINGDOM: PLANTAE
1. It includes multicellular, eukaryotic and autotrophic organisms like Algae, Bryophytes,

Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
2. The cell wall is composed of true cellulose.
3. The members possess photosynthetic pigments.
4. The organisms show sedentary nature.
5. Reserve food material is in the form of starch.
6. Vascular tissues are absent in the lower plants (Algae and Bryophytes) but present in
higher plants (Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms)
7. In higher plants cuticle, stomata, etc, are present to check the rate of transpiration.
8. The members of Plantae are main producers and provide food to all living organisms.
9. The plants reproduce by vegetative, asexual or sexual methods.
10. Reproduction is vegetative, asexual with spores while sexual with the help of gametes.
11. These are classified as:
 Algae e.g. Spirogyra, Chara, etc.

 Bryophytes e.g. Riccia, Funaria, etc.
 Pteriodophytes e.g. Lycopodium, Nephrolepis, etc.
 Gymnosperms e.g. Cycas, Pinus, etc.
 Angiosperms e.g. Sunflower, Jowar, etc.
KINGDOM: ANIMALIA
1. The organisms are multicellular and eukaryotic.

2. The organisms may be aquatic, terrestrial, amphibious or aerial in habitat.
3. The organisms do not possess cell wall, plastids and central vacuole.
4. The organisms are multicellular and eukaryotic.
5. They have sense organs, nervous system to respond to stimuli.
6. They are heterotrophic either holozoic or parasitic.
7. They are consumers of various levels (Primery, Secondary Tertiary etc.).
Advantages of five kingdom system of classification:-
1. All groups of organisms get proper place and taxonomic status.

2. Prokaryotes are separated from other organisms (Eukaryotes).
3. Euglena, an animal with photosynthetic nutrition has been placed in Kingdom Protista.
4. The fungi are separated from Plantae on the basis of their mode of nutrition.
5. During redistribution organisms among new kingdoms, original subdivisions of old two
kingdom system are not disturbed.

Disadvantages of five kingdom system:
1. Viruses do not find any place in five- kingdom system of classification.

2. Kingdom Protista includes photosynthetic, non-photosynthetic with or without cell wall.
Hence, it is difficult to imagine them together.
3. Euglena requires separate kingdom as it shows features of both plants and animals.
Table 1.2: Comparision between five kingdoms
1.4 Lichens
 The lichens are slow growing long lived perennial cosmopolitan plants occuring
everywhere from sea shore to arctic and antarctic regions of the earth.
 Theophreastus (300 B.C.) was the first person to use the word lichen.
 Lichens are formed by close association of two different partners one of which is an
algae and other is fungal component.
 An algal component is called phycobiont of chlorophyceae (green algae) or
Myxophyceae (blue green algae).
 A fungal partner is called Phycobiont of Ascomycetes or rarely Besidiomycetes or
Deuteromycetes.
General characters:
 Linchens are cosmopolitan in distribution. They grow in wide variety of habitats.

 Lichens are sensitive to air pollution and do not occur near the cities.
 Lichens grow abudantly on tree trunks, decaying logs, on the leaves and on soil too.
 The thallus is greenish or bluish green, yellow, orange, brown and black.
 The lichens generally reproduce vegetatively, asexually as well as sexually.
On the basis of fungal components the lichens were classified as:

A) Ascolichens: In this fungal partner belongs to Ascomycetes.
B) Basidiolichens: In this the fungal part belongs to Basidismycetes
C) Deuterolichens: In tis fungal partner is of Dueteromycetes. These are Sterile.
On the basis of external form, (Thallus organization) the lichens are classified as:
A) Crustose Lichens:
 These are thin and flat lichens occuring as crust on the bark or rock
 e.g. Rhizocarpon, Graphis, Lecanora, Strignla, etc.
B) Foliose Lichens:
 These are lobed and dorsiventrally flattened leafly lichens.

 Thsese are attached to substratum by hairy rhizoid like stmctures called rhizines.
 e.g. Parmelia, Collema, Peltigera.
c) Fructiose Lichens:
 These lichens are Shruby Lichens.

 Thallus is branched erect or pendulous giving them a shrub like appearance.
 They remain attached to the substratum by basal mucilagenous disc
 e.g. Cladonia, Usnea, Alectoria.
A) Economic Importance of Lichens:
1) Lichens as Food:
Several lichens are used as food. The lichens contain a substance lichenin which is
similar to carbohydrate e.g. Lecanora esculenta in Israel, Umbilicaria esculenta in
Japan Parmelia is used as curry powder as well as in making chocolates and pestries.
2) Lichens as Fodder:
Lichens form a favourite food for reindeers, cattales, etc. Before the use lichens as food
the biter substances present in it are removed. Species of Cladonia, Citraia, Evernia,
Parmelia, etc are used as fodder.
3) Medicinal Uses:
Several Lichens are useful in preparation of medicine.Usnic Acid obtained from the
Usnea and Cladonia species is used as broad spectrum antibiotic. Lobaria, Citraria
species are useful used in respiratory disease like T. B. Peltigera is useful in
hydrophobia; Parmelia is useful in epilepsy and Usnea species in Urinary diseases.
Some lichens posess anticarsinogenic property.

4) Industrial Uses of Lichens:
a) Brewing & distillation: Lichens used for production of alcohol.
b) Tanning and dyes: Lichens like Cetraria and Lobaria are used in tanning. Pchrolechia
(red dye) and Parmelia (Brown dye) used for dying. Litmus Paper used as acid base indicater
is prepared by soaking the paper in extract of Roccella thinctoria or Lasallia Pusthlata.
Orcein a biological stain is a purified form of dye orchil is obtained from Orchrolechia
androgyna and O. tortaria.
c) Evernia and Ramalina are the sources of essential oils which are used in preparation of
soaps and other cosmetics and perfumery.
B) Ecological Importance:
 The lichens are the pioneers of vegetation.

 Lichens are the plants as they settle first on barren rocks.
 Lichens bring about the weathering of rocks by forming carbonic and oxalic acids.
 Weathering of rocks leads to formation of soil and is called Pedogenosis..
1.5 Viruses and Viroids:
VIRUSES:
 Viruses are primitive, acellular and non cytoplasmic infectious microorganisms.

 The credit for the discovery of viruses goes to D.J. Ivanowski (1892).
 Mayer (1896) verified that when the juice from infected plants with the Tobacco mosaic
virus (TMV) injected into healthy plants, the plants show symtoms of disease.
 Ivanowski confirmed above study and prepared an extract of infected tobacco plant.
 He found that it could infect healthy plants passed through filter that checks bacteria.
 M.W. Beijerink (1898) coined the term virus (Virus-venom or poisonous fluid).
 Beijerinick called viruses “contagium vivum fluidum” means “contigious living fluid.”
General characteristics:
1. Viruses are acellular, non-cytoplasmic, infectious agents.

2. The size of viruses is variable. They do not grow in size.
3. Viruses are able to transmit the disease from diseased to healthy organisms.
4. Viruses are obligate parasites and can multiply only within the living host cells.
5. They posses genetic material in the form of either DNA or RNA, but never both.
6. Viruses consist of a nucleic acid core surrounded by a protein coat (capsid).
7. Outside the body of host they donot show any character of living organism.
8. They can be crystallized just like the nonliving thing and can be stored in bottles.
9. They utilize ribosomes of the host cell for synthesis of protein during reproduction.
10. Viruses are host specific and infect only a single species and definite cells.

11. Viruses are effective in very small doses and are highly resistant to germicides.
12. Viruses exhibit mutations. They can not be cultured in nutrient medium.
Types of viruses: The viruses are classified into three types:
a) Plant viruses:
 The viruses which attack the plants are called plant viruses.
 These viruses consist of ss RNA or ds RNA.
 They show helical symmetry.
 They are mostly rod shaped or cylindrical
b) Animal viruses:
 The viruses which attack/infect animals are called animal viruses.

 Their genetic material is either RNA or DNA.
 They show radial symmetry.
 These are mostly polyhedral in shape.
c) Bacterial viruses or Bacteriophages:
 The viruses which attack or infect the bacteria are called bacteriophages or bacterial
viruses. The genetic material is DNA.
 They are mostly tadpole shaped.
 They were discovered by Twort (1915).
 Felix d’Herelle named them as bacteriophages.
Economic Importance:
The plant viruses, animal viruses are of great economic importance as they cause various
diseases in plants and animals.
Plant diseases caused by viruses are:
 1. Little leaf of Brinjal 2. Yellow vein mosaic of Lady’s finger 3. Potato leaf roll
 4. Leaf curl of Papaya 5. Bunchy top of Banana 6. Grassy shoot of sugar cane
 Tobacco mosaic of tobacco
Common symptoms due to viral infection are:
 1. Local lesions 2. Clearing of veins 3. Mosaic formation 4. Chlorosis
 5. Necrosis 6. Stunting and premature defoliation 7. Ring spotting etc.

Animal diseases caused by viruses are:
Disease Virus
 Common cold - Rhino virus

 Influenza - Myxovirus
 Small box - Variola virus
 Mumps -Paramyxovirus
 Mealses - Paramyxo virus
 Poliomyletis - Polio virus
 Yellow fever - Arbovirus
 Cancer - Epstein-Barr virus
 Swine flu - H1N1 virus
 AIDS - Retro virus/HIV Human Immuno Virus
VIROIDS:
 Viroids are small, circular, single, stranded RNAs without any protein.
 The RNA is either covalently closed circular RNA or single standed linear RNA.
 They donot consists of dormant phase.
 First viroid was the potato spindle tuber viroid (PSTV) causing disease in potatoes.
 PSTV is ten times smaller than smallest virus.
 The naked RNA molecule can replicate autonomously in plant cells.
 It can also disperse into the environment and produce diseases.
 Many plant diseases have been caused by viroids.
 These diseases includes citrusexocortis chrysanthemum stunt, cucumber bale fruit etc.

Chapter 2: KINGDOM PLANTAE
2.1 Introduction
 There is a large number of living organismson the earth.

 These organisms include plants, animals and micro organisms.
 It is estimated that there are about 30 million species of living organisms and out of these
only 1.7 million species have been identified and named so far.
 Parashara compiled scientific knowledge concerned with plant science in Vrikshayurveda.
 These are main producers on land and most essential components of ecosystem.
 Kingdom plantae is broadly classified into Kingdom Cryptogams and Phanerogams.
 Cryptogams include Algae, Bryophytes and Pteridophytes while Phanerogams include
Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
2.2 Salient features of major plant groups:
A) Division: ALGAE
General characters:
1. Algae occur in a variety of habitat from aquatic to terrestrial, from snow peaks to hot
water springs and from rock surface to the interior of higher plant body.
2. Most of them are free living whereas some are symbiotic.
3. They may be small, unicellular, microscopic lke Chlorella (non-motile), Chlamydonas
(motile) or huge multicellular forms (sea weeds) more than 60 meters in length.
4. The cell wall consists of two layers i.e. inner cellulosic and outer composed of Pectin.
5. The reserve food material is Starch- laminarin, manitol and floridean starch, etc.
6. The photosynthetic pigments are Chlorophyll-a, b, c and d, carotenes and phycobilins.
Phycobilins are Phycocyanins and Phycoerythrins.
7. Reproduction by vegetative, asexual and sexual. Vegetative by fragmentation and cell
division. Asexual by the formation of various types of spores. Sexual reproduction by
formation and fusion of gametes.
8. The life cycle of algae exhibits the phenomenon of alternation of generations.
9. Examples: Chlorella, Spirogyra, Chara and Ectocarpus.
B) Division: BRYOPHYTA
 The Bryophytes are mostly terrestrial plants which depend on external water for
fertilization and completion of their life cycle.
 Hence they are called ‘amphibian plants’.
 They include 960 genera and about 24,000 species.

General characters:
1. They grow in moist and shady places like moist walls, rocks, and decaying logs.
2. Plant body is thalloid as in liverworts or foliose as in mosses.
3. True roots are absent but rhizoids are present. Rhizoids absorb water and minerals.
They also fix the plant to the substratum.
4. The vascular tissues are absent.
5. Some Bryophytes show leaf like structures (e.g. moss) but they are not true leaves.
6. They do not produce flowers or seeds as well.
7. The Gametophyte is the dominant, green, long-lived and independent phase.
8. Vegetative reproduction by adventitious branches or tubers and gemmae.
9. Asexual reproduction is by spore formation and Sexual is by formation of gametes.
10. The spore gives rise to the gametophyte that produces antheridia and archegonia.
11. Antheridia produce male gametes and archegonia produce female gametes.
12. They alternate with each other to complete their life cycle.
Examples: Liverworts e.g. Riccia; Hornworts e.g. Anthoceros and Mosses e.g. Funaria.
C) Division: PTERIDOPHYTA
 The Pteridophytes are considered as the first true terrestrial plants.

 The group has about 400 genera and and 10,500 species.
 The Pteridophytes are also known as vascular cryptogams.
 They have a primitive conducting system and do not produce flowers, fruits and seeds.
 The late Paleozoic era is regarded as the age of Pteridophytes.
General characters:
1. The plants are small and are either annual or perennial.
2. They are shade-loving and grow luxuriantly in moist and shady places.
3. They are terrestrial, aquatic, xerophytic, epiphytic and growing on large trunks of trees.
4. The sporophyte is the diploid, green, dominant, independent, phase.
5. It is differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
6. Stem aerial or underground, leaves scaly, simple and sessile and pinnately compound.
7. The xylem consists of only tracheids and phloem consists of sieve cells only.
8. Secondary growth is not seen in Pteidophytes due to absence of cambium.
9. Gametophyte or prothallus is green, autotrophic and independent of sporopyhyte.
10. It bears male sex organs, antheridia and female organs called archegonia.
11. The plants may be heterosporous or homosporous
12. Spores are produced in special multicellular structure called sporangia.
13. The process of fertilization needs presence of water.
Examples: Nephrolepis, Lycopodium, Selaginella, Marsilia, etc.
The development of the sporophyte in Pteidophytes takes place by different methods:

1. Apogamy: It is the development of sporophyte without fusion of male and female
gametes. It arises directly from the gametophyte.The sporophyte is haploid.
2. Apospory: It is the development of the gametophyte from any cell of the sporophyte
other than the spores. Such a gametophyte will be diploid in nature.
D) Division: GYMNOSPERMAE
 Gymnosperms are the plants with naked seeds or ovules.

 Gymnosperms are also described as ‘Phanerogams without ovary.’
 The term “Gymnosperm” was first used by Theophrastus
 There are 70 genera and 725 species, while 16 genera and 53 species are in India.
General characters:
1. Gymnosperms are nonflowering, evergreen, perennial woody trees or shrubs.

2. They are vascular plants. They show xylem with tracheids and phloem with sieve cells.
3. The seeds are naked i.e. ovules are not enclosed within ovary; hence no fruits.
4. The plant body i.e. sporophyte is differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
5. The plants posses a well developed tap root system, in some mycorrhizal roots.
6. Stem is mostly erect, aerial, solid, cylindrical and brandched, but in Cycas unbranced.
7. The foliage leaves are green, simple, needle like or pinnately compound.
8. Secondary growth is seen in Gymnosperms due to presence of cambium.
9. Vegetative reproduction takes place with the help of bulbils.
10. Gymnosperms are heterosporous. They produce microspores and megaspores.
11. The pollination in Gymnosperm is anemophilous (wind pollination).
12. Fertilization is achieved through a pollen tube. This process is called siphonogamy.
13. Gymnosperms show a distinct heteromorphic alternation of generations.
14. They show alternation of generations. Examples: Cycas, Pinus, Ginkgo.
 Ginkgo biloba are called living fossils because the plant is found in living as well as
fossil form.
 Sequoia sempervirens is the tallest living plant in the world. It is commonly called coast
redwood of California. The height of the plant is 366 feet.
 Taxodium mucronatum has a girth of about 125 feet.
 Zamia pygmaea is the smallest Gymnosperm and is about 25 cm only.
E) Division: ANGIOSPERMAE
 The Angiospermae is the most advanced division of the flowering plants.

 The angiosperms are flowering plants in which seeds are enclosed within an ovary.
 Wolffia is the smallest angiosperm (1mm) and Eucalyptus grows over 100 meters.

General characters:
1. These are a group of highly evolved plants, primarily adapted to terrestrial habitat.
2. They have diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte.
3. The body of sporophyte is divisible into root, stem and leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds.
4. Xylem shows vessels or tracheae while phloem has sieve tubes and companion cells.
5. Heterospores, Male spores are called pollens while female are ovules.
6. The flower shows whorls of sepals and petals, stamens and carpels.
7. The gametophyte is dependent on sporophyte.
8. The pollination is indirect and may be self or cross.
9. Male gametes carried for fertilization through a pollen tube. (Siphonogamy).
10. Embryo sac has a single egg cell and a few vegetative cells.
11. Double fertilization, one gamete fusing with egg and other with secondary nucleus.
12. The ovary ripens into a fruit, ovules form seeds.
Difference between Dicot and Monocot:
Class Dicotyledonae Class Monocotyledonae

1. These have two cotyledons in the embryo. These have single cotyledon in the embryo.
2. They have a tap root System. The plants have adventitious root system.
3. The stem is profusely branched. Stem is rarely branched
4. The leaves with reticulate venation. Leaves with parallel venation
5. The flowers show pentamerous symmetry. The flowers are generally trimerous
6. Vascular bundle conjoint, collateral & open. Vascular bundle conjoint, collateral & closed.
7. Secondary growth is common. Secondary growth is usually absent.
8. e.g. Helianthus, Hibiscus. e. g. Zea, Sorghum.
Difference between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms:
Gymnosperms Angiosperms
1. Seeds are naked, no fruits Seeds enclosed in ovary, fruits formed

2. Sporophylls organised into cones Sporophylls forms flowers
3. Ovules are unitegmic Ovules are bitegmic
4. Archegonia and antheridia present These are absent
5. Single fertilization Double fertilization
6. Endosperm haploid Endosperm triploid
7. It is formed before fertilization Formed after fertilization
8. Xylem lacks vessels and Phloem lacks Xylem posses vessels and phloem
companion cells and sieve tubes has companion cells and sieve tubes

2.2 Botanical Gardens and Herbaria
Botanical Gardens:
 The development of gardens is associated with history of civilization.

 It is also concerned with culture, heritage, science, art, and literature, and religious
expressions.
 The origin of Botanical gardens came from the gardens and parks.
 They have contributed to the science of botany from the time of therophrastus.
Importance of Botanical Gardens:
1. These are important for their records of local flora and basis for monographic work.
2. Gardens provide facilities for collection of living plant material for studies.
3. Botanical gardens also supply seeds and material for botanical investigation.
4. The botanical gardens in addition to outdoor gardens.
5. They also contain herbaria, green houses, research laboratory and library.
Botanical Gardens of India:
1. The Indian Botanical Garden, (Calcutta) Kolkata.

2. Lloyd Botanic Garden, Darjeeling
3. National Botanic Garden, Lucknow.
4. Botanic Garden of the forest Research Institute, Dehradun.
5. Government Botanic Garden Ootacamund.
6. The State Botanical Garden, Lalbgh, Mysore.
7. Botanical Garden, Saharanpur.
Herbaria
 Herbaria are the collection or deposition of dried plant material by using various
techniques of presrvatation and arranged in the sequence of an accepted classification.
 The preservation techniques include mostly drying and pressing of plant material.
 The succulent plant or unsuitable plants for drying and pressing technique are fixed in
suitable liquid preservations like formaldehyde, acetic alcohol etc.
 It involves collection, drying, poisoning, mounting stitching, labeling and deposition.
 Herbria are linked with research institutes, botanic gardens, universities and colleges.
 In India the herbaria are small and built up by government or private agencies.
 Herbaria can be classified in as a) Regional b) Local and c) herbaria of educational
institutions including school, colleges and universities.
Importance of the Herbarium
1. To preserve national or regional or local plant wealth.

2. To carry out their own research programmers of fundamental or of applied value.
3. To preserve plant material for various purposes like exhibitions, research etc.
4. To supply plant material, scientific information of plants by arranging training course.
Taxonomic Key:
 It is the aid to classify the plant based on similarities or differences.

 It is separate for each taxonomic category.
 It uses couplets made of contrasting characters.
 The statement of key is called lead.
 Other keys used are monographs, manuals, catalogues, floras, etc.
Important Herbaria in India:
Institute No. of specimens
1. Central National Herbaruim Kolkata 2,000,000

2. Botanical survey of India museum Kolkata 50,000
3. Herbarium of forest Research Institute Dehradun 3,00,000
4. Herbarium of the National Botanical Research Institute Lucknow 80,000
5. The southern circle Herbarium Coimbtore 1,90,000
6. Eastern circle Herbarium Shillong 1,15,000
Herbaruim of the Botanical Survey of India Pune 1,20,000
7. Central circle Herbarium Allahabad 45,000
8. The Northern circle Herbarium Dehradun 60,000
9. Blatter Herbarium Mumbai. 100,000

Chapter 3: BIOCHEMISTRY OF CELL
3.1 Introduction:
The Cell and Metabolism:
 Cell is a fundamental structural and functional unit of an organism.

 All the living organisms, from the smaller to the largest are composed of cells.
 The organisms are either unicellular or multicellular.
 Cell has ability to carry out metabolic activities.
 The collection of various types of molecules in a cell is known as CELLULAR POOL.
 The cellular pool consists of water, inorganic materials and organic compounds.
 Inorganic materials are water, salts and mineral ions while organic are carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids, nucleic acids etc.
 The term metabolism indicates a variety of reactions carried out at a cellular level.
 Anabolic reactions: it is biosynthesis of a new cellular material.
 Catabolic reactions: Complex storage products are hydrolysed and broken down into
active small and simple molecules.
 All metabolic reactions are catalysed by the biological catalyst called Enzymes.
3.2 Basic chemical constituents of cell:
A) CARBOHYDRATES:
a) Chemical Nature:
 Carbohydrates are organic compounds produced by green plants during photosynthesis.

 These are made of carbon hydrogen and oxygen atoms in the ratio 1:2:1.
 The general formula is written as CnH2nOn.
 These are called saccharides or compounds containing sugars or monosaccharides.
 Simple carbohydrates are known as sugars e.g. glucose, fructose etc.
 Complex carbohydrates like starch, cellulose, etc. form storage and structural units.
 They show either aldehyde (-CHO) or Ketone (C=O) group and more than one
alcoholic (-OH) group.
b) Classification:
These are classified into three types on the basis of carbon atoms they contain and their
hydrolysing capacity as: 1) Monosaccharides 2) Disaccharides 3) Polysaccharides
1) Monosaccharides:
 These are basic units which cannot be further hydrolysed into still smaller molecules.
 These are crystalline, soluble in water and sweet in taste.

 Monosaccharrides are further classified as aldoses and ketoses depending on the
presence of aldehyde or ketone as functional group.
 Monosaccharides consist of 3 to 6 carbon atoms.
 Monosacchrides with keton group are called ketose sugars e.g. Ribulose, fructose and
with aldose group are called aldose sugars e.g. Glucose, xylose etc.
 On the basis of number of carbon atoms monosaccharides are called as Trioses
(glyceraldehyde), Tetroses (erythose), Pentoses (ribose, deoxyribose), Hexoses
(glucose, fructose), Heptoses (seudoheptulose) etc.
2) Disaccharides:
 Disaccharide is a carbohydrate made of two monosaccharide units and can be

hydrolysed.
 These are soluble in water, sweet in taste and crystalline also like monosaccharides.
 The covalent bond that joins monosaccharides is called glycosidic bond.
 A disaccharide can be easily hydrolysed into monosaccharides.
 They are formed from monosaccharide by condensation with removal of water.
 E.g. Sucrose (composed of glucose and fructose unit), Lactose (composed of glucose
and galactose), Maltose (composed of two glucose units.)
3) Polysaccharides:
 These are complex carbohydrates formed by condensation of many monosaccharides.

 These are amorphous, tasteless and insoluble or slightely soluble in water.
 A single polysaccharide may consist of thousands of units of monosaccharides.
 Polysaccharids can be easily hydrolysed.
 They may contain one type of monosaccharides (homo-polysaccharide) or different
types of polysaccharides (hetero-polysaccharide.)
 E.g. cellulose, starch, (homopolysaccharides), hyaluronic acid (heteropolysaccharide).
c) Role of carbohydrates:
 Carbohydrates provide energy by metabolism.

 Carbohyadrates serves as structural components of cell membrane and cell wall.
 Useful as reserved food material.
 Carbohydrates regulate fat metabolism
 In mammals, Disaccharides supply energy to their babies in the form of lactose.
B) PROTEINS:
a) Chemical Nature:
 The term protein was coined by ‘Berzelus’ (1830).

 These are long chain (linear or coiled) polymers of amino acids with high molecular
weight (Mol. wt. of Hb 6800) and most abundant organic components of the cell.
 Proteins serve as important structural constitutents of cells.
 They contain nitrogen in addition to the carbon, hydrogen and oxygen of carbohydrates
while some contains sulphar, phosphorous, etc.
 Proteins are composed of monomers i.e. amino acids in which amino group of (-NH2)
one amino acid is linked to the carboxyl (- COOH) group of the other amino acid.
 Two amino acids are condensed by a removal of water molecule (OH from water
molecule and H from the amino group) to form a peptide linkage (-CONH-).
 The remainder after removal of a water molecule [H+ and OH-] is called residue.
 A molecule of a protein made up to two amino acids is called dipeptide, of three as
tripeptide and of many units as polypeptide.
 Each polypeptide contains free amino group (-NH2) at one end and carboxyl (-COOH)
group at other end.
 One end of polypeptide with amino group is called N-terminal while other with free
carboxyl group is called C- terminal.
 During elongation of polypeptide chain a new amino acid can be added on either end
due to free amino or carboxyl group.
 A protein molecule may consist of one, two or more polypeptide chains.
 By foldings polypeptide chains give characteristic structure to protein molecule.
 The folded structure is held and maintained by special disulphide bonds (-S-S).
TYPES OF AMINO ACIDS PRESENT IN PROTEINS
1) Glycine 2) Alanine 3) Serine 4) Cysteine 5) Aspartic acid 6) Glutamic acid

7) Asperagine 8) Glutamine 9) Methionine 10) Threonine 11) Valine
12) Leucine 14) Isoleucine 14) Lysine 15) Histidine 16) Arginine
17) Phenylalanine 18) Tyrosine 19) Tryptophan 20) Proline 21)Selenocystein
[22) Pyrrolycine 23) Hydroxyproline 24)Taurine ]*(Newly Synthesised)
b) Classification:
Proteins can be classified on the basis of following:
I) Based on Nature/ Composition:
1) Simple proteins: These are composed of only amino acids or their derivatives.
E.g. Histones, Zein from maize.
2) Conjugated proteins: These are composed of simple proteins with some non
protein part called Prosthetic group. The examples are:

 Lipoproteins = Proteins + lipid
 Nucleo protein = Proteins + Nucleic acid
 Glycoproteins = Proteins + Carbohydrates
 Chromoprotein = Proteins + Pingment
II) Based on Functions:
 As Enzymes: All enzymes are proteins e.g. catalase.

 As Hormones: Hormones like insulin, growth hormones etc.
 As Structural Proteins: There forms parts of cells or tissues e.g. Keratin.
 As Conctractile proteins: These proteins occur in muscle.
 As Transport proteins: e.g. Haemoglobin transports O2.
 As Defense proteins: protection against diseases e.g. Immunoglobulin.
c) Functions of Proteins:
 Proteins are the major components of cell membrane, cytoplasm etc.

 All enzymes are proteins and enzymes are essential for metabolic activities.
 Many proteins serve as storage material e.g. glutelin of wheat.
 Some proteins functions as hormones e.g. insulin.
 Some proteins are useful for transportation e.g. Haemoglobin,
 Some are defensive and protective e.g. thrombin involved in clotting of blood.
C) LIPIDS:
a) Chemical nature:
 Lipids are group of organic components having oily or greasy consistency.

 A term lipid was coined by Bloor (1943).
 Lipid comprises heterogenous compounds like fats, oils, steroids, waxes etc.
 Animals produce solid fats while plants as liquid oils.
 As far as waxes are concern there are produced by both i.e. plants and animals.
 Lipids are insoluble in water but freely soluble in benzene, chloroform, etc.
 Lipids differ from carbohydrates and proteins in having fatty acids and glycerols.
b) Classification: Lipids are classified into 3 main types as:
1) Simple lipids 2) Compound lipids 3) Derived lipids
1) Simple lipids:
 Fats are esters of fatty acid with glycerol.

 Glycerol is a three carbon alcohol that contains three –OH groups.
 Fatty acid is a long chain of carbon atoms with a carboxyl (-COOH) group at one end.
 Based on fatty acid molecules, esters are called mono, di, tri-glycerides.
 Triglycerides are natural fats and their hydrolysis gives glycerol and three fatty acids.
 The fatty acids are of two types: a) saturated fatty acids b) unsaturated fatty acids
Saturated fatty acids Unsaturated fatty acids
1. These are solid at room temperature 1. These are liquid at room temperature
2. These do not have double bonds 2. These have one or more double bonds
3. These are fully satuated with hydrogen 3. These are not fully saturated with hydrogen
4. Animal fats are saturated, e.g. Butter 4. Plant fats are unsaturated, e.g. groundnut oil
2) Compound lipids:
 These contain some additional elements or groups in addition to fatty acids and alcohol.
 These are N, P, S, protein, etc. e.g. phospholipids , glycerophospholipids, glycolipids.
 Phosphosipids are major constituents of cell membranes of plants and animals.
3) Derived lipids:
 These lipids are the hydrolytic products of lipids.

 These lipids include Steroids, Waxes, Carotenoids, essential oils, etc.
a. Steroids:
 Steroids are structurally quite different from other lipids.

 Each molecule of steroid contains carbon atom arranged in four interlocking rings,
 Three of the rings contain six carbon atoms and the fourth contains five carbon atoms.
 Some of the biologically important steroids are like cholesterol, bile salts, male and
female sex hormones like testosterone, oestrogen, etc.
b. Waxes:
 Plant waxes are eaters of long chain fatty acids with alcohols and ketons.
 These are secreted by epidermis and form a covering on stems, fruits, leaves.
 In animals, fur and feathers are coated with wax.
c. Carotenoids:
 Carotenoids are pigments composed of two, six membred rings with a highly
unsaturated strait chain of hydrocarbons.
 Carotenoids occur in the thylakoid of chloroplasts and chromoplasts of almost all higher
plants, e.g. alpha and beta carotene, xanthophylls etc.

c) Role of Lipids:
1. Lipids acts as storage compound to reserve energy e.g. oil seeds stores oils.
2. Lipids are important components of cell membrane of eukaryotes e.g. phospholipids.
3. Lipids act as components of some enzyme system.
4. Subcutaneous tissue contains fats which act as insulator for heat.
5. Wax provides water proofing and checks rate of transpiration in plants.
6. Steroids like chloic acid constituents of bile
7. Cholesterol takes part in the synthesis of vit. D and sex hormones.
D) Nucleic Acids:
 Nucleic acids were first discovered by Fredrick Miescher in 1869.

 Miescher used the term ‘nuclein’ due to their acidic nature.
 Nucleic acids are DNA (Deoxyribose nucleic acid) and RNA (Ribose nucleic acid).
 These are macromolecules made of many small units or monomers called nucleotides.
 These contain a five carbon sugar, a nitrogen base and phosphate (phosphoric acid).
i.e. Nucleotide = Sugar + Nitrogenous base + Phosphoric acid.
 When, a sugar combines with the nitrogenous base it is called nucleoside.
i.e. Nucleoside = Sugar + Nitrogenous base
a) Structure of Nucleic acid:
i) Sugar:
 It is a five carbon (pentose) sugar.

 The sugars are of two types i.e. ribose sugar and deoxyribose sugar.
 A nucleotide which contains ribose sugar is called ribose nucleic acid (RNA) and which
contains de-oxyribose sugar is called de-oxyribose nucleic acid (DNA).
ii) Nitogenase Bases:
 Each nucleic acid contains four nitrogenous bases out of which two are purines and two
are pyremidins.
 Purine bases are adenine and guanine and pyrimidine bases are thymine and cytosine.
 In RNA thymine is replaced by Uracil a pyrimidine base.
iii) Phosphoric acid:
 Phosphate is present in nucleic acid in the form of phosphoric acid and due to it nucleic
acid is acidic in nature.
 With the help of phosphoester bond sugar combines with phosphoric acid.
 The nucleic acids are of two types i.e. DNA and RNA.

A) Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid: DNA
 DNA is double stranded helix made up of thousands of deoxyribose nucleotides.

 Deoxyriobse nucleotides are linked together by phosphodiester bonds.
 Strands of DNA molecules coils and double helix formation occur.
 The strands of DNA are antiparallel to each other. i. e. they run in opposite direction.
 The helicle coiling of two strands is in right handed fashion and DNA is called B-DNA.
 The two strands of DNA molecule are held together by weak H- bonds.
 Adenine and Thymine has two H-bonds and guanine and cytosine has three H-bonds.
 Adenine always pairs with thymine and guanine always pairs with cytosine.
 Watson and Crick (1953) proposed the double helicle structure of DNA molecule with
the help of X-ray diffraction studies of Wilkins and were awarded Nobel Prize in 1962.
 In eukaryotic cell, DNA is found in nucleus and also in mitochondria and chloroplast.
 It is genetic material and contains all the information needed for development and
existence of an organism.
B) Ribose Nucleic Acid (RNA)
RNA is single stranded and highly folded. It is of following types,
1) Genetic RNA: RNA is the genetic material in most of the plant viruses and bacterial
viruses. H. Fraenkel- Conrat showed that RNA is genetic material in TMV.
2) Non-genetic RNA- This type of RNA is present in organisms in which the genetic
material is DNA. The synthesis of non-genetic RNA occurs on DNA molecule.
A) m-RNA (Messenger RNA):
 It is linear and synthesised on one of the strand of DNA molecule i.e. sense strand.
 It constitutes about 10-15% of total RNA content of cell.
 It carries genetic information from nucleus to site of Protein synthesis.
B) r-RNA (Ribosomal RNA):
 It is single stranded but due to folding shows paired nitrogenous bases.

 It is associated with ribosome. It forms about 80% of the total cell RNA.
C) t-RNA (Transfer RNA):
 It is also known as soluble or sRNA.

 This is smallest among three types.
 It forms about 10-15% of the total cell RNA.
 It carries activated amino acids to ribosomes and helps in elongation of polypeptide
chain.

3.2 Enzymes (Biological catalysts):
 The metabolic processes are carried out by various types of enzymes.

 In living cells, the reactions occur at normal body temperature and pressure due to
presence of specialized macromolecular, proteins called Enzymes.
 Enzymes are sysnthesized by living cells but retain their catalytic action even when
extracted from the living cells.
 Enzymes are the biocatalysts which alter the rate of biochemical reactions without
being used themselves.
 A term enzyme was coined by William Kuhne (1878) while working on fermentation.
 The DNA in each cell has an idea or blue print for production of required enzymes.
 J.B. Sumner isolated first enzyme urease in pure crystalline form jack bean extract.
 The enzymes produced within the cell are endoenzymes and those which act away from
the site of synthesis are called exoenzymes.
 All enzymes are proteins but all proteins are not enzymes.
a) General Properties of enzymes:
1) Specificity: Most of the enzymes are specific in their action. A single enzyme catalyses
only a single substrate or a group of closely related substrates. For example, the enzyme
urease can act only up on urea and no other molecule; invertase can act upon sucrose
only. A slight change in the configuration of the substrate molecule requires action by a
different enzyme.
2) Collidal nature: All enzymes are colloidal in nature and thus provide large surface area
for reaction to take place. (colloids- gellike) colloids are mixtures of two components
i.e. dispersed particles and dispersion medium. The size of the dispersed particles is
larger than dispersion medium. Being colloidal the enzymes are hydrophilic.
3) Amphoteric nature: Chemically the enzymes are proteins and therefore show
amphoteric nature. The enzymes can react with acidic substances and alkaline
substances also.
4) Enzymes optima: Enzymes generally work best under a certain narrowly defined
conditions refered to as Optima. These include appropriate temperature and PH.
a) Temperature sensitivity - Since the enzymes are proteins, they are affected by
temperature changes. Up to a certain extent with increase in temperature, increase in
enzyme activity takes place (up to 400c) however; when temperature increased
above 600c the proteins undergo denaturation or even breakdown completely.
When the temperature is reduced to freezing point or below freezing point, enzymes
become inactivated. At optimum temperature the rate of reaction is maximum.

b) PH sensitivity- Most of the enzymes are specific to PH and remain active within
particular range of PH. The strong acid or strong base denatures enzymes. Majority
of cellular enzymes functions best at neutral PH.
5) Enzymes accelerate the reaction but do not initiate it.
6) Enzymes themselves donot participate in the reaction and remain unchanged at the end
of the reaction.
7) Effect of poison- Many poisons like cyanide and heavy metals like mercury and lead
denature the enzymes by binding to their reaction site.
8) Concentration of enzymes and substrates- The rate of reaction is proportionate to the

concerntration of the reacting molecules. If the substrate concentration Is increased the
rate of enzyme reaction also increases up to certain limit. Beyond a certain point, the
enzyme velocity occurs/rate of reaction increase with increase in conc. of enzymes and
if conc. of enzymes not increased the enzyme molecules remain saturated with substrate
molecule.
9) The molecule of an enzyme is larger than that of substrate molecule and hence during
reaction a part of a enzyme molecule comes in contact with the substrate molecule, that
part is called active site of enzyme.
10) Enzymes are required in small quantity.
11) General characters of enzymes are same in plants or animals or microorganisms.
12) Enzyme inhibitors- Enzyme inhibitors are certain products which inhibit enzymes
activity. During the reaction the active sites of enzymes are filled up by these
substances instead of substrate molecules and the activity of enzyme is lost. When these
molecules similar with substrate molecules in their structure are called competitive
inhibitors. Inhibitors like cyanide do not bind with enzymes. At substrate binding site
but binds at some other site and inhibits the activity of enzymes called Non-
competitive inhibitors.

Chapter 4: CELL DIVISION
Introduction:
As stated in the “Cell theory” every cell arises from the pre-existing cell. This is achived
through the process of cell division. The life of all multicellular organisms starts as a
single cell -zygote.
4.1 Cell Cycle:
 Cell division is a process by which a cell divides into two or more daughter cells.
 A cell divides when it has grown to a certain maximum size.
 The daughter cells formed after the division of a mother cell may grow in size and
divide again. This constitutes the cell cycle.
 The period between two successive divisions is called generation time.
 A series of changes which occur in the life of a cell is called cell cycle.
 The cell cycle includes the periods from the beginning of one cell division to the
beginning of next cell division.
 The cell cycle shows two main phases i.e. interphase and M (mitotic or meiotic) phase.
Interphase:
 Although it is considered to be resting phase, it involves active metabolic activities.

 It is also called as preparatory phase.
 The interphase can be further divided into three stages G1 phase, S phase and G2 phase.
G1 phase:
 It is the first phase also called the post mitotic gap or growth phase.
 During this phase, cell grows in size due to accumulation of protoplasm and
proliferation of organelles.
 In some cases cell may not divide and enters an inactive stage called Go phase, in which
it differentiates and becomes a permanent cell.
S phase:
 It is also called phase of synthesis or synthetic phase.

 Replication of DNA takes place during this stage.
 It generally leads to duplication of chromosomes.
 Nucleus becomes double in size with histone proteins.
G2 phase:
 It is second growth phase also called pre mitotic gap phase.

 It involves the synthesis of the tubulin the spindle protein and RNA.
 The centrioles duplicate and two centrosomes are formed.
 The cell prepares to enter mitotic phase.
 In this phase too there is proliferation of cell organelles.
Types of cell division:
Though all the cells divide, the division is atypical in prokaryotes and typical in
eukaryotes. In eukaryotes cell division may be of following types-Amitosis, Mitosis and
Meiosis.
4.2 Amitosis
 Meganucleus of Paramecium, foetal cells, endosperm cells etc, exhibit amitosis.

 Here the nuclear membrane is retained throughout the division.
 The nucleus enlarges, elongates and divides directly.
 It is followed by cytokinesis leading to the formation of two daughter cells.
 As amitosis does not distribute the chromatin equally in the daughter cells, it may lead
to structural and functional irregularities.
4.3 Mitosis:
 Mitosis is a type of cell division in which a cell divides to form two daughter cells
retaining same chromosome complement.
 In this process the division of nucleus and cytoplasm occurs only once.
 Mitosis is responsible for growth and compensation of wear and tear in multicellular
organism and multiplication in unicellular organisms.
 Since it results in the formation of somatic cells it is often called somatic cell division.
 Mitosis maintains chromosome number in daughter cells equal to mother cell so that it
is also called equational division.
 In animal cells there are distinct centrosomes and the kinetic spindle is organized with
reference to the centrioles.
 Such a division is called ‘centric’ while in plant cells it is ‘acentric’.
 The term ‘mitosis’ was coined by a german biologist, Walther Flemming.
 The cell division involves two stages - karyokinesis and cytokinesis.
Karyokinesis:
 In Karyokinesis nucleus undergoes series of changes to form two daughter nuclei.

 Karyokinesis further resolved into prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
Prophase:
 During early prophase nucleus absorbs water.

 The chromatin condenses into chromonema and further into chromosomes.

 Initially each chromosome appear as single stranded (monad), but as the condensation
prograsses each of them reveals identical halves called chromatids held together by
centromere (dyad).
 In late prophase the nuclear membrane and nucleolus begin to disappear.
 The pairs of centrioles (in animal cells) start moving away from each other, till they
occupy polar positions.
Metaphase:
 The condensation of chromosomes is completed and the thick chromosomes get

organised along equatorial plane of the cell.
 Hence this stage is called metaphase.
 This phase is characterized by formation of chromosomal fibers of kinetic spindle.
 It is called mitotic apparatus
Anaphase:
 It is the shortest phase of karyokinesis.

 Centromeres divide into two, resulting in the separation of chromatids.
 Each separated chromatid is now becomes daughter chromosome.
Types of Spindles:
i) Astral rays - radiating away from centriolar pairs towards the periphery of the cell.
ii) Inter-polar fibers - extending between the opposite pairs of centrioles (poles).
iii) Chromosomal fibers - connecting centromeres to respective poles.
iv)Inter chromosomal fibers - appear between the centromeres of daughter chromatides.
Roles of spindles:
The chromosomal spindle fibres undergo contraction and pull the daughter chromosomes
to the respective pole while inter chromosomal fibers elongate pushing the daughter
chromatides till they reach the respective poles.
Telophase:
 Separted daughter chromosomes decondense to form chromatin network.

 The nuclear membrane begins to reappear around each group of daughter chromosomes
till the daughter nuclei are formed.
 The spindle fibres disappear while nucleolus reappears in each newly formed nucleus.
Cytokinesis:
 The division of cytoplasm of the mother cell is called cytokinesis.

 In animal cells it occurs by furrowing of plasma membrane that deepens till the
daughter cells are formed. This process is called cleavage.
 In plant cells it takes place by formation and extension of cell plate.
Significance of mitosis:
1. Mitosis helps in growth and development of multicellular organism.

2. Mitosis maintains chromosome number of parent cell in the daughter cells.
3. It plays a significant role in asexual reproduction of unicellular organisms.
4. It plays an important role in healing and repair.
4.4 Meiosis:
 Meiosis involves halving of the chromosome number hence called as reduction division.
 It is an advanced type of cell division to achieve rejuvenation and recombinations.
 It makes the way for evolution of sexual reproduction.
 Meiosis is involves formation of spores (in plants and fungi) and gametes (in animals).
 It is a process in which the chromosomes duplicate only once but cell divides twice.
 It results in formation of four haploid cells.
 The meiotic division involves two successive divisions, meiosis-I or reduction division
and meiosis-II or equational division both has karyokinesis and cytokinesis phases.
Meiosis-I or reduction division:
Interphase: It is similar to that in mitosis.
Karyokinesis:
Prophase-I: It is the most complicated and longest phase of meiotic division. It is further
distinguished into five sub-stages viz. leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene and
dikinesis.
Leptotene: During this phase nucleus enlarges, nuclear membrane and neucleolus start
disintegrating. The chromatin condenses to form long and thin filamentous structure
called chromonemata.
Zygotene: It is a phase in which homologus chromosomes coming from two parents

begin to pair lengthwise. Such a pairing of chromosomes is called synapsis. The pairs at
this stage are called bivalents.
Pachytene: During this phase condensation of chromosomes progresses till they become
short and thick. Each homologous chromosome now shows two chromatids so that the
bivalents now appear to be composed of four chromatids, known as tetrad. The twisting
of homologues becomes tighter resulting in breakages and repairs of the chromatides.

Diplotene: The homologues now start repelling each other and begin to separate.
However at the points of cross overs separation is slower revealing chiasmata.
Diakinesis: During this phase chromosomes continue to condense and shorten. The
separation of homologues proceeds and the chiasmata are shifted to the end of
chromatids. This process called terminalisation. The nucleolus and nuclear membrane
completely disappear and kinetic spindle becomes apparent.
Metaphase –I:
The spindle formation is completed and occupies nuclear region. Now the separated
bivalents move and arrange themselves at the equatorial plane. Chromosomal fibers
extend from poles to centromeres of corresponding homologues.
Anaphase-I:
The chromosomal fibers pull the homologues and inter chromosomal fibers push them so
that homologous chromosomes start moving towards opposite poles. However the
centromeres do not divide so that chromatids remain togather. At the end of anaphase-I, s
half the number of chromosomes gather at respective poles.
Telophase-I
The chromosomes decondense to form chromatin. The spindle fibres disappear. The
nucleous and nuclear membrane reappear forming two daughter nuclei.
Cytokinesis:
Telophase-I is often followed by division of the cytoplasm. The plasma membrane

constricts in the middle in animal cell while a cell plate is formed in plant cell to form
two daughter cells. Each daughter cell receives single nucleus with a single set of
chromosomes.
Meiosis-II :
When present the short resting period between meiosis-I and II is called interkinesis. The
meiosis-II is also distinguisged into two substages i.e. karyokinesis and cytokinesis. The
karyokinesis involves prophase-II, metaphase-II, anaphase-II and telephase-II.
Prophase-II:
During this phase the chromosomes with chromatids became distinct. The nucleolus and
nuclear membrane disappears.
Metaphase-II:
During this phase the chromosomes move towards equatorial plane. The chromosomes
get connected to the respective poles by the chromosomal fibers.
Anaphase-II:
The centromere of each chromosome divides and chromatids are separated.Each

chromatid is now called daughter chromosome. Between the centromeres of daughter
chromosomes inter-chromosomal fibers are formed. They move towards opposite pole by
the shortening of the spindle fibres and elongation of inter-chromosomal fibers.
Telophase-II:
The daughter chromosomes gathered at each pole decondense. The nucleolus reappeares
and the nuclear membrane is formed around each group of chromosomes forming two
new nuclei.
Cytokinesis-II:
The telophase-II is followed by division of cytoplasm of each cell forming two daughter
cells. At the end of meosis-II four haploid daughter cells are thus formed.
4.5 Significance of Meiosis:
 Meiosis produces haploid gametes for sexual reproduction.

 It helps to maintain the chromosome number constant for a given species, despite
fusion of gamets.
 It introduces genetic recombinations leading to variations.
Comparision between Mitosis and Meiosis

Chapter: 5 MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS
SECTION-I: EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY
5.1 INTRODUCTION:
The study of external structure of an organism or an organ is called external morphology and
that of internal structure as internal morphology or anatomy. There are about 3,00,000 species
of flowering plants, these species show variation in their external and internal structures.
Inspite of this diversity they follow a basic plan of the constitution of their body.
5.2 PARTS OF A TYPICAL FLOWERING PLANT
The plant body shows an underground root system and an

aerial shoot system. Root System has homogenous
composition and it consists of main root and lateral
branches. The shoot system has heterogeneous composition
and consists of stem, branches, leaves and flowers. Parts of
the plant body which are mainly concerned with the
nutrition and growth are called vegetative parts e.g. root,
stem, leavesetc. The part which is concerned with the
function of sexual reproduction is called the reproductive
part e.g. flower
5.3 MORPHOLOGY AND FUNCTION OF ROOT:
Root is the descending part of the plant axis, which

generally grows downwards into the soil (posively geotrophic), towards the source of water
(positively hydrotrophic) and away from light (negatively geotrophic). It develops from the
radicle of embryo during seed germination.
Regions of Root: A typical root possesses the following five parts or regions:
1. Root cap: The tender apex of the root is protected with a multicellular cap like structure
called root cap. The cells of root cap secrete mucilage for lubricating the passage of root
through soil. In many hydrophytic plants, root pocket is found in place of root cap, e.g. Pistia.
2. Zone of cell division or Meristematic Region: It is a small region of about 1 mm in

length. This is the growing point of a root and is protected by the root cap. It is made up of
compactly arranged thin walled, meristematic cells which have the power of division. It is
essential for the growth of a root. This region helps in longitudinal growth of root.
3. Zone of elongation: It lies just above the growing region. The cells are newly formed
which lose the power of division. They elongate rapidly. This increases the length of the root.
The cells of this region also help in absorption of mineral salts and water.

4. Root hair zone or Region of root hair: It is covered by
numerous root hairs hence known as rhizodermis. The root
hairs are elongated single celled tubular structures which
remain in contact with the soil particles. The root hair arises in
thick clusters and increases the surface area of absorption.
They are short-lived and replaced by new ones after every 10-
15 days. Most of the water absorption takes place through root
hair region.
5. Zone of Cell Maturation or Cell-Differentiation: It forms the major part of the root. The
outermost layer of this region has thick walled or impermeable cells. The enlarged cells
undergo differentiation to form different types of primary root tissues like cortex, endodermis,
xylem, phloem etc. It helps in fixation of plant body in the soil and conduction of absorbed
substances. It also forms lateral roots.
Functions of the Roots: Normally, roots perform the following functions,
a. Fixation / Anchorage: The roots anchor or fix the plant to the substratum or soil.
b. Aborption: Roots absorb water and minerals from the soil with the help of root hairs.
c. Conduction: Roots help in conduction of absorbed water and minerals through xylem.
d. Translocation of organic nutrients: Sugar produced by photosynthesis is transported

downward to the the roots where it is metabolised.
In some plants roots perform special functions by necessary modifications. These are as,
e. Storage of food: Some roots become fleshy or swollen for the storage of food materials,
e.g. Carrot, Radish, Dahlia, Sweet potato, Asparagus, etc.
f. Assimilation of food: After greening, some roots manufacture food by photosynthesis e.g.
Tinospora, Trapa, Orchids.
g. Respiration: Some roots help in exchange or gases (respiration) e.g., Rhizophora.
h. Absorption of food: In parasitic plants like Cuscuta, adventitious roots penetrate the host
stem to obtain food and water.
i) Vegetative reproduction: Some roots reproduce vegetatively. e.g, Sweat potato
g) Hygroscopic roots: Aerial roots absorb moisture from the air, e.g., Orchids.
Types of Root-Depending upon their origin, roots are classified in to two main types.
1. Tap root or True roots. 2. Adventitious roots.

Differences between Tap and Adventitious Root Systems
Tap root system Adventitious root system
1. Tap roots arise from the radicle of 1. These roots are arising either from stem
embryo. or from the leaves.
2. The primary root formed from the 2. It is short-lived.
elongation of radicle, is long-lived. 3. It may usually be surface feeder.
3. Tap roots are deep feeder. 4. There are a number of roots arising in
4. There is a single main root. clusters.
5. Main root is very thicker than other 5. All roots are fibrous.
roots. 6. This root system is usually found in
6. This root system is usually found in monocot plants.
dicot plants. 7. Adventitious roots may be underground
7. It is always underground and meant for for anchorage or aerial for performing
anchorage. specialized functions like assimilation,
support, etc.
Modification of Roots: When roots have to perform some special or additional functions, they
make some changes which are described as modification of root.
(A) Modification of Tap Root
(I) For Food Storage: The tap root becomes swollen and fleshy with the stored food. The
secondary roots remain thin. Hypocotyl (embryonic region between cotyledons and radicle)
may also join the tap root in storing food. Stem is reduced and discoid in the beginning and
bears radicular leaves. The swollen tap roots acquire some typical shape and are accordingly
classified in to following types, (i) Fusiform (ii) Conical (iii) Napiform
i) Fusiform Root: The storage root which has swollen middle part and tapering base and apex
is called fusiform root e.g. Radish. (Raphanus sativus)
ii) Conical: In Carrot (Daucus carota) the storage root is broad at the base and it gradually
ends into a narrow apex.
iii) Napiform: In Beet (Beta vulgaris) the base of root is much swollen and it suddenly ends
into narrow apex.
(II) For Respiration (Pneumatophore or Respiratory roots):
Many plants growing in saline swamps, marshes and salt lakes are called halophytes. They
develop special kinds of roots called respiratory roots or pneumatophores. These plants do not
have proper gaseous exchange due to saline conditions, as a result their growth slowed down.
From the underground roots of the plant pneumatophores grow vertically upwards and come
out of the water in the form of conical spikes. They occur in large numbers around the tree

trunks and are provided with air pores called lenticels. These pores help in proper respiration
e.g. Magroves such as Rhizophora, Avicenna, Sonneratia, Heritiera, etc.
(B) Modification of Adventitious Roots
(I) For Food Storage:
1. Fasciculated roots: The thick and fleshy adventitious roots take the form of clusters or
fascicles for food storage. In Dahlia, they lie at the base of the stem while in Asparagus, the
fasciculated fleshy roots occur at intervals on the normal roots.
2. Tuberous roots: These roots become swollen and do not assume a definite shape. They
are always borne singly. These roots arise from the nodes of stem and enter in the soil e.g.
Sweet potato or Shakarkand (Ipomea batatas).
(II) For Mechanical Support
1. Prop roots: These roots arise from horizontal branches of Banyan tree (Ficus
benghalensis) which grow vertically downwards and penetrate the soil. Secondary growth
occurs in these roots, so roots become thick and acting like pillars to provide mechanical
support to the lateral branches. A banyan tree growing in the Indian Botanical Garden,
Howrah (Kolkata) has nearly 1700 such prop roots. The crown of the tree has a large
circumference area. The tree is about 200 years old.
2. Stilt roots: These roots normally arise from lower nodes of a weak stem in some shrubs
and small trees. They penetrate obliquely in soil and provide mechanical support to plant. In
Maize, Sugar Cane, Bajara and Jowar, these roots grow in whorls. After penetrating the soil,
they provide support to stem. In Screwpine (Kewada) or Pandanus these roots arise only from
the lower surface of the oblique stem to provide support. These roots bear much folded
multiple root caps. Rhizophara (a mangrove) also bears stilt roots.
3. Climbing roots : Climbing plants like Piper produce roots from their nodes and
internodes, by means of which they attach themselves to their support and climb it, e.g. Money
plant (pothos), Kali mirch (Piper), Pan (Piper betel).
(III) For Special Functions
1. Epiphytic or Hygroscopic roots: Some epiphytic plants like Orchids develop special
aerial hanging roots. These roots have a spongy tissue called velamen which is situated
outside the cortex. The cells of velamen are hygroscopic and have pores for the absorption of
atmospheric moisture. Hanging roots are spongy, porous formed by modified cortex called
exodermis layer e.g., Vanda, Vanilla, Dendrobium, etc. These fulfill the water need.
2. Sucking or Haustorial roots: These roots are developed by parasites to absorb food from
the host. They penetrate deep into the host tissue and establish a connection with its vascular

tissues. Parasitic root penetrates phloem and xylem to derive food, water with the help of
haustorial cells e.g., Amarwel or Dodder (Cuscuta), Orobanche, etc.
5.4 MORPHOLOGY AND FUNCTIONS OF STEM:
"Stem is the aerial part of the plant which develops from plumule, grows by means of a
terminal bud and bears leaves, reproductive structures, nodes and internodes"
Stem is usually positively phototropic, negatively geotropic and negatively hydrotropic. It

bears a terminal and auxilary bud for growth. The stem is differentiated into nodes and
internodes.The nodes possess lateral appendage, i.e., leaves, branches and flowers. Leaves and
stem branches develop exogenously. The young stem is green and capable of performing
photosynthesis.
Types of Buds:
Bud is a compact young shoot consisting of nonelongated or Condensed stem

overlapped by crowded immature leaves which are surrounding the growing apex. According
to their functions, buds may be of following two types :
1. Leaf buds, 2. Flower buds
1) Leaf buds: These buds develop into branches. Structure of leaf bud is clear in longitudinal
section of cabbage. On the basis of their position, leaf buds may be of following types :
i) Apical or Terminal buds: These buds are located at the tip or apex of the stem.
ii) Axillary buds: Buds which lie in the axil of a leaf are called aillary buds.
iii) Accessory buds: Sometimes some additional buds develop either on the sides or above the
axillary buds. These are called accessary buds, e.g., in Bougainvillaea, Duranta, and Karonda
(Carissa).
iv) Adventitious buds: Occasionally, buds appear at places other than nodes, such buds are
called adventitious buds. Generally, these buds arise from roots and leaves.
2) Floral buds or Reproductive buds:
Buds which are developed into the flowers are called floral buds.
Modification of Stems:
The normal functions of the stem are to form the main axis of the plant and to bear buds,
branches, leaves, flowers and fruits. It also helps in the conduction of water, salt and food to
other organs. When stem has to perform some special or additional functions then it undergoes
some modification. Following three types of modifications are found in stems:

1) Underground modifications 2) Sub-aerial modifications 3) Aerial Modifications
I. Underground Modifications:
In many herbaceous plants, stem develop below the soil and is called underground stem. Such
stem remains dormant during unfavorable conditions and it gives off aerial shoots under
favorable conditions. The underground stems have a good storage of reserve food and thick
and fleshy. The entire underground stem performs three additional functions - storage of food,
perennation and vegetative propagation. These can be differentiated from roots by (i) Stem
like internal structure, (ii) Presence of axilary buds on the nodes, (iii) Exogenous branching
(iv) Presence of nodes and internodes, (vii) Occurrence of foliage or scale leaves on the nodes
and (viii) Absence of root cap.
Types of Underground stems:
1. Rhizome:
 It is a prostate, dorsiventral, thickened brownish stem, which grows horizontally under

the surface of the soil.
 It is provided with distinct nodes and internodes.
 It possesses a bud in the axil of scaly leaf and it ends in a terminal bud.
 Rhizome remains dormant underground and on the approach of favorable conditions,
the terminal bud grows into the aerial shoot which dies at the end of favorable season.
 Growth of rhizome takes place with the help of lateral buds.
 This types of rhizome is known as sympodial rhizome e.g., Ginger (Zingiber
officinale), Turmeric (Curcuma domestica), Canna.
 In some plants, growth of rhizome occurs with the help of terminal buds, these are
called monopodial rhizomes, e.g. Lotus saccharum, Fern - Pteris.
2. Stem tuber:
 Tubers are the swollen ends underground branches due to storage of food (starch).
 The tubers bear scale leaves with axillary bud present in small pits known as eyes.
 Buds represent nodes and spaces represent internodes, e.g. Potato (Solanum
tuberosum).
3. Bulb:
 It is a condensed disc like underground stem, which itself does not store food material.
 It remains covered by many thick, concentric, fleshy overlapping scale leaves.
 Outside fleshy scale leaves covered by thin membranous covering called the tunic.
 The fleshy scale leaves may surround the stem, either in concentric rings (tunicated
bulb), outer dry covering is called tunic or they may partially overlap each other by their
margins only (scale bulb), e.g. Onion (tunicated bulb) and Garlic (scale bulb)

4. Corm:
 Corm is short, stout, fleshy and thickened stem growing in vertical direction.
 Many buds present in the axil of scale leaves which develop in to daughter corms.
 At the bases or even from sides of stem the adventitious roots develop.
 Corms are also called condensed rhizomes, or solid bulb, e.g. Arbi or Ghuiyan
(Colocasia), Zimikand (Amorphophallus).
II. Sub-aerial modification:
Stem is modified for perennation and vegetative reproduction. Branches of stem are found on
the surface of soil. In the axis of these branches, axillary buds are developed and aerial plant is
formed. The modification is of following four types-
1. Runner: These are special narrow, green, horizontal or prostate branches which develop at
the base of erect shoots called crowns. A number of runners arise from one erect shoot. They
spread in different directions and ultimately bear new crowns and tufts of adventitious roots.
Each runner has one or more nodes. The nodes bear scale leaves and axillary buds, e.g. Lawn
grass (Cynodon dactylon), Centella asiatica (Hydrocotyle), Oxails, etc.
2. Stolon: Stolon is slender lateral branch that arises from the base of the main axis. Initially
stolon grows upward like an ordinary branch and then bends down to meet the soil where its
terminal bud gives rise to a new shoot and root. e.g., Jasmine and Strawberry, Colocasia
3. Offset: It is commonly called the funner of aquatic plants. It is shorter and thicker then
runner. It helps in the vegetative propagation in aquatic plants, e.g. Water hyacinth or
Jalkumbhi (Eichhornia) and Pistia.
4. Sucker: Sucker is a runner like branch which develop from the axil of scale leaf in the
underground part of stem. It grows horizontally below the soil for some distance and come
above the soil obliquely and produces green leaves to form aerial shoots. So, the sucker can be
called as underground runner, e.g. Chrysanthemum, Mint (Podina).
III. Aerial Modifications:
Sometimes aerial stem or their vegetative and floral buds undergo modifications to form
specialized structures like tendrils, thorns, phylloclades or bulbils to perform specific
functions. These stems are called metamorphosed stems. The types are:
1. Tendril: It is a modification of stem in which axillary bud of leaves modifies to form a thin,
wiry, highly sensitive structure called tendril. They help the plant to attach itself to the support
and climb it. They are found in weak stemmed plants. The tendrils are leafless, coiled
structures with sensitive adhesive glands to promote fixation of weak stem. Stem tendrils are a)
Axillary (Passiflora), b) Extra axillary (Cucurbita), c) Floral bud tendril (Antigonon).

2. Thorn: In this modification, axillary bud is modified into thorn (Duranta) known as stem
thorn. Leaves, branches and flowers are developed on thorns. It clarifies that thorn is a
modified stem. e.g., Citrus, Bougainvillaea.
3. Phylloclade: The phylloclade is green and flattened (e.g., Opuntia or Nagphani), cylindrical
(e.g, Casuarina) or ribbon like (e.g., Zygocactus or Muehlenbeckia) and has distinct nodes and
internodes. They are green in colour and capable for the synthesis of food by photosynthesis.
Formations of phylloclade reduce loss of water through transpiration and therefore conserve
water and food. In opuntia, the phylloclades are fleshy and segmented. Phylloclade develops
from branches of unlimited growth. Internally, phylloclades contain many mucilage glands to
promote retention of water.
4. Cladode: These are green stem branches of limited growth (usually one internode long)
which have taken over the function of photosynthesis from the leaves. The true leaves are
reduced to scales or spines, e.g., Asparagus
5. Bulbils: When axillary bud becomes fleshy and round due to storage of food (as
carbohydrate) then bulbils are formed. These fall down and form new plants. e.g., Aloe,
Agave, Onion, Garlic.
Functions of Stems:
A) Primary Functions: i) It bears and supports leaves, flowers and fruits ii) The various
appendages borne on the stem are placed in such a way that they are able to carry-out their
functions most effectively iii) It conducts water and mineral salts from roots to the leaves and
fruits iv) The food manufactured in the leaves is transported to the roots, fruits and organs of
storage through the stem.
B) Secondary or Accessory Functions: i) Storage of food in its parenchymatous cells and

underground portions like Rhizome, tuber, etc. ii) Storage of sugar in the stem of sugar cane
iii) Storage of water as in many succulents like Opuntia, Colocasia iv) Manufacture of food in
the younger state and when modified into phyllocaldes and cladodes v) To help in climbing by
modifying itself into tendrils vi) Protection against grazing animals when modified into
thorns or bears prickles vii) Means of vegetative reproduction as in case of runners, stolons,
offsets and underground stems viii) Sexual reproduction when modified into flowers.
5.6 MORPHOLOGY AND FUNCTIONS OF LEAF:
Leaves are most important green appendages of shoot which are meant for manufacture of
organic food by the process of photosynthesis. It is exogenous in origin and develops from the
leaf primordium of shoot-apex. It is defined as "A dorsiventrally compressed outgrowth of
plants which is borne on the nodes of stem or its branches and is specialized to perform
photosynthesis".

It is a thin, expanded, green structure which bears a bud in its axil. The green colour of the
leaf is due to the presence of chlorophyll pigment. Leaf is exogenous in origin. All the green
leaves of a plant are collectively called foliage. These are borne on the stem in an acropetal
succession.
Parts of a Typical Leaf:
A typical foliage leaf has four main parts:
a) Leaf base or Hypopodium
b) Petiole or Mesopodium and
c) Lamina or Epipodium or Leaf blade.
A) Leaf Base: The part of leaf attached to the stem or branch is known as leaf base. Leaves of
some plants have lateral out growth on each side of leaf base, known as stipules. The leaves
without stipules are known as exstipulate. Leaves containing stipule are known as stiuplate.
Stipules are usually green. Main function of stipules is to protect the leaf in the bud. When
green, these synthesize food also.
B) Petiole: Petiole is the part of leaf connecting the lamina with the branch or stem. Leaves
that possess petiole are called as petiolate and leaves which do not possess petiole are called as
sessile leaves. Petiole is usually cylindrical, hollow (Papaya), tubular or flattened. Petiole
raises the lamina to expose it to more light and air. Mineral elements absorbed by root
conducted into lamina through the petiole and food synthesized in the lamina is conducted into
stem through it.
C) Lamina: This is the most important green and flattened part of the leaf, which plays a vital
role in photosynthesis and transpiration. The leaf is known to be as dorsiventral when its
ventral surface is structurally different from dorsal surface. e.g., Dicotyledonous leaves. The
leaves having both similar surfaces are called as isobilateral. Isobilateral leaves are found in
monocot plants. Exceptionally some leaves accept such forms that it becomes difficult to
identify both the surfaces of leaves. These leaves are called centric or cylindrical leaves e.g.
Onion, Garlic, etc.
Venation:
Arrangement of veins and veinlets in the lamina (leaf blade) is known as venation. The veins
are in fact conducting tissue and remain in continuation with the conducting tissue of petiole.
They are concerned with the conduction of water, mineral salts and foods and they form the
structural framework of the blade (lamina). In leaves, the venation is mainly of two types.
I) Reticulate Venation:
In this leaf veins and veinlets form a network it is known as reticulate venation. It is found in
dicot leaves like Rose, Dioscorea, Ficus, etc. It is of two types:
1. Pinnate or Unicostate: In this type of venation there is a strong midrib in the middle of
lamina from which several lateral veins arise, these veins proceed towards, the margin of
leaves and may again give rise to veinlets on their ways e.g. Mango, Guava, Peepal, etc.
2. Palmate or Multicostate: In this type of venation, a number of equally strong veins

(costas) develop from the base of lamina or from the tip of petiole and thus there is no midrib.
II) Parallel Venation:
In this type of venation veins in lamina run almost parallel to one another e.g. Mazie, Grass,
etc. It is of the following two types:
i. Unicostate: In this type only one midvein is found from which veinlets arises parallel to
each other e.g., Banana, Canna.
ii. Multicostate: In this type more than one mid veins or costas are present. In is of two types,
i) Convergent: In this type, all midveins run parallel to each other from the base of lamina
and unite at the apex e.g. Grass, Rice, Bamboo, etc.
ii) Divergent: In this type, all the midveins instead of going towards the apex spread out
towards the periphery away from each other e.g., Borassue (Taad.), Fan palm.
Simple and Compound Leaves:
1. Simple leaves: Simple leaves are those in which single leaf blade or lamina is persent.
Even though the margins be deeply incised, the incision is not up to the midrib e.g., Mango,
Peepal, Papaya, etc.
2. Compound leaves: Compound leaves are those in which the leaf blade or lamina is divided
into number of leaflike structures known as leaflets or pinnae. The leaflets remain present on a
common axis and never bear any axillary bad in their axil.The compound leaves are of two
types:
a) Pinnate compound leaves: In this type the leaflets are present laterally on a common
axis the rachis, which represents the midrib of the leaf. On the basis of division of rachis these
are of four kinds:
i) Unipinnate: The pinnately compound leaf if bears leaflets directly on rachis, is known as
unipinnate compound leaf. e.g. Cassia. If leaflets are even in number the leaf is known as
paripinnate e.g. Murrarya, Tamarind, etc. If the number of leaflets is odd, leaf is known as
imparipinnate e.g. Rose, Neem, etc.
ii) Bipinnate: If the pinnately compound leaf is twice pinnate, i.e., from the midrib, develops
secondary axis which bears leaflets, this type of leaf is known as bipinnate e.g. Acacia,
Mimosa pudica (Chhui-mui)

iii) Tripinnate: If the leaf is thrice pinnate, known as tripinnate. In this case the secondary
axis produces tertiary axis bearing leaflets e.g. Moringa (Munaga).
iv) Decompound: If the leaf is more than thrice pinnate, it is said to be decompound e.g.
Dhaniya (Coriander).
(b) Palmately compound leaves:
All the leaflets of the palmately compound leaves are attached at a common point at the tip of
petiole, like our fingers. These leaflets may be petiolate or sessile. They are-
i) Unifoliate: In which one leaflet is jointed on the tip of petiole e.g. Citrus.
ii) Bifoliate: In which two leaflets are present on the rachis e.g. Bignonia.
iii) Trifoliate: In which there are three leaflets on a rachis e.g. Oxalis, Bel.
iv) Quadrifoliate: In which four leaflets are present on the rachis, e.g, Marsilea.
v) Multifoliate: Here more than four leaflets are present on a rachis e.g. Cotton.
Modifications of Leaves:
Main function of leaves is to synthesize food, by the process of photosynthesis and

transpiration, but leaves of some plants are modified to perform some other functions also.
Such leaves are known as modified leaves. Main modifications of leaves are as follows :
1. Leaf spines: In some xerophytic plants like Opuntia, the whole leaf or its part gets modified
into spines to check the transpiration and stem becomes fleshy and leaf like, and is known as
phylloclade. In some plants these spines protect the plants from grazing animals, e.g. Zizyphus
and Acacia.
2. Leaf tendrils: In certain weak stemmed plants, the leaves partly or as a whole get modified
into coiled thread - like sensitive structures known as tendrils. These tendrils hold the support
and climb up on support.
In Wild Pea (Lathyrus) the entire leaflets are modified into tendril and stipules remain
foliaceous (Leaf like).
In Sweet Pea (Pisum sativum), only the uppermost leaflets are modified into tendrils. In
Gloriosa the leaf apex modifies into tendril.
3. Leaf hooks: In Bignonia, the terminal three leaflets get modified into three stiff curved
pointed hooks looking like cat’s nail. It helps for climbimg.
4. Phyllode: The petioles of some plants get modified into fleshy structure due to the storage
of food materials. These leaves green and perform photosynthesis. This type of modification
is usually found in xerophytic plants to reduce transpiration e.g., Agave, Aloe, Acacia
auriculoformis, etc.

Phyllotaxy:
Phyllotaxy is the arrangement of leaves on the stem and branches. The leaves of each
plant are arranged in a definite pattern on the stem or branches. Main purpose of phyllotaxy is
to provide sufficient light to the leaves. This is usually of three types:
1. Alternate: In this type, single leaf arises at each node e.g., Sunflower, Mango, etc.
2. Opposite: In this type, two leaves arise from each node in opposite directions. In other
words, both leaves have an angular distance of 1800. It is also of two types:
i) Opposite decussate: It is said to be opposite decussate if one pair of leaf is placed at right
angle to next or lower pair of leaf e.g. Calotropis, Ocimum, etc.
ii) Opposite superposed: In this type, all the pair of leaves on the stem are into vertical lines
i.e. one above the other, e.g. Jamun, Guava, etc.
3. Whorled or Verticillate: In this type more than two leaves arise from each node and form a
whorl around it e.g. Nerium.
5.7 INFLORESCENCE:
Flowers may be produced singly or in groups on a plant. When produced singly, it is called a
solitary flower, and when produced in a group, that group is called an inflorescence. In an
inflorescence flowers are arranged in a definite pattern on a special reproductive branch (axis).
This branch is called peduncle. "A natural group (cluster) of flowers produced on a special
reproductive axis (peduncle) by a plant is called an inflorescence."
Significance of inflorescence: An inflorescence is beneficial to plants in many ways.
1. It makes flowers more conspicuous and attractive.

2. It is more effective in attracting pollinating agents such as insects or birds.
3. Moreover, many flowers can be pollinated in a single visit of an agent.
4. It improves chances of pollination as flowering period is longer.
5. It is one of the criteria for identification and classification of flowering plants.
Types of inflorescence: There are two main types, racemose and cymose.
Racemose:
1. The growth of the inflorescence is indefinite.
2. The main axis does not terminate in a flower and continuous to grow and forms flowers.
3. The arrangement of flowers in the inflorescence is in acropetal succession with older
flowers at the base and younger flower at the apex.
4. The order of opening of flowers is always centripetal.
5. Examples are Caesalpenia, gold mohar.

Cymose:
1. The growth of the inflorescence is definite.
2. The main axis and its branches terminate in a flower.
3. The arrangement of flowers in the inflorescence is in basipetal succession with older flowers
at the top and younger flowers at the top and younger flowers at the base.
4. The order of opening of flowers is always centrifugal.
5. The examples are Clerodendron, Jasmine.
5.8 FLOWER:
The flower is the most important and conspicuous organ of an angiosperms. It is defined as
highly modified and condensed reproductive shoot, specially designed for sexual reproduction.
Parts of a typical flower:
A flower may develop in the axil of a small leaf called bract, such flower is called bracteate
flower. The flower without bract is called ebracteate flower.
It is produced on a stalk called pedicel. The flower with a stalk is called pedicellate or
stalked flower while a stalk less flower is called non-pedicellate or sessile flower.
The terminal end of the pedicel is swollen (or expanded) and represents the condensed part of
floral axis, this is called thalamus.
From each node of thalamus, a circle or whorl of modified leaves is produced.
A flower consists of four circles of modified leaves called floral whorls.
These are named as calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium. These are classified into:
1. Accessory whorls - These are outer two whorls, calyx, (sepals) and corolla (petals) which
do not take direct part in sexual reproduction.
2. Essential whorls - These are inner two whorls, androecium (stamens) and gynoecium
(carpels) which take direct part in sexual reproduction.
 A flower having all the four floral whorls is

called complete flower.
 The absence of any one or more floral
whorls makes the flower incomplete.
 A flower having both the essential whorls is
called perfect or bisexual or
hermaphrodite flower.
 If a flower contains only one of the two
essential floral whorls, it is called imperfect
or unisexual.
 A unisexual flower may be male or staminate flower (if only stamens are present) and
female or pistillate flower.
 When both essential whorls are absent, the flower is said to be neuter.
 The plants which bear both the types of unisexual flowers (staminate and pistillate) are
called monoecious plants e.g. Maize, Cucurbita, etc.
 When a plant possesses only one type of unisexual flowers, it is termed as a dioecious
plant e. g. Mulberry, Date palm, etc.
 Some plants possess three types of flowers bisexual, staminate and neuter. They are
called polygamous plants e.g. Mango.
Insertion of Floral Whorls:
The position and arrangement of rest of the floral whorls (leaves) as compared to gynoecium
on the thalamus is known as insertion of floral leaves. It is of following three types:
1. Hypogyny: When thalamus becomes conical in shape, gynoecium (ovary) occupies the
highest position while the stamens, petals and sepals are inserted below the ovary, the
condition is known as hypogyny and the flower is called hypogynous. The ovary is superior.
e. g. Brinjal, Mustard, China rose, etc.
2. Perigyny: When the thalamus forms a cup-shaped or

saucer-shaped structure with the ovary in the centre of it
and the stamens, petals, and sepals, arise from the rim of
cup or saucer thus, are raised to a certain height so that they lie around the ovary, it is called
perigyny. Such flowers are said to be as perigynous. The ovary is superior or semi-inferior
(half inferior) e.g. Rose, Pea, Bean, etc
3. Epigyny: In some flowers, the thalamus grows upward completely enclosing the ovary and
may get fused with it, so that sepals, petals and stamens are developed from a region of the
thalamus above the ovary and the condition is known as epigyny. In such case, the flower is
said to be epigynous and the ovary as inferior e.g., Sunflower, Guava, etc.
Floral Whorls:
Calyx:
It is the outermost whorl of a flower. The individual members of calyx are called sepals.
Generally the sepals are green. When the sepals are free from one another, it is described as
polysepalous e.g., Brassica and when they are united or fused with one another, it is known as
gamosepalous e.g., China rose. When the sepals fall off as soon as the flower bud opens, the
calyx is called caducous e.g., Argemone (poppy). The calyx is called deciduous, when it
survives till the withering of petals, as in Lotus, Mustard. Sometimes the sepals remain even
after fruit formation. In such a case, calyx is said to be persistent e.g., Brinjal, Pea, etc.

Functions of Calyx:
 The main function of the calyx is to enclose the flower in bud condition and to protect
the essential organs from injury, rain, etc.
 Being green, it can produce food by the process of photosynthesis.
 In some flowers, sepals are bright-coloured, (petaloid sepals), and they serve to attract
insects for pollination.
 Sometimes sepals are modified into hairy structures called pappus; such pappus calyx
help in the dispersal of fruits.
Corolla:
It is the second whorl of flower, which is usually larger in size and inner to calyx. The
individual members of this whorl are called petals. Generally, the petals are coloured and
scented. When the petals are free from one another, corolla is described as polypetalous
(rose). But when they are united with one another they are known as gamopetalous (Datura).
Functions of Corolla:
 The main function of corolla is attraction.

 Being bright in colour it attracts insects for pollination.
 When scented, that sweet smell attracts the insects.
 In gamopetalous flowers, the lower portion of the tubular corolla may serve to store
honey, which also helps in attraction
 In bud condition the petals protect the inner essential organs, stamens and carpels.
Perianth:
In some flowers calyx and corolla are morphologically similar. They are together known as
perianth and its individual members are called tepals. Like corolla, perianth is polyphyllous
(when tepals are free) or gamophyllous (when tepals are fused). When the tepals in a perianth
are green, it is called sepaloid perianth and when the tepals are brightly-coloured it is
described as petaloid perianth. In monocots mostly perianth is present.
Function of perianth:
 It functions as both calyx and corolla.

 It protects the essential whorls of flower in bud condition.
 Petaloid perianth helps in attraction of insects for pollination while sepaloid perianth
performs photosynthesis.
Aestivation:
Aestivation may be defined as the mode of arrangement of sepals and petals in a floral bud
with respect to the members of the same whorl (calyx or corolla). The aestivation is of four
main types namely, Valvate, Twisted, Imbricate and Vexillary.
i) Valvate: The aestivation is said to be valvate,
when the margins of sepals or petals remain either
in contact or lie close to each other but do not
overlap e.g., Calotropis, Datura, etc.
ii) Twisted or Contorted: In this type one margin

of each sepal or petal is directed inwards and is overlapped, while the other margin is directed
outwards and overlaps the margin of adjacent one e.g., China rose, cotton, etc.
iii) Imbricate: In this type of aestivation one of the sepals or petals is internal and is
overlapped at both the margins and one is external, that is, both of its margins overlap. Rest of
the sepals or petals have one inner or overlapped margin and the other outer or overlapping
margin e.g., Cassia, Bauhinia, etc.
iv) Vexillary: In this type the corolla is butterfly shaped (papilionaceous)and consists of five
petals of which outermost is largest known as standard or vexillum, two lateral petals known
as wings and two smaller nearly fused petals forming a boat shape structure known as keel or
carina. The vexillum overlaps the two lateral wings. The wings in their turn overlap the
two other smaller innermost petals called keel e.g., pea, bean, etc.
Androecium:
 Androecium is male reproductive whorl of flower and is made up of one or more

stamens. Each stamen consists of three parts, filament, anther and connective.
 Filament is stalk of stamen that bears anther at its tip. It raises the anther for better
dispersal of pollen grains.
 Anther is the upper swollen fertile part of stamen, usually having two lobes containing
pollen grains which are male reproductive units.
 Connective is in continuation with the filament. It is a midrib-like, sterile structure
between the two fertile lobes of the anther connecting them together.
Gynoecium:
 It is the female reproductive whorl of a flower and is also called pistil.

 Gynoecium is the innermost and fourth whorl of the flower and is made up of one or
more carpels.
 When the pistil consists of a single carpel, it is called a monocarpellary gynoecium or
simple pistil e.g. Pea, Gram, etc.
 When the gynoecium has two or more carpels, it is known as a multicarpellary
(polycarpellary) gynoecium or compound pistil.
 It may be bicarpellary (two carpels, e.g. Datura), tricarpellary (three carpels, e.g.
Cucurbita), or pentacarpellary (five carpels e.g. Hibiscus) and so on.
 When the carpels of a gynoecium are fused with each other then it is called syncarpous
gynoecium, (China rose).
 However, when the carpels of a gynoecium are free from each other, it is called
apocarpous gynoecium e.g. Rose.
 Each carpel consists of three parts, ovary, style and stigma.
 Ovary is the basal, swollen, fertile part of the carpel.
 If there is only one carpel, the ovary is unilocular, if there are two, three or five carpels,
fused with each other, i.e. polycarpellary, syncarpous condition, then the ovary is
bilocular, trilocular or pentalocular respectively.
 Each chamber of ovary contains one to many, small, globular structures called ovules.
 Ovules are produced on a soft fertile tissue called placenta.
 They exhibit different modes of arrangement within the ovary.
 Style is a narrow, elongated, thread like structure that connects ovary with stigma.
 Stigma is terminal part of the carpel, which receives pollen grains during pollination.
 Stigma is generally rough and sticky in nature.
Placentation:
Placentation may be defined as the mode of arrangement of ovules on the placenta within the
ovary. Following types of placentation are generally seen in different plants.
i) Marginal - When ovules are borne at the fused margins of unilocular ovary it is called
marginal placentation. e.g. pea, bean, etc.
ii) Axile - When ovules are produced on the central axis of a multilocular ovary, it is known as
axile placentation e.g. China rose, lady's finger.
iii) Parietal - When ovules are borne on the inner wall of unilocular ovary (of multicarpellary
gynoecium), it is called parietal placentation as in Papaya.
iv) Basal - When a single ovule is produced at the base of a unilocular inferior ovary, it is
known as basal placentation e.g. Sunflower.
Types of placentation
Symmetry of Flowers
On the basis of symmetry flowers, there are following three types:
1. Actinomorphic Flower: Actinomorphic flowers are those, in which floral whorls (sepals
and petals) are of the same size and shape and are so arranged that the flower can be divided
into two equal (identical) halves along any plane passing through the centre e.g., mustard,
China rose, etc.
2. Zygomorphic Flower: Zygomorphic flowers are those, in which the flower can be divided
into two equal halves only along one plane (anterio-posterior plane) e.g., pea, Ocimum, etc.
3. Asymmetrical or irregular Flower: Asymmetrical flowers are those which can not be
divided into two equal halves along any plane e.g. Canna.
5.9 FRUIT:
Formation of fruit is one of the important characters of Angiosperms. Usually after successful
fertilization an ovary develops to form a fruit. There are some plants in which fruits are
developed even without fertilization. Such fruits are called parthenocarpic fruits and the
phenomenon is known as parthenocarpy. Such fruits are seedless e.g. grapes, banana, etc. A
fruit is defined as the metamorphosed or a ripened ovary without or with one or more seeds.
When a fruit is developed exclusively from the ovary of a flower, it is called a true fruit e.g.
mango. Sometimes, other floral parts, like thalamus, or receptacle may develop as a part of the
fruit, such fruits are called false fruits or pseudocarps. For example in apple and pear the
thalamus grows around the ovary and becomes fleshy to form the main edible part of the fruit.
Parts of a typical fruit
A fruit mainly consist of two parts – pericarp or fruit wall and seed(s).
a) Pericarp- It is the wall of a fruit, which is developed from ovary wall. In some plants the
pericarp is differentiated into three parts, epi, meso and endocarp.
i) Epicarp - It is the outer part of the fruit wall, which forms the skin or protective covering of
the fruit.
ii) Mesocarp - It is the middle part of the fruit wall, which forms the
major pulpy or juicy part of a fruit as in Mango.
iii) Endocarp - It is the inner part of the fruit wall, which may be thin
and membranous as in orange or hard and stony as in mango, plum and
coconut.
In some plants, pericarp is single, not differentiated into such parts. Parts of fruit
b) Seeds – The fruit wall may enclose one or more seeds which develop from fertilized ovules.
Classification of Fruits:
The fruits are classified as (1) simple fruits (2)Aggregate fruits or etaerios and (3) Multiple or
composite fruits.

1) Simple Fruits:
 When the ovary of a single flower with or without other accessory floral parts develops
into a single fruit, it is called simple fruit.
 Ovary can be monocarpellary or polycarpellary and syncarpous.
 It may be further divided into dry (e.g. cotton, Datura etc.) and fleshy fruits (e.g.
banana, guava, mango etc.).
 In dry fruits, pericarp becomes dry and thin at maturity.
 The dry fruits are further classified into dehiscent and indehiscent fruits on the basis of
presence or absence of natural dehiscence or breaking of their pericarp at maturity.
 In fleshy fruits, the pericarp is thick and fleshy and may or may not be differentiated
into all the three parts i.e. outer epicarp, middle mesocarp and inner endocarp or only
epicarp and fleshy mesocarp.
 Fleshy fruits are mostly indehiscent.
2) Aggregate Fruits:
 A fruit which develops from a polycarpellary apocarpous gynoecium of a single

flower is called, an aggregate fruit or etaerio.
 Carpels are free and ovary of each carpel develops into a small, simple fruitlet.
 A collection or a group of simple fruitlets makes an aggregate fruit.
 An aggregate fruit is classified into sub-types on the basis of characters of fruitlets.
 In custard apple (Anona squamosa) the apices of all fruitlets become thick, hard and
fuse along their margins to form a common covering around the fruit.
3) Composite or Multiple Fruits:
 A composite or multiple fruit develops from the entire inflorescence.

 In such fruits, along with the ovaries and other floral parts, the peduncle also takes part
in the formation of the fruit.
 On the basis of the type of inflorescence, composite fruits are classified into two main
types - Sorosis (e.g. Pineapple) and Syconus (e.g. Fig).
5.10 SEED:
 A seed is defined as a fertilized and metamorphosed ovule containing an embryo

enclosed in resistant protective coats.
 Seed is also described as the initial, dormant stage of the diploid sporophytic generation
in the life cycle of Spermatophytes or Phanerogams.
Structure of a Dicotyledonous Seed:
 A typical seed consists of seed coat with layers- outer thick and resistant layer is called
testa while the inner thin and membranous layer called tegmen.
 A stalk of seed is called funicle present at a point called hilum visible as a scar on testa.
 A small pore is present close to the hilum in the testa, called the micropyle.
 Through this pore seed absorbs water and radicle emerges out during seed germination.
 A ridge may be seen in continuation with the hilum on testa, being called raphe.
 There is an embryo consisting of embryo - axis (tigellum) and two cotyledons.
 The contents enclosed within the seed coat are together called kernel.
 The embryo axis consists of two parts - the radicle and the plumule.
 The former gives rise to root system and the latter produces the shoot system.
 The part of embryo axis between radicle and first node is called hypocotyl while the
part between plumule and cotyledons is called epicotyl.
 The most of dicot seeds are called exalbuminous or non-endospermic because they
lack endosperm at maturity as it is consumed by embryo during its development.
 A few dicotyledonous seeds like castor, groundnut, etc. possess endosperm and are
called albuminous or endospermic seeds.
Endospermic Seed Non Endospermic Seed
1. In endospermic seed, endosperm is present In non endospermic seed, endosperm is absent

2. Food is not stored in cotyledons Food is stored in cotyledons
3. The cotyledons are thin and papery The cotyledons are thick and fleshy
4. Perisperm does not develop from nucellus. Perisperm develops from nucellus
5. Suspensor, haustoria not replace endosperm Suspensor, haustoria replace the endosperm
6. Example: Castor, Maize Example: Pea, Bean, Cucurbita
Structre of Monocot seed: A maize grain shows following parts:
 A thin layer formed by fusion of seed coat and fruit wall

called hull.
 Fruit is divided into two unequal parts, thebigger is endosperm
and smaller, embryo.
 Endosperm stores food and embryo shows single cotyledons
called scutellum.
 The upper portion of axix is the plumule and the lower portion
is radical.
 The plumule is covered by protective sheath called coleoptiles and the radical is
surrounded by another sheath called coleorhizae.

SECTION-II: PLANT TISSUES
 A group of cells having a common origin and performing a similar function (or a set of
similar functions) is defined as a tissue
 The plant body is composed of different organs like root, stem, leaf and flower.
 Each organ is made up of various types of plant tissues.
 Let’s study the types of plant tissues and their functions.
Types of Tissues:
Based on the capacity to divide, the plant tissues are classified into:
1) Meristematic tissue 2) Permanent tissue.
1) Meristematic Tissues: A tissue which consists of dividing cells or the cells having power
of cell division is called the meristematic tissue.
Characteristics of Meristematic Tissue:
 The component cells of meristematic tissue have ability to grow and divide.
 Cells isodiametric, oval or polygonal, compact without intercellular spaces.
 They have thin and elastic cell walls that are made up of cellulose.
 Secondary wall material is not deposited.
 Each cell has a prominent nucleus and dense cytoplasm.
 Vacuoles are either absent or are very small in size.
 Mitochondria more and the rate of respiration is very high because of rapid metabolism.
 There is very little reserve food in these cells.
Classification of Meristems: Meristems may be classified on the basis of following criteria.
A) Origin and development B) Position in plant body C) Functions.
A) MERISTEMS BASED ON ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT:
On the basis of origin and development, it is classified into the following three groups:
1. Promeristem or primordial meristem:
It is a group of cells representing primary stage of meristematic tissue. It is the initial

meristem and occupies a small area at the tip of the stem and the root. It occurs in embryonic
stage of plants. By repeated cell division the promeristem gives rise to primary meristem.
2. Primary meristem:
It originates from promeristem are called primary meristems. They exist right from the
beginning. These are always in active state of division and give rise to primary permanent
tissues. It is present at the apices of shoot and root and at the apex of leaves.
3. Secondary meristem:
It is developed in a plant body during the later stages of growth. They arise in primary
permanent tissues and forms secondary permanent tissue which adds to the girth of the plant
e.g. the cambium of root, stem and cork cambium are examples of secondary meristems.
B) MERISTEMS BASED ON POSITION:
1. Apical meristem 2. Intercalary meristem 3. Lateral meristem.
1) Apical meristem:
These meristems are found at the apices of stem and root. They are responsible for increase in
linear growth (length) of the plant body.
2) Intercalary meristem:
They originate from apical meristems and are short lived.These

meristems are present between masses of permanent tissues. These
are separated from the apex during the growth of axis and
formation of permanent tissues. It adds to plant length or organs.
3) Lateral meristem:
These meristems are arranged parallel to the longitudinal axis of

plant in stem and branches. It increases diameter or girth of stem
and branches. E.g. Cork cambium and vascular cambium.
C) MERISTEMS BASED ON FUNCTIONS:
1) Protoderm: It is outermost layer of young growing region which gives rise to epidermis.
2) Procambium: The cells of young growing region which give rise to primary vascular
tissues by their elongation and differentiation are called procambium.
3) Ground meristem: The portion of young growing region which gives rise to hypodermis,
cortex, endodermis, pericycle, medullary rays and pith is called ground meristem.
Functions of meristems:
 These are responsible for growth by addition of new cells in various regions of the plants.
 They give rise to new leaves, branches and flowers.
 Intercalary meristem helps in elongation of internodes and petioles.
 Vascular cambium adds new vascular tissues since older one becomes non- functional.
 It also helps in secondary growth, i.e. increase in thickness.
 Cork cambium forms protective covering around stems and roots.

2) Permanent Tissues:
A group of cells which have acquired permanent shape, size and functions and have lost the
power of division is called a permanent tissue. Permanent tissues are of two types:
A) Simple Permanent Tissues:
These are composed of similar cells resembling in shape, size function and form. The types:
1) Parenchyma:
 The parenchyma is fundamental living tissue made of a group of isodiametric cells.

 The cells may be oval or circular and are loosely arranged i.e., with intercellular spaces.
 When cells are compactly arranged they show polygonal shape.
 The cells contain cytoplasm, vacuole (in the centre with cell sap) and nucleus.
 The cell walls are thin and are made of cellulose and pectin.
 Parenchyma is distributed in almost all parts of the plant body.
 It is found in epidermis, cortex, pith, mesophyll and also in xylem and phloem.
Functions:
 The main function of parenchyma tissue is storage of food.

 In xerophytes, it helps in storage of water.
 The function of chlorenchyma is photosynthesis.
 In aquatic plants, the intercellular spaces between the parenchyma cells are very large,
and then it is called aerenchyma. It store air and help the organs to float in water.
 Parenchyma in xylem and phloem helps in storage as well as lateral conduction.
2) Collenchyma:
 It is a living simple permanent tissue.

 The component cells are elongated with blunt ends and look spherical in T.S.
 Their cell walls are unevenly thickened due to extra deposition of cellulose and pectin at
the adjoining regions of two or more cells or at the corners.
 Hence, the cell wall becomes rigid, and intercellular spaces are absent.
 The cells are smaller in size than parenchyma with cytoplasm, vacuole and nucleus.
 Collenchyma is usually found in hypodermis of herbaceous dicotyledonous stem.
 They are absent in monocots and roots.
Functions:
 The main function is to provide mechanical support and tensile strength to the organs.
 Due to its peripheral position in stem, it resists bending and pulling action of wind.
 When it contains chloroplasts, its function is photosynthesis.
 Collenchyma allows growth and elongation of organs and prevents tearing of leaves.

3) Sclerenchyma:
 Sclerenchyma is a dead, simple, permanent tissue made up of thick walled cells.

 These cells are either sclerenchyma fibres or sclerieds.
 They are compactly arranged and hence without intercellular spaces.
 The cell walls are evenly thickened due to deposition of lignin.
 As the cells are dead at maturity, protoplasm is absent.
 They are present in hypodermis of monocot stem and many leaves, pericycle and
secondary xylem of many dicot stems, and as a vascular bundle of monocot stems.
 Sclereids are extremely thick walled, hard and strongly lignified.
 They are also called stone cells, and they occur singly or in groups.
 They are present in the cortex and phloem of stems and roots and are most abundant in
the coverings of seeds and nuts. (Shells of walnuts, coconuts etc.)
Functions:
 The main function is to provide mechanical strength and rigidity to the plant body.
 Sclerenchyma is able to bear compression, pull, and bending forces.
 Sclereids provide rigidity and strength to seed coverings, and stiffness the plant part.
B) Complex Permanent Tissue:
A complex tissue is made up of different types of cells.
1. Xylem (or Wood):
 It helps in transport of water and minerals upwards from roots to the leaves.
 It provides mechanical strength to the plant body.
 Xylem is also known as wood. It is made of four types of cells.
i) Tracheids:
 Tracheids are elongated, tubular cells with tapering ends and are dead at maturity.
 The cell wall is thick due to deposition of lignin.
 It shows kinds of thickenings like annular, spiral, reticulate, scalariform, or pitted.
 It forms main water conducting elements of xylem in Pteridophyta and Gymnosperms.
ii) Vessels (Tracheae):
 The vessels are elongated, tube-like structures and many vessel elements are placed end
to end in longitudinal series.
 The lignified walls show different patterns of thickening like tracheids.
 Presence of vessels is a characteristic feature of angiosperms.
 Vessels are absent in pteridophytes and most Gymnosperms.

iii) Xylem fibres:
 Sclerenchymatous cells found in xylem are called wood fibres.

 They are elongated, narrow and spindle-shaped cells tapering at both the ends.
 The walls are lignified. They provide mechanical support to the plant body.
iv) Xylem parenchyma:
They help in the lateral conduction of water and mineral elements, and store food material.
2. Phloem (bast):
 Phloem is complex permanent tissue, whose main function is to conduct prepared

organic food material to different parts of the plant body.
 It is also known as bast. It is composed of four kinds of cells.
i) Sieve cells or sieve tube elements:
 These are narrow, elongated cells with tapering ends and sieve areas located laterally.
 They are present in pteridophyte, gymnosperms and angiosperms.
 They have sieve plates at their end walls and are associated with companion cells.
 The sieve tube is a living cell with a layer of cytoplasm but without nucleus.
 The cytoplasm is continuous through sieve pores found on sieve plates.
ii) Companion cells:
 These are elongated living cells of phloem containing protoplasm and a large nucleus.
 The cells are thin-walled and communicate with the sieve tubes by simple pits.
 These are found in angiosperms only and absent in gymnosperms and pteridophytes.
 These cells help in transport of food along with sieve tubes.
iii) Phloem parenchyma:
 These are parenchyma cells found in association with sieve tubes and companion cells.
 They are absent in monocots.
 They store food material and also help in transport of food.
iv) Phloem fibres (bast fibres):
 These are sclerenchyma cells associated with phloem.

 Their cell walls are lignified with simple pits.
 They provide mechanical support to the plant body.
 They are very long and used for making ropes and rough clothes.

Types of Vascular Bundles:
The vascular tissues occur in the form of distinct patches called the vascular bundles.
According to the arrangement of xylem and phloem, they are classified in the following types.
1. Radial vascular bundle:
 The vascular bundle, in which xylem and phloem are arranged radially in the form of
separate bundles on different radii, is called a radial vascular bundle.
 The xylem and phloem bundles are arranged alternating with each other.
 Such vascular bundles are characteristic of roots.
2. Conjoint vascular bundle:
 A vascular bundle in which xylem and phloem are present on same radius is called a
conjoint vascular bundle.
 Here xylem and phloem together form a bundle.
 Such vascular bundles are of the following two types:
i) Collateral vascular bundle:
 Xylem and phloem are present on the same radius in such a way that xylem lies inwards
and phloem outwards.
 In dicot stems, cambium lies between xylem and phloem.
 Such vascular bundles are called open (secondary growth present).
 In monocot stems they are called closed (secondary growth absent).
ii) Bicollateral vascular bundles:
 The vascular bundle in which phloem occurs on both lateral sides of xylem, is called a
bicollateral vascular bundle. These are always open.
 In such vascular bundles there are two strips of cambium one on either sides of xylem
and vascular elements are arranged in the sequence - outer phloem, outer cambium,
xylem, inner cambium and inner phloem.
 Such vascular bundles are commonly found in the members of family Cucurbitaceae.
3. Concentric vascular bundles:
 In this type vascular tissue is surrounded by the other tissue.

 When xylem is surrounded by phloem, it is called hadrocentric.
 When phloem is in the centre, it is called leptocentric.
 Concentric bundles are always closed.

SECTION III: ANATOMY OF ROOT, STEM AND LEAF
1. ANATOMY OF MONOCOT ROOT (MAIZE):
A transverse section of maize root shows following anatomical structure:
Epiblema:
 It is the outermost, single-layered, made up of thin walled cells without cuticle.

 Some cells of epiblema produce finger-like, unicellular outgrowths called root hair.
Cortex:
 The cortex consists of several layers of typical parenchyma cells.

 As epiblema dies off, outer layer of the cortex become cutinized and is called exodermis
Endodermis:
 The innermost layer of cortex is called endodermis.

 It is made up of barrel-shaped cells.
 The radial and inner walls are thickened due to the formation of Casparian strips and
deposition of suberin
Stele:
 All tissues inside the endodermis comprise the stele.

 The stele consists of pericycle, vascular bundle and pith.
Pericycle:
 It is just below the endodermis and is a single layer of parenchymatous cells.

 Lateral roots arise from pericycle.
Vascular bundles:
 These are radial.

 Monocot roots are usually polyarch i.e. there are eight or more exarch xylem groups
alternating with equal number of phloem groups arranged in ring.
 Phloem consists of sieve tubes and companion cells only.
 A parenchymatous conjunctive tissue is present between xylem and phloem.
 Pith is well-developed and made of parenchymatous.
2. ANATOMY OF DICOT STEM (SUNFLOWER):
A transverse section of young sunflower stem shows following anatomical structure:
Epidermis:

 It is the outermost and single-layered.
 A layer of cuticle is present towards the outer surface of the epidermis.
 The epidermis bears multicellular trichomes. Function of epidermis is protection.
Cortex:
 It is situated below the epidermis and is usually differentiated into three regions.
 Just below the epidermis there are 3-5 layers of collenchyma present called hypodermis.
 The innermost layer of cortex is called endodermis. It is made up of barrel-shaped cell.
 It is rich in starch hence it is also called starch sheath.
Stele: It is the central core consisting, pericycle, medullary rays, vascular bundles and pith.
Pericycle is in the form of semi lunar patches of sclerenchyma.
 Each patch associated with phloem of the vascular bundle, is called hard bast.
 Medullary Rays are made up of a few layers of parenchymatous cells in between the
vascular bundles.
Vascular Bundles:
 These are conjoint, collateral, open, and are arranged in a ring.

 Each vascular bundle is composed of xylem, phloem and cambium.
 Xylem is endarch made up of vessels, tracheids, xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma.
 Phloem has of sieve tubes, companion cells and phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres.
 A strip of cambium is present between xylem and phloem.
Pith: It is in the centre and is made up of large parenchyma cells with intercellular spaces.
3. ANATOMY OF MONOCOT STEM (MAIZE):
The anatomy or T.S. of maize stem shows the following layers:
1. Epidermis:
 It is an outermost layer of the stem which is single layered and without hair.
 A layer of cuticle is present outside the epidermis.
2. Hypodermis:
It is situated just below the eidermis and made up of 2 to 4 layers of sclerenchymatous cells.
3. Ground tissue:
 It is made up of parenchymatous cells with plenty of intercellular spaces.

 These cells are situated below the hypodermis and scattered up to the centre of stem.
4. Vascular bundle:
 In monocot stem, the vascular bundles are found to be scattered in the ground tissues.
 They are conjoint, collateral and closed.
 The xylem is endarch and the vessels are arranged in the form of the letter ‘Y’, the
phloem being situated in between and consist of sieve tubes and companion cells only.
5. Pith: Pith is absent.
4. ANATOMY OF DORSI- VENTRAL AND ISOBILATERAL LEAF
 In a dorsiventral leaf, mesophyll tissue is differentiated into palisade parenchyma and

spongy parenchyma.
 It is very common in dicotyledonous plants.
 The leaves are horizontal in orientation with distinct upper and lower surfaces.
 The upper surface which faces the sun is darker than the lower surface.
Features of Dicot (dorsiventral) leaf:
 Presence of two epidermal layers.

 Presence of cuticle and trichomes in both the epidermal layers.
 Hypostomatic condition.
 Mesophyll shows upper palisade parenchyma and lower spongy parenchyma.
 Veins irregularly scattered in the mesophyll.
 Presence of a bundle sheath made up of parenchyma.
 Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral with endarch xylem.
 Presence of bundle sheath extensions made up of collenchyma.
Features of Monocot (Isobilateral) leaf:
 Presence of two epidermal layers.

 Presence of cuticle and trichomes in both the layers.
 Amphistomatic condition.
 Presence of motor cells in the upper epidermis.
 Presence of undifferentiated mesophyll.
 Vascular bundles parallely arranged.
 Presence of a bundle sheath around each bundle.
 Vascular bundles conjoint, collateral with endarch xylem.
 Presence of only two protoxylem and two metaxylem vessels in each bundle.
 Presence of hypodermal sclerenchyma.


SECTION IV: FAMILLIES- FLORAL FORMULA AND DESCRIPTION
1. Family: FABACEAE (Papilionacceae, sub family-Leguminoceae)
a) Vegetative characters:
Habit- tree, shrub, herbs
Habitat- all over the world
Root- tap root with root nodules
Stem- erect or climber
Leaves- simple, alternate, pinnately compound, stipulate, reticulate venetaion
b) Floral characters:
Inflorescence- recemose
Flower- zygomorphic, bisexual
Calyx- sepals 5, gamocepalous, imbricate aestivation
Corolla- petals 5, polypetalous, vexilary aestivation
Androecium- stamens 10, diadelphous, anther dithecous
Gynoecium- ovary superior, monocarpellary, syncarpous, marginal placentation
Fruit- Legume
Seed- single/ many non endospermic
Floral formula- % K (5) C 1+2(2) A (9) +1 G1

C) Economic Importance:
1. Sources of pulses- gram, moong, soyabean
2. Edible oil- soyabean, groundnut,
3. Dye- indigofera
4. Fibres- sunhemp
5. Fodder- sesbania
6. Ornamentals- lupin, sweet pea, etc.
7. Medicine- muliathi

2. Family: Solanaceae
Habit- rarely tree, shrub, herbs
Habitat- all over the world in tropics, sub tropics and temperate zones
Root- tap root
Stem- erect woody, cylindrical, branched, solid, hollow, hairy, and underground
Leaves- simple, alternate, pinnately compound, stipulate, reticulate venetaion
Inflorescence- solitary, axiallry cymose
Flower- actinomorphic, bisexual
Calyx- sepals 5, gamocepalous, valvate aestivation
Corolla- petals 5, gamopetalous, valvate aestivation
Androecium- stamens 5, epipetalous
Gynoecium- ovary superior, bicarpellary, syncarpous, axile placentation
Fruit- berry or capsule
Seed- many, endospermic
Floral formula- K (5) C (5) A 5 G1

1. Sources of food- tomato, brinjal, potato.
2. Spice- chilli,
3. Medicine- belladonna, ashwagandha
4. Ornamentals- petunia
3. Family: Liliaceae
Habit- perennial herbs
Habitat- all over the world
Root- fibrous
Stem- underground modified bulb, corm, and rhizome
Leaves- basal, alternate, linear, exstipulate, parallel venetaion
Inflorescence- solitary, cymose, umbellate clusters
Flower- actinomorphic, bisexual
Perianth- tapels 6 (3+3), united, valvate aestivation
Androecium- stamens 6, (3+3)
Gynoecium- ovary superior, tricarpellary, syncarpous, axile placentation
Fruit- capsule rarely berry
Seed- many, endospermic
Floral formula- Br P (3+3) A (3+3) G(3)

1. Sources of food- Asparagus.
2. Spice- chilli,
3. Medicine- aloe
4. Ornamentals- tulip, Gloriosa
-----------------------------------------------------------

Chapter 6: PLANT WATER RELATIONS AND MINERAL NUTRITION
6.1 Introdiction:
 Water is one of the most essential needs of life.

 In plants water is needed for all the different physiological activities.
 It is the chief and major constituent of protoplasm.
 It is used in activities such as transpiration, photosynthesis, respiration.
 It also helps to maintain turgidity of cells and plant organs.
 It is an excellent solvent for various organic materials of cells.
 Water has a significant role in translocation of solutes, mobility of gametes, stomatal
mechanism, dehiscence of fruits germination of seeds and such other activities.
 There is a continuous path of water from the soil through the roots, stem, and leaves and
again to the soil via atmosphere.
 From leaves water is lost to the atmosphere mostly in vapour form.
6.2 Sources of water:
a) Gravitational water: Due to gravitational force some amount of water goes down through
large pores between the soil particles and joins water table. It goes beyond the reach of roots.
b) Capillarity water: In the soil between small, non-colloidal soil particles very fine spaces or
capillaries are present. The amount of water held in these spaces is called capillarity water. It
is available to the plants.
c) Hygroscopic water: The amount of water held very tightly around the soil particles by both
adhesive and cohesive forces is called hygroscopic water. It is not available to plants.
d) Combined water: The amount of water present in the form of hydrated oxides of silicon,
alluminium etc. is called combined water and it is not available to the plants.
e) Water vapour: The spaces present in soil are filled with water vapour. It is also not
available to plants.
6.3 Physical processes in Absorption of water:
Plants absorb large quantities of water from the soil. The processes involved in absorption are
1. Imbibition:
 The adsorption of water by hydrophilic compounds is called imbibition.

 In this process water molecules get tightly adsorbed on the surface of compounds
without forming a solution.
 Due to imbibition these compounds show swelling.
 During rainy season wooden doors and windows imbibe water and swell.
 The hydrophilic compounds like cellulose in root-hair cell imbibe water.
 Thus imbibition is the first physical process involved in absorption of water.
2. Diffusion:
 Diffusion is defined as the movement of ions, atoms or molecules of solutes, liquids or

gases from the region of their higher concentration to a region of their lower
concentration, till equilibrium is attained.
 The diffusing particles exert a pressure known as diffusion pressure (DP).
 The diffusion pressure of pure solvent is always more as compared to same in solution.
 The difference between the diffusion pressure of pure solvent and solvent in solution is
called diffusion pressure deficit (DPD).
3. Osmosis:
 Osmosis is defined as the diffusion of water or solvent from a solution of lower

concentration to the solution of higher concentration or from solvent to the solution
through semi-permeable membrane.
 The semi-permeable membrane allows the movement of solvent but does not allow the
solute molecules to pass through it.
 Osmosis is of two types
a. Endosmosis:
 The entry of water molecules when a plant cell is kept in a solution which having lower
concentration than that of cell sap (hypotonic solution) is called endosmosis.
 This results in movement of water into the plant cell with plasma membrane acting as
semi-permeable membrane.
 The cell becomes turgid.
b. Exosmosis:
 The loss of water molecules when a plant cell is placed in a solution having higher
concentration than that of cell-sap (hypertonic solution) is known as exosmosis.
 It results in movement of water or solvent from plant cell to external solution through
the plasma-membrane.
 The cell becomes flaccid.
c. Plasmolysis:
When external solution is highly concentrated

exosmosis results in shrinkage of protoplasm. It is called as palsmolysis.

d. Deplasmolysis:
When plasmolysed cell is placed in water or hypotonic solution it reabsorbs water by

endosmosis. It gains its original shape. It is called as deplasmolysis.
e. Osmotic Pressure (OP):
 Water from the soil solution enters into root-hair by endosmosis.

 The root-hair cell has certain osmotic pressure (OP).
 OP is developed by addition of solute in water.
 If more solute is added OP increases.
 It is directly proportional to the number of solute molecules in a given solvent.
 OP of pure water is zero.
f. Turgor Pressure (TP):
 Water entering into a cell makes the cell turgid.

 The pressure which develops in a cell due to endosmosis is called turgour pressure (TP).
 The cell wall is rigid. Hence, it exerts equal and opposite pressure on the turgid cell sap.
 This is called wall pressure (WP).
 In a fully turgid cell the value of wall pressure is equal to turgour pressure.
Diffusion pressure deficit (D.P.D.):
 Diffusion pressure of pure water is about 1236 atm.

 DPD of a solution is initially equivalent to its osmotic pressure.
 DPD is the difference between the diffusion pressure of pure water and solution.
 As water enters cell increasing turgour pressure forces the cytoplasm against the cell wall.
 The cell wall exerts equal and opposite pressure on cell contents called wall pressure (WP).
 When a cell is fully turgid, its OP is equal to TP and DPD is zero.
 Turgid cell can not absorb any more water.
 Thus, DPD is actual thirst of cell for water. This can be represented as:
DPD = O.P. – T.P. (WP)
 When DPD is zero, entry of water will stop.

 DPD represent water absorbing ability of cell called suction pressure (SP)
Concept of water potential:
 The potential energy present in water is termed as water potential.

 Water potential is represented by a Greek letter ψ (psi).
 Its unit of measurement is pascal (Pa).
 Water potential of protoplasm (ψ) is equal but opposite to diffusion pressure deficit (DPD)
or suction pressure (SP).
 Hence the ψ of pure water is zero.
 The solutes present in a cell or in a solution reduce the water potential.
 Therefore, water potential inside the plant cell has negative value.
 The direction of cell to cell movement of water depends on water potential between them.
 Water flows from a region of high water potential to a region of low water potential.
6.4 ABSORPTION AND MOVEMENT OF WATER:
Regions of root:
 A typical root, in terrestrial plants has four regions from

apex to the base of root.
 These regions are the growing region, region of
elongation, root hair region or region of absorption and
region of maturation.
 Absorption of water occurs through the root hair region.
Structure of root and root-hair:
 The epidermal cells of root in the region of absorption produce many root hairs.
 Root hair is elongated, delicate, unbranched, unicellular extension of epidermal cell.
 It is tubular and colourless.
 The cell wall of root hair shows two layers.
 The outer layer is of pectic compounds and
inner layer contains cellulose. These are
strongly hydrophilic in nature.
 The cell wall acts as permeable membrane to
both solutes and solvents.
 Next to cell wall is plasma membrane which is
selectively permeable.
 It encloses cytoplasm, nucleus and a large vacuole.
 There is a single nucleus with peripheral granular cytoplasm.
Absorption of water:
In absorption of water the cell wall imbibes large quantity of water. The cell sap of root hair
cell has higher osmotic pressure than surrounding soil water. By osmosis water enters the root
hair through the plasma membrane.
Path of water in root during absorption:
Water moves from soil to xylem through epidermis, cortex, passage of cells of endodermis and
pericycle along two different pathways:
1. Apoplast pathway and 2) Symplast pathway

1. Apoplast pathway:
 Apoplastic movement takes place

exclusively through the cell wall.
 The movement of water takes place entirely
through cell walls and inters- cellular spaces.
 This movement is non-osmotic.
 The cellulosic walls of root hair, cortical
cells, endodermis and pericycle are
hydrophilic and permeable to water so that
water moves through them.
2. Symplast pathway:
 In this water travels from cell to cell through cytoplasmic bridges called plasmodesmata.
 The plasmodesma interconnects the cytoplasm of all cells and forms cytoplasmic network
called symplast, water moves through it hence called symplast pathway.
 Here water moves through the membranes of cell and vacuole (tonoplast).
 Hence it is also called ‘Trans-membrane pathway’ or ‘Vacuolar pathway.
Mechanism of water absorption:
There are two methods of absorption of water 1) Active absorption 2) Passive absorption
Active absorption of water Passive absorption of water

It occurs due to the activity of root and root It occurs mainly due to the activity of upper
hairs. part of the plant such as shoot and leaves.
Water is absorbed by the osmotic or non- Water is absorbed as a result of tension created
osmotic processes against DPD gradient. by transpiration pull.
It involves symplast (via. Protoplasm) It involves apoplast movement of water. i.e.,
movement of water. through cell walls and intercellular spaces.
It utilizes metabolic energy. It utilizes solar energy for transpiration.
Root cells play an active role. Root cells play a passive role.
It is independent of transpiration. It takes place when transpiration is fast.
It creates positive pressure in xylem channels. It creates negative pressure in xylem channels.
6.5 ASCENT OF SAP:
The upward movement of water and salts from roots to aerial parts against the force of gravity
is called translocation or ascent of sap. It occurs through xylem tracheids and vessels.

Root pressure theory:
 Stephan Hales coined the term root pressure.
 Plants absorb large quantities of water from the soil by osmotic process.
 The continuous flow of water develops hydrostatic pressure in roots called as root pressure.
 When stem of a well-watered plant is cut above the soil level, sap in xylem flows out
through cut end for many hours.
 This phenomenon is known as exudation or bleeding. According to Priestly exudation is due
to hydrostatic pressure.
 Stocking defined root pressure as ‘the pressure developed by tracheary elements of xylem
due to metabolic activities of root’. It is an active process.
 The mineral ions absorbed from soil get accumulated in xylem and develop root pressure
due to osmotic potential.
 The root pressure causes pushing of water through xylem in the plant.
 Root pressure in most plants is usually in the range of 1 to 2 atmospheres which can raise
water to a maximum height of 20 meters.
Guttation:
 Removal of water from plant surfaces is called guttation.

 When absorption of water greatly exceeds transpiration, the excess of water escapes in the
form of liquid through hydathodes present at the vein ending of leaf is called guttation.
 Mostly it takes place at night or early in the morning, when no transpirationtakes place and
root pressure is high.
 The fluid contains a variety of dissolved inorganic and organic substances.
 Guttation takes place through structures called hydathodes.
 The hydathodes remain open whole day and night and are connected with veins.
 Each hydathode opens to the exterior by a pore called stoma.
 The exudation of water in the form of liquid drops takes place through stoma.
Cohesion Tension Theory (Transpiration Pull Theory):
This theory was proposed by Dixon and Jolly (1894). It is based on following principles.
a) Cohesion of Water:
The attraction between similar molecules is called cohesion. The water molecules have strong
mutual attraction (cohesion) due to which they cannot be easily separated from one another.
The magnitude of cohesive force is found to be up to 350 atms. It is more than enough for the
ascent of sap in the tallest trees.
b) Adhesion of Water:
The attraction between dissimilar molecules is called adhesion. There is an attractive force
between water and cell wall. The water molecules tend to stick to the walls of xylem ducts.
c) Continuity of water column:
Due to combined cohesive and adhesive forces the water forms a continuous column in xylem
ducts from roots to the top of the tree.
d) Transpiration pull:
When transpiration takes place, more water is released into the intercellular spaces from the
mesophyll cells. In turn mesophyll cells draw water from the xylem of the leaf. Due to the
water loss, a tension of about 20 atmospheres is created in the xylem of leaves. This tension or
pulling force is called as transpiration pull. The transpiration pull is transmitted downwards
from petiole and stem to roots. As a result water column is pulled upwards. The living cells of
roots do not play active role and ascent of sap occurs passively.
Mechanism:
The loss of water from mesophyll cells of leaves due to transpiration causes increase in
osmotic pressure of these cells. Their water potential is reduced i.e. DPD increases. Water
from xylem is pulled to meet the loss of water. A pull or tension is developed in mesophyll
cells and xylem ducts. This tension is transmitted to the root through the conducting tissues in
stem.
Objections:
1. Due to variation of temperature during day and night and in large vessels there are fair
chances of gas bubbles entering in water column. It may break the continuity of water column.
2. The cohesion theory assumes that tracheids are more efficient than vessels because partition
walls of tracheids give stability to the water column. However, advanced plants like
Angiosperms have vessels instead of tracheids.
3. In deciduous trees when all leaves are shed in autumn or if a plant is smeared with Vaseline
or grease then also ascent of sap occurs.
6.6 TRANSPIRATION:
 Transpirationis loss of excess of water from aerial parts of plants in the form of vapour.
 The root system absorbs a large quantity of water from the soil.
 Out of the total water only about 2% is utilized for various activities of plants.
 Remaining about 98% of water is surplus water.
 It is lost to the atmosphere through aerial parts of a plant.
 Little water is lost in liquid form through hydathodes of ferns by guttation.
 Transpiration is of three types: Cuticular, Stomatal and Lenticular transpiration.

1. Cuticular transpiration:
 Cutin is a wax-like substance which reduces loss of water.
 It forms a layer on the epidermis of leaves and herbaceous stems called cuticle.
 The cuticle retards the loss of water but is not strictly impervious to water.
 About 8 to 10 % of water loss occurs through cuticle by simple diffusion.
 This is known as cuticular transpiration.
 The cuticular transpiration is inversely proportional to the thickness of cuticle.
2. Lenticular transpiration:
 Lenticels are fine pores present on the older parts of plants.
 They are present in the bark of old stems and pericarps of woody fruits.
 They are made up of loosely arranged cells called complementary cells.
 About 0.1% of the total water loss in form of water vapour occurs through lenticels and
is called lenticular transpiration.
3. Stomatal transpiration:
 It occurs through stomata present in epidermis of young stem and leaves.
 Stomata are minute pores in epidermis.
 About 80 to 90 % of the total water loss takes place through stomatal pores.
 Stomatal transpiration occurs only during day time when stomata are open.
Structure of Stomata:
 Stoma is minute elliptical aperture surrounded by two parenchyma cells called guard cells.
 The guard cells are kidney-shaped in dicots and dumbell-shaped in most monocots.
 Its inner wall surrounding the aperture is thick and inelastic due to cellulose layer.
 The guard cells have outer thin, elastic and
permeable wall.
 The guard cells are living with cytoplasm,
central vacuole, nucleus and many
chloroplasts.
 In some plants epidermal cells are specialized
called subsidiary cells or accessory cells.
 These cells are reservoirs of potassium (K+)
ions.
 They help the guard cells in the opening and closing of stomata.
Mechanism of opening and closing of stomata:
Levitt (1974) proposed the proton transport concept to explain the mechanism of opening and
closing of stomata. According to this theory potassium ions (K+) are found to play a critical
role. The opening and closing of the stomata are the result of an active transport of potassium

ions into the guard cells and out of them. The adjacent epidermal cells act as ion storage cells
for guard cells.
During day-time:
 During day time starch is converted to malic acid

in the cytoplasm of guard cells.
 Malic acid dissociates into Hydrogen (H+) ion and
maltate ions.
 H+ ions are given out of guard cells and K+ ions
from subsidiary cells enter guard cells.
 The uptake of K+ ions is balanced by intake of Cl-
ion (chloride ions).
 There is increase in K+ ions in guard cells which
raises osmotic potential of guard cells.
 Water from the surrounding cells enters into guard
cells by endosmosis.
 The guard cells become turgid.
 The outer thin walls are stretched and inner thin walls are pulled apart.
 Thus stoma opens and stomatal transpiration occurs.
At night
 At night photosynthetic activity ceases and CO2

concentration in guard cells increases.
 In presence of CO2, an inhibitor hormone abscissic
acid (ABA) functions.
 ABA inhibits uptake of K+ ions and Cl- ions by
changing the diffusion and permeability of guard
cells.
 The K+ ions and Cl- ions move out to the subsidiary
cells.
 At low pH (5.0) starch is synthesized which is
insoluble.
 Hence, osmotic concentraton of guard cells decreases.
 Water moves out of guard cells to subsidiary cells hence guard cells become flaccid.
 There is no stretching of outer walls and inner walls come in contact with each other so
that the stomatal pore is closed.
 Thus stomatal transpiration stops at night.
Significance of transpiration:
Useful effects:
1. Translocation of water: Continuous water stream is maintained due to transpiration pull
throughout the plant body. Due to transpiration there is also mass flow of water from soil to the
roots. When the rate of transpiration is high the rate of water translocation through xylem
elements is also rapid.
2. Absorption and conduction of minerals: The minerals dissolved in water are passively
absorbed and translocated due to influence of transpiration.
3. Cooling effect: Transpiration helps in reducing temperature of leaf and avoids the plant
being overheated.
4. Optimum turgidity: Transpiration maintains optimum degree of turgidity in plant cells at

which they function efficiently. Under favourable conditions plant absorbs excess amount of
water which is given off by transpiration to maintain optimum turgidity for better growth and
development.
Harmful effects:
Transpiration is necessary for absorption and translocation of water and minerals, to provide
cooling effect and to maintain optimum turgidity. However, it causes tremendous loss of
water in losing large amount of water. Hence, Transpiration is necessary evil (Curtis, 1926).
6.7 MINERAL NUTRITION:
Plants contain about 30 to 40 different elements required for noramal growth and development.
Use of these chemical is known as mineral nutrition. Only 17 elements are essential while
others are non essential elements.
Criteria for the essentiality of an element are:
 Absolutely necessary for the completion of the life cycle of a plant; necessary for its
growth and reproduction.
 Its requirement is specific, and not replaceable by any other element.
 Directly involved in the metabolism of the plant
Categories of Essential Elements: Essential elements are 17, categorized according to:
Their requirements:
 Macronutrients – Present in large amounts in tissues (C, H, O, N, P, S, K, Mg, Ca).

 Micronutrients – Present in small amounts in tissues (Fe, Mn, Cu, Mo, Zn, B, Cl, Ni)
Functions performed in a plant:
 Components of bio-molecules (C, H, O, N)

 Components of energy-related chemical compounds (Mg – chlorophyll ; P – ATP)
 Activation / Inhibition of enzymes – Mo (enzyme nitrogenase)
 Elements that activates osmotic potential of cell – K (opening and closing of stomata)
Hydroponics:
 Hydroponic is growing of plants in a defined nutrient solution, in the absence of soil.

 It was given by Julius Von Sachs.
 It helps us to study the effect of adding, removing or varying the concentration of any
particular mineral element.
 Essential elements can be identified and their deficiency symptoms can benoted.

Deficiency Symptoms of Essential Elements:
If essential elements are below their Critical concentration (amount of nutrients required for
normal growth and development of plants), plants show certain morphological and observable
characters. Those characters are called as Deficiency symptoms.
Deficiency symptoms:
Chlorosis (Loss of Chlorophyll) -
It leads to yellowing of leaves - N, K, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, Mo.
Necrosis (Death of Tissue) - Ca, Cu, K, Mg
Delayed flowering - N, S, Mo
Inhibition of Cell Division - N, K, S, Mo
Toxicity of Micronutrients:
 Any mineral ion concentration that reduces the dry weight of tissues by 10% is
considered toxic.
 Toxicity of one element may lead to deficiency of other elements since the former may
inhibit the uptake of latter.
 For example; Mn competes with Fe, Mg for uptake and also inhibits Ca translocation to
shoot apex. Therefore, Mn toxicity symptoms are actually same as deficiency symptoms
of Fe, Mg, and Ca.
Nitrogen Metabolism:
Nitrogen Cycle:
1. Nitrogen fixation: The process of conversion of nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3)
2. Ammonification: decomposition of organic nitrogen of plants and animals into ammonia.
3. Nitrification: The ammonia so formed may volatilise and re-enter the atmosphere, or some
of the ammonia may be converted into nitrate by soil bacteria.
 These are the steps involved in nitrification.
 The nitrate so formed can be easily absorbed by the plants, and transported to leaves.
 In leaves, nitrate is reduced to ammonia to form the amine group of amino acids.
4. Denitrification: Process of reduction of the nitrate present in soil to nitrogen carried out by
bacteria like Pseudomonas and Thiobacillus.

Biological Nitrogen Fixation
 Reduction of nitrogen to ammonia by living organisms is called Biological Nitrogen

Fixation.
 Certain prokaryotes (bacteria) are able to fix nitrogen because the enzyme nitrogenase is
present exclusively in them.
 Nitrogen-fixing microbes can be classified as follows:
 Free living: Aerobic (Azotobacter), Anaerobic (Rhodospirillum), Cyanobacteria
(Nostoc, Anabaena).
 Symbiotic: with leguminous plants (Rhizobium), with non-leguminous plants
(Frankia).
 It needs three biological components:
1. A reducing agent to transfer hydrogen atom to dinitrogen (N ≡ N)
2. ATP to provide energy
3. Enzyme system, Nitrogenase, Mo- Fe protein and leghaemoglobin.
Leg haemoglobin: It is a pink colour pigment similar to haemogolobin of vertebrates and

functions as an oxygen scavanger and protects nitrogenase from oxygen.
N2 + 8e− + 8H+ + 16ATP → 2NH3 + H2 + 16ADP + 16Pi

Nodule Formation:
 Root hair comes in contact with Rhizobium. It becomes curved and deformed due to the
chemical secretion.
 Plant forms an infection thread, grows inside and delivers bacteria to the cortical tissue.
 Bacteria produce cytokinin and auxin which is produced by the plant to stimulate cell
division and enlarge to form nodules.
 Nodules form contact with vascular tissues and get food.
 Formation of root nodules and nitrogen fixation occur under the control of nod genes of
legumes and nod, nif and fix genes of bacteria.
Synthesis of amino acids
Ammonia formed by nitrogen fixation is used for the synthesis of amino acids. There are 2
processes by which amino acids are synthesized
1. Reductive amination
-NH4+ reacts with - ketoglutaric acid and forms glutamic acid.
-It is catalysed by glutamate dehydrogenase enzyme.
2. Transamination
-Amino group of one amino acid is transferred to keto group of a keto – acid.
-Glutamic acid is the main amino acid which transfers its amino group (NH2) to form 7 other
amino acids by the enzyme transaminase.

Chapter 7: PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
7.1 INTRODUCTION:
 Growth is one of the essential characteristics of living organisms.

 The growth process in a plant is accompanied by a permanent change in size, an
increase in dry weight of growing parts or plant body as a whole.
 Growth is defined as a vital process which brings about irreversible increase in any
plant or its part with respect to its size, form, weight and volume.
7.2 SEED DORMANCY:
 Inability of seeds to germinate under suitable condictions is called seed dormancy.

 Seed is the initial dormant stage of diploid sporophytic generation in life cycle of plants.
 A fertilized ovule after successful development forms a seed.
 A seed shows embryo with reserved food material and resistant protective covering.
 A seed under favorable set of conditions germinates to form new plant.
 The capacity of a seed to germinate and develop into a plant is called viability of seed.
 The period for which a seed remains viable is called its longevity.
 In many plants, seeds undergo a period of suspended growth i.e. they are unable to
germinate. This may be because of the following reasons.
Causes of Seed Dormancy:
 Hard seed coats impermeable to water and gases

 Seed coat resistance
 Immature embryo
 Presence of germination inhibitors in the seeds
 Light requirement of seeds
 Temperature sensitiveness
Methods of Breaking Seeds Dormancy:
 Scarification- softening of seed coats

 Stratification- temperature treatment
 Removal of germination inhibitors
 Hormonal treatment- Auxins, Gibberilins,etc
 Light treatment
Importance of Seed Dormancy:
 It helps in passing over the unfavorable conditions of climate.

 In ensures good chances of survival of seed.
 It provides sufficient time to seeds for their dispersal.
 Seeds can be stored for long time for agricultural or food use for human beings.
7.3 SEED GERMINATION:
 Seed germination is a process in which dormant embryo of seed resume metabolic

activities and growth to produce seedling.
 During germination, the seed absorbs water by imbibition and undergoes swelling.
 Dormant embryo resumes metabolic activities and growth.
 Due to water, hydrolytic enzymes become active and complete organic materials stored
in endosperm and cotyledons are converted into glucose and maltose.
 The embryo utilizes food and also by seedling till it becomes photosynthetically active.
 During growth of embryo, seed coat is ruptured; radical comes out through micropyle
and develops into root system.
 The plumule comes out and develops to form the shoot system.
Types of Seed Germination:
1. Hypogeal germination:
 In thistype epicotyl elongates quickly,

pushing the plumule out of the soil surface.
 Hence, cotyledons do not come over the
soil surface.
 It is shown by most of the monocots, e.g.
Rice, Wheat, Jowar and dicots like Gram,
Groundnut, Pea and Mango.
2. Epigeal germination:
 In Epigeal germination, the hypocotyl

elongates quickly, to push cotyledons and
plumule above the soil surface.
 The cotyledons become flat and green, they
functions as embryonic leaves till the development of foliage leaves.
 It is shown by many dicot plants like Castor, Tamarind.
3. Vivipary or viviparous germination:
 In these plants, seed germinates inside the fruit,

when it is still attached with the parent-plant.
 It is shown by Halophytes (Mangroves) which
are growing in oxygen-deficient, salty and
marshy soil.
 During seed germination, radical emerges from
the seed due to elongation of hypocotyl.
 Due to increased metabolism and bulky weight
the seedling is detached from the parent plant and falls vertically downward.
 The radical penetrates into the soil.
 The lateral roots are developed from lower side of the radical and seedling is
established.
7.4 CHATACTERISTICS OF GROWTH:
 Growth is characteristic of all living organisms, the organism increases in size, shape,
volume and weight.
 It results in permanent irreversible change in size and increase in dry weight.
 It is an innate process i.e. it is caused by internal forces.
 It occurs by cell division, cell-elongation followed by cell-maturation to form different
types of tissues.
 In plants growth is indefinite in the parts like stem, root and branches but the other parts
like leaves, flowers and fruits show limited growth.
 In higher plants growth is localized i.e. it is restricted to some parts called meristems.
 These cells are capable of dividing, re-dividing and producing new cells.
7.5 PHASES OF GROWTH:
Every cell has to undergo the following three phases during the process of growth.
1. Phase of Cell division (Formative phase):
 It is the first phase of growth.

 The meristematic cells undergo mitosis to produce new daughter cells.
 These cells are thin walled with prominent nucleus, dense cytoplasm without vacuoles.
 The addition of new cells results in slight increase in size of organ.
 The cell-division is completed in 2 parts i.e. Karyokinesis and Cytokinesis.
2. Phase of Cell-enlargement (Elongation phase):
 It is the second phase of growth.

 The daughter cells formed undergo enlargement i.e. increase in size and volume.
 Enlargement of cells occur more in linear direction, resulting in the elongation of root
and stem; therefore, it is called elongation phase.
 Cell enlargement takes place by synthesis of more protoplasm and solutes.
 Solutes concentration favors endosmosis and cells become turgid.
 More cellulosic materials are added to cell wall and large vacuole appears in centre.
 The enlargement results in considerable increase in size and weight of organ or plant.
3. Phase of cell-maturation or differentiation (Maturation phase).
 It is the third and final phase of growth.

 The elongated cells undergo maturation and differentiation to obtain permanent size.
 The cells get differentiated to form various tissues of plant body like parenchyma,
sclerenchyma, xylem and phloem.
 Physiological differentiation enables the cells to perform particular functions.
Grand Period of Growth (GPG)
 The term Grand period of growth is given by the German physiologist 'Sachs' (1873).
 The time interval from the formative phase to maturation phase is called the Grand
Period of Growth.
 GPG is of universal occurrence and observed in all the cells, organs or organisms
undergoing growth.
 The rate of growth is slow during the formative phase; it becomes maximum during
elongation phase and gradually slows down during the maturation phase till it stops.
 The total time required for the completion of three phases of growth, is called the Grand
Period of Growth.
Growth Curve
 Growth in a cell, organ or entire plant does not occur at a uniform rate through-out the
growth period.
 When this rate of growth is plotted against time, ‘S’ shaped curve is obtained. This is
called Growth Curve or Sigmoid Curve.
 In plaints, growth curve are always 'S' Shaped or sigmoid, this is because the growth is
initially slow, then it becomes rapid and finally it slows down to a steady rate.
 The standard Growth Curve shows three well-marked regions.
1. Lag Phase or Initial Growth Phase:
 It represents the initial phase in which the rate of growth is slow.

 In this phase the preparatory changes for the growth occur in the cells.
 It corresponds to the formative phase where
new-cells are formed by cell-division.
 This phase requires more time for a little
growth.
2. Log phase or Exponential phase:
 It is the second part / phase in which rapid

growth takes place.
 The maximum rate of growth is achieved
during this phase.
 It corresponds to phase of cell elongation.
3. Steady phase or Stationary phase:

 In this phase, the growth rate slows down.
 During this phase cell-differentiation is nearly complete.
 There is no addition of new cells and the growth remains steady.
Growth Rates: Increased growth per unit time is called growth arte.
a. Arithmetic growth: Only one daughter cell divides other differentiate and mature.
b. Geometric growth: All cells divide and mature is a geometric growth
c. Absolute growth: Total growth per unit time is called absolute growth
d. Relative growth: Growth of living cell per unit time on the basis is a relative growth.
7.6 DEVELOPMENT:
Definition: It is a sum total of growth and differentiation. It is affected by factors:
1. Intrinsic factors: genetic and hormones
2. Extrinsic factors: light, temperature, water, oxygen, nutrients.
Sequence of developmental process:
7.6 PLANT HORMONES / PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS / PHYTOHORMONES:
"These are the organic compounds of plants which promote, inhibit or control the growth or
influence the other physiological functions".
Characteristics of Plant Growth Regulators:
 These are essential organic compounds other than nutrients.

 These are required in very small quantities.
 These are generally synthesized at the apices of Root, Stem and in leaves, from where
these are transported to the other parts to bring about their effect.
 The synthesis of hormones occurs under genetic control but the environmental factors
also play important role in their synthesis.
 They can increase, decrease or even inhibit the plant growth.
 A single hormone may produce different response action spectrum.
Types of Hormones:
There are five main types of naturally occuring growth hormones in plants.
1. Auxin 2. Gibbrellins 3. Cytokinin 4. Ethylene 5.Abscisic Acid
1. AUXINS:
 Auxins are the most common types of naturally occuring growth hormones in plants.
 The term "auxin" was first used by Frits Went, who as a graduate student in Holland in
1926, discovered that some unidentified compound caused curvature towards light.
 Auxins are weak organic acids produced naturally by the plants and are capable of
promoting cell elongation during the growth of stem and roots.
Wents Experiment (Avena Curvature Test)
 F.W. Went (1928) gave the experimental proof for the presence of Auxin.
 He isolated auxin from coleoptile tip of Oat (Avena Sativa) in form of IAA.
 He cut off the tips of the Avena coleoptiles and placed them on small thin agar-blocks
for a certain period of time.
 These agar blocks were placed asymmetrically on cut coleoptile stumps.
 All the coteoptiles showed typical curvature even in dark.
 He concluded that some substances from cut coleoptile tip were diffused into the agar
block which causes growth and curvature in other coleoptile stump.
 He also developed a method for determining the amount of this growth substance i.e.
auxin which is active in very small amounts in Avena coleoptile tips.
 This method is known as Avena Curvature Test.
 Auxins are actually used in growth process, hence auxins are not catalysts.
Role of auxins:
1. Cell division and cell elongation: auxins promote cell dividion and help in cell elongation
2. Root-Initiation: Auxins (IAA, NAA) when applied to cuttings in lower conc. help in
formation of adventitious roots. In tissue culture auxins are used for root initiation
3. Flower Initiation: Auxin (NAA) induces flowering when sprayed in dilute concentration in
Pine-apple plants.
4. Apical Dominance: (Write a note on Apical dominance)

 The influence of apical bud in inhibiting the growth of lateral buds is called apical
dominance.
 The auxin formed in apical bud is transported basipetaly downward.
 Lateral buds require comparatively lower concentration of auxin for their growth.
 Higher concentration of Auxin suppresses the growth of lateral or axillary buds.
 In such cases, when the stem tip is cut off, auxin production is stopped and its
concentraion decreases in lateral buds, resulting in their rapid growth to form many
lateral branches.
 It gives bushy appearance to plant. It is called art of art of pruning used by gardeners.
5. Prevention of Abscission: Abscission is the falling of leaves, flowers and fruits. Auxins
prevent the action of hydrolytic enzymes in abscission layer, which is formed at the base of
petiole or peduncle and prevent the abscission.
6. Parthenocarpy: Auxins (IBA, NAA) are used is produce seedless or parthenocarpic fruits
in the plants like Grapes, Orange, Apple and Tomato. Such process of producing seedless
fruits is called Parthenocarpy.
7. Weedicides: Auxin (2, 4-D) is used to eliminate dicot weeds from a monocot crop field. It
is target specific and do not cause harm to the monocot crop plants.
8. Prevention of reproductive growth: Application of auxins prevents the initiation of

flowering, so that vegerative growth is continued for longer period. This is useful in
vegetative crops like Cabbage, Sugarcane.
2. GIBBERELLINS:
 Gibberellins were discovered in Japan by Kurosawa (1928) in Rice plants infected by a

fungus Gibberella fujikuroi, which cause bakane or foolish-disease in plants. The
infected plants became very tall and without seeds.
 Yabuta and Sumiki (1938) isolated and extracted the bakane disease causing substance
in crystalline form and named it as Gibberellin.
 In plants, Gibberellins are synthesized from Acetyl coenzyme-A.
 The sites of their synthesis are apical buds, tips of growing roots and young leaves.
 The transport of Gibberellins is nonpolar i.e. in all directions and it takes place through
both xylem and phloem.
 Gibberellins are found naturally in Bacteria, Algae, Fungi, Mosses, Ferns,
Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
Application of Gibberellins:
1. Elongation of cell:
 Gibberellins induce elongation of cells in stem.

 These are used to elongate the length of jute fibres to increase their economic value.
 A Genetically dwarf plant can be converted in to a phenotypically tall plant.
 These help to raise commercial value of leafy-Vegetables by causing leaf expansion.
 Spray of Gibberellins brings about increase in size of fruits (e.g. Seedless Grapes)
2. Breaking of seed and Bud dormancy:
 Seed dormancy can be broken by Gibberellin treatment.

 Gibberellin treatment act as a substitute for cold season, long day conditions and Red
light for breaking the dormancy of buds in winter.
3. Flowering:
 Gibberellin treatment induces flowering in long day plants under short day conditions.
4. Seed Germination:
 In the seeds of cereals like Barley, Wheat, etc gibberellin treatment induces the
synthesis of amylase enzyme.
 It converts insoluble starch in to soluble sugar, the latter is made available to embryo as
food and seed germination takes place.
 Therefore, Gibberellins are used to promote seed germination in monocots.
5. Parthenocarpy:
 Application of Gibberellins induces development of seedless or parthenocarpic fruits.

 Gibberellins are more effective then auxins for inducing parthenocarpy.
6. Sex-expression:
Application of Gibberellin increases the number of male flowers and decreases female flowers
in cucumber and pumpkin. Thus gibberellin Change the sex ratio of flowers in monoecious
plants. (By inducing maleness)
3. CYTOKININS:
 Cytokinins stimulate cell-division i.e. cytokinesis, therefore, called Cytokinins.

 Skoog and Miller discovered the chemical that stimulates cell division in Tobacco.
 They have also isolated a compound from Herring (a silvery-fish) sperm DNA and it
was named "Kinetin", which also causes similar effect.
 All these substances were named as Cytokinins because of their effect.
 The first naturally occuring Cytokinin substance is discovered by Letham (1963) as
"Zeatin" from young maize-grains.
 Cytokinins are the derivatives of a purine nitrogen base called 'Adenine'.
 These are naturally synthesised by the young plant.
 Organs like root tips and seeds, fruits, leaves, etc where active cell-division occurs.
 Coconut milk is a rich source of Cytokinins.
Applications of Cytokinins:
1) Cell-Division:
 Cytokinins induce Cell-division.

 Along with auxins it can induce cell division even in the permanent cells.
 During callus formation, Cytokinin and auxin accelerate the rate of mitosis.
2) Morphogenesis:
 A balanced combination of Cytokinin and auxin is useful for inducting organogenesis.

 Auxin-cytokinin in 100:1 ratio initiate rhizogenesis (root formation) and 1:1 ratio
initiates caulogenesis (shoot formation).
 Chloroplast formation is also initiated by Cytokinin in presence of light.
3) Delay of senescence:
 Degradative changes leading to the death of an organ or organism is called senescence.

 Cytokinins delay the on-set of senescence by preventing the degradation of metabolites
or by promoting their synthesis.
 This effect of delaying senescence is also called Richmond-Lang Effect.
4) Reduce Apical Dominance:
Application of cytokinin reduces the apical dominance and stimulates growth of lateral buds.
5) Secondary growth:
Cytokinins help in formation of Interfascicular cambium during secondary growth of plants.
4. ETHYLENE / THE RIPENING HORMONE:
 Ethylene is the only gaseous hormone produced naturally by the plants.

 It is colourless, unsaturated hydrocarbon gas, which is lipid soluble and lighter than air.
 Ethylene is formed in almost all parts of seed plants but the shoot apex of seedling and
ripening fruits are the major sites of ethylene formation.
 Amino acid Methioine acts as a precursor for Ethylene.
 Application of Auxin promotes ethylene production, also called secondary hormone.
 Increased CO2 concentration has inhibiting effect on ethylene.
Applications of ethylene:
1. Breaking the dormancy: Application of ethylene helpsbreaking dormancy in seeds and

buds of many species and overcomes dormancy of potato-tubers.
2. Promoting senescence: Ethylene promotes senescence and abscission of plant organs like
leaves and flowers.
3. Post-harvest technology:
 Ethylene very significantly used for the commercial ripening of fruits.

 The green delicate fruits are picked from the field and transported to desired destination
in CO2 rich medium, where they are used for ripening with ethylene application.
 In naturally ripened banana, dark-black points are present on its surface.
 These are ethylene rich pockets, which give typical fruity smell.
4. Ethylene inhibits elongation of stem and roots of dicots.
5. It promotes rapid growth of petiole and bending of lamina called Epinasty.
5. ABSCISIC ACID (ABA) / STRESS HORMONE:
 ABA is a naturally occuring growth inhibitor plays role in abscission and dormancy.
 It is called Stress hormone, because it is produced during drought and other
unfavourable climatic conditions.
 ABA is also called antigibberellin as it inhibits the growth stimulated by gibberellin.
 ABA is formed in matured leaves, flowers and fruits and then transported to the site of
action through Xylem and phloem by nonpolar movement.
 ABA interacts with other growth hormones to cause its effect.
Applications of ABA:
1. ABA causes dormancy in buds, seeds and tubers of some species.
2. ABA is formed in leaves; it brings about closing of stomata to prevent transpiration.
3. ABA promotes flowering in short day plants and inhibits the flowering in long day plants.
4. ABA retards or inhibits growth process and act as growth inhibitor.
5. ABA promotes senescence in leaves by causing loss of chlorophyll and decreasing the rate
of photosynthesis. It also inhibits the synthesis of RNA and proveins.
6. ABA as stress hormone: Under stress conditions like drought, flooding, mineral deficiency
etc, it overcomes stress through dormancy, inhibiting growth, promoting abscission and
reducing transpiration.
7.7 PHOTOPERIODISM:
 The response of plants to the relative length of light and dark periods with reference to
the initiation of flowering is called Photoperiodism.
 The term Photoperiodism was first used by Garner and Allard (1920) in a variety of
tobacco "Maryland Mammoth".
 In tobacco, flowering takes place at different times at different altitudes.

 It was then discovered that the day length or photoperiod affects the flowering, this
phenomenon is called Photoperiodism.
 The photoperiod required to induce flowering in a plant is called the critical day length,
it varies from plant to plant.
 Some plants require exposure to shorter light period than their critical day length while
other plants need longer exposure to light then their critical day length.
Garner and Allard classified flowering plants in to three types on the basis of photoperiod.
i) Short day plants(SDP) (ii) Long day plants (LDP) iii) Day neutral plants (DNP)
i) Short Day plants (SDP):
 The plants in which flowering is induced under short day length conditions are called
SDP.
 In SDP, flowering takes place after exposure to photoperiod shorter than their critical
day length.
 The SDP require exposure to longer unbroken or uninterrupted dark period, if the dark
period is broken by a flash of light even for a while, their flowering is inhibited.
 The SDP may produce flowers in continuous dark periods if sucrose is provided
externally, therefore, short day plants are actually the long night plants.
 Examples Cosmos, Dahlia, Chrysenthemum, Marigold, Xanthium, Soybean.
ii. Long day plants (LDP):
 The plants which require exposure to longer photoperiod i.e. greater than their critical
day length for the initiation of flowering are called long day plant.
 Long day plants need short night or dark period for flowering.
 The long day plants can produce flowers under short day conditions if the short light
period is followed by still shorter dark periods e.g. 7 hours of light alternating with 5
hours of darkness, can induce flowering in LDP.
 Interruption of long photoperiod with darkness inhibits flowering but flowering
continues to occur if the dark period is interrupted by light.
 LDP can also be called short night plants. Examples - Spinach, Wheat, Raddish, Beet.
iii. Day Neutral Plants (DNP):
 The plans in which, flowering is not affected by length of day, are known as day neutral
plants.
 DNP are also called intermediate plants or photoneutral plants.
 Examples: Cucumber, Tomato, Maize, Sunflower, Rose, Catharanthus, Few varieties of
pea and tobacco.

Florigens:
 It was proposed by Sachs that a chemical substance is responsible for initiation of

flowering.
 This substance or hormone is synthesised in leaves after exposure to required
photoperiod.
 It is conducted through phloem up to the bud to initiate reproductive growth.
 Cajlachjan (1935) named this hormone as "florigen"
7.8 PHOTOMORPHOGENESIS:
 Plant can sense light direction, quality, intensity and periodicity.

 Light induces phototropism, Photomorphogenesis, chloroplast differentiation,
flowering and germination.
 Light quality is mainly sensed by the presence of light receptors specific for different
wavelength.
 The red/far red receptors are called phytochromes.
 Cryptochrome recognize blue green and UV-A light.
 Phototropin percieves blue light.
 Photomorphogenesis involves the inhibition of stem elongation, differentiation of
chloroplasts and accumulation of chlorophyll and expansion of leaves.
 Photomorphogenesis can be induced by red, far red and blue light.
Phytochrome:
 It is a protein containing covalently attached chromosphore.

 It exists in two interconvertible forms with different absorption spectra.
 Pfr absorbs far red and biologically active.
 Pr absorbs red and gets converted to Pfr.
 Absorption of far red converts to Pfr.
7.9 VERNALIZATION:
 The cold temperature or chilling treatment of germinating seeds/ seedlings to promote

early flowering in plants is called vernalization.
 The suitable temperature range for vernalization is 00 - 50C and duration of treatment
varies from few days to weaks in different species (Lysenko, 1928).
 The reversal effect of vernalization is called devernalization. It can be done by high
temperature treatment (350C).
 Vernalization alone is not enough to induce flowering but it should be followed by the
exposure to required photoperiod of that species of plant.
 It was suggested by Melchers (1939) that vernalization gives a stimulus for the
formation of a hormone called "Vernalin" which induces flowering.

Significance of Vernalization:
 It shortens the vegetative phase of plants and induces early flowering.

 It increases the cold resistance in plants.
 By this method, biennial varities can be converted in to annuals.
 Winter varities of wheat can be converted in to spring varities by vernalization.
 It increases resistance of plants for fungal diseases.
----------------------------------------------

SECTION-II
ZOOLOGY

Chapter 8: KINGDOM ANIMALIA
8.1 INTRODUCTION:
The animal kingdom shows a wide diversity of organisms. Presently about thirty animal phyla
of which ten are major and twenty are minor have been recognized. There are about 1.2
million animal species which show a great diversity of life. These animals differ from one
another in their habitat, level of organization, body plan, symmetry body cavity, germ layers,
mode of locomotion, respiration, excretion, reproduction etc.
8.2 CRITERIA FOR ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION:
1. Number of germ layers:
Every multicellular organism begins life from a single cell called zygote. The zygote divides
and redivides to form the mass of cells. These cells get arranged in to two or three layers called
‘Germinal layers’.
a. When an organism shows only two layers i.e. outer ectoderm and inner endoderm
separated by non living substance called mesoglea, called diploblastic animal, e.g. Hydra.
b. When an organism shows three germinal layers i.e. outer ectoderm, inner endoderm and
middle mesoderm, it is called triploblastic animal, e.g.Tapeworm, Round worm Human being,
etc.
2. Animal body plan: There are three basic body plans among the animals, namely:
a) Cell aggregate plan: It includes simplest types of animals like sponges. The animals show
aggregation of cells with least division of labour. The cells do not for tissues or organs. There
is no nervous coordination between them e.g., Sycon.
b) Blind sac body plan: It is shown by little complex animals. There is a digestive cavity with
a single opening which acts as a mouth as well as anus (i.e. incomplete digestive system). The
food is ingested and egested through the same opening (mouth).e.g., Hydra, Tapeworm.
c) Tube within tube body plan: This body plan is present in all advanced and highly evolved
animals. Digestive system is complete having two separate openings, one at each end e.g.,
Earhworm, Human being.
3. Body symmetry: Symmetry means similarity in shape, size and number of parts on the
opposite sides of a median line. It implies that the two halves obtained by drawing an
imaginary line along different planes are similar and identical. They are of three sub types:

a) Asymmetrical animals: The body of asymmetrical animals cannot be divided into
two equal parts by any plane e. g. Sponges, Snails.
b) Bilaterally symmetrical animals: In this type the body of the animal can be
bisected by a single median or vertical plane. The two halves are identical. It is called
bilateral symmetry, e.g. Frog, Fish.
c) Radially symmetrical animals: Body can be cut or divided into two similar halves
in a number of planes. All these cuts (planes) pass through a center and appear like
radii. This type is called radial symmetry. e.g., Starfish, Hydra.
4. Body cavity or Coelom: It is the space between the body wall and the alimentary canal
which is produced by splitting of mesoderm, during embryonic development. In
triploblastic animals, it is called coelom. Depending on the nature of coelom, there are three
types of animals:
a) Acoelomates: In certain animals there is no body cavity or coelom. Hence they are
called acoelomates. The space between body wall and alimentary canal is filled with
parenchymatous tissue, e. g. Tapeworm.
b) Pseudocoelomates: They show false body cavity i.e. cavity between the body wall and
alimentary canal is lined by patches of mesodermal cells, e. g. Ascaris.
c) Coelomates: They have true body cavity or coelom. In triploblastic animals, the
mesoderm splits into two layers enclosing a cavity called coelom. The cavity is filled by
coelomic fluid, e.g. Earthworm. In some animals like cockroach, body cavity is filled with
blood. Hence it is called haemocoel.
5. Body Segmentation (Metamerism): When the external segmentation of the body coincides
with internal segmentation, such animals are called metamerically segmented, e.g. Earthworm
6. Body Support (and protection): The external or internal framework which provides
support to the body is called skeleton. It is of two types, exoskeleton and endoskeleton. The
lower groups of animals possess only exoskeleton for protection, e.g. Cockroach, while
higher animals possess exoskeleton as well as endoskeleton, e. g. Fish, Cobra, Parrot.
 Subkingdom Metazoa divided into phylum Non-chordata and Chordata.

 Non-chordata has nine major Phyla.
 These are Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes, Aschelminthes, Annelida, Arthropoda,
Mollusca, Echinodermata, Hemichordata and Chordata.
 Phylum Chordata derives its name from a skeletal rod called notochord present at some
stage of their life.
 They are further grouped into Acraniates and Craniates.
 Then further group vertebrata shows five classes- Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and
Mammalia.
Non-chordates and chordates are distinguished by following characters.
Non-chordates Chordates
1. Notochord is absent. 1. Notochord present at some stage of life.
2. Nerve cord double, ventral, ganglionated. 2. Nerve cord single, dorsal and tubular.
3. Pharyngeal gill slits are absent. 3. These are present at some stage of life.
4. Heart, if present, is on dorsal side 4. Heart is present on ventral side
5. Post anal tail is absent 5. Post anal tail is present
6. Red blood cells are absent 6. Red blood cells are present
7. Limbs, more than two pairs 7. Limbs are usually two pairs
e.g. Cockroach e.g. Frog, Man.

8.2 SALIENT FEATURES OF NON-CHORDATES UPTO PHYLUM LEVEL.
Nonchordates include the following phyla:
1. Phylum: Porifera- e.g. Sycon 6. Phylum: Arthropoda -e.g. Cockroach

2. Phylum: Coelenterata- e.g. Hydra 7. Phylum : Mollusca - e.g. Pila
3. Phylum: Platyhelminthes- e.g.Tapeworm 8. Phylum: Echinodermata – eg. Starfish
4. Phylum: Aschelminthes- e.g. Ascaris 9. Phylum: Hemichordata: eg. Balanoglossus
5. Phylum : Annelida - e.g. Earthworm
1. Phylum: Porifera
Thes are pore bearing animals. It includes the simplest organisms called sponges.
Characteristics:
1. These are solitary (alone), or colonial (colonies) and sedentary (attached to rock).
2. They are mostly marine; few forms live in freash water.
3. They are the simplest of all multicellular animals.
4. They show cellular grade of organization without formation of tissues and organs.
5. They are diploblastic and acoelomate.
6. The body is vase shaped or cylindrical.
7. Body surface is perforated by numerous minute pores called ostia, for water entery.
8. A large opening osculum is present, through which water comes out.
9. They show presence of a central cavity called spongocoel.
10. The sponges have unique type of flagellated cells called choanocytes for digestion.
11. Endoskeleton is of spicules of calcium carbonate or proteinous spongin fibres.
12. They feed on detritus material present in water.
13. No digestive system, choanocytes and amoeboid cells help in intra cellular digestion.
14. Asexual reproduction by budding or gemmule formation and sexual by gametes.
15. They have great power of regeneration e.g. Sycon , Spongilla.
2. Phylum: Coelenterata
Characteristics:
1. Coelenterates are colonial or solitary, sedentary or free living.

2. These are aquatic mostly marine, few are fresh water forms.
3. They show tissue level of organization, acoelomate, diploblastic, radially symmetrical.
4. They show blind sac body plan with mouth as single opening, anus is absent.
5. They cavity is coelenteron or gastrovascular cavity, helps in digestion and circulation.
6. Body wall has peculiar type of cells called stinging cells. They are protective, offensive
and defensive in function.

7. They show two types of body forms –a) polyp - Sedentary, tubular, cylindrical forms
b) Medusa- free swimming, umbrella shaped forms.
8. Locomotion by finger-like processes called tentacles which help in capturing the pray.
9. Nervous system is poorly developed forming nerve net throughout the body.
10. Asexual reproduction by lateral budding and sexual by formation of gametes.
11. e.g. Hydra, Aurelia, Coral, etc.
CORALS: 1. Corals are polyp type coelenterates.

2. Corals are used as calcium supplement for man.
3. Red corals are used as precious jewellery.
4. Corals form coral-reefs which protect sea-shores from tidal effects.
3. Phylum: Platyhelminthes
They are commonly referred to as flat worms.
Characteristics:
 Platyheliminthes are parasitic, few are free living.

 They are aquatic found in fresh or marine water.
 They are triploblastic, acoelomate, bilaterally symmetrical with blind sac body plan.
 The body is leaf like or ribbon like unsegmented and dorsoventrally flattened.
 The body is covered by cuticle.
 Parasitic forms show presence of suckers or hooks for attachment.
 Digestive system absent; if present it is incomplete i.e. with only one mouth.
 Excretory system is made up of flame cells or protonephridia
 Nervous system is of ladder type formed by nerve ring and nerve cords.
 Reproductive system is complex; they are mostly hermaphrodite i.e bisexual.
 They show high regeneration power e.g., Taenia (tapeworm), Fasciola (liverfluke).
Parasitic adaptations:
1) Presence of suckers and hooks to attach to host tissue.
2) Body is dorsoventrally flat to occupy less space within the body of host.
3) Epidermis is replaced by tough, thick, protective covering called cuticle, which is
resistant to the action of host’s digestive juices.
4) Digestive system is absent as they get readymade digested food from their host.
4. Phylum: Aschelminthes
They are commonly referred to as round worms.
Characteristics:
1. Aschelminthes are mostly parasitic, few forms are free living.

2. Most of them are present in the body fluids of the host.
3. They have long, cylindrical, unsegmented, thread like body.
4. They are triploblastic, bilateral, pseudocoelomate with tube within a tube body plan.
5. The body is covered by tough, resistant cuticle.
6. Body wall has longitudinal muscles but no circular muscles.
7. Digestive system is complete with mouth and anus, at opposite ends.
8. Excretion takes place either by canals or protonephridia.
9. Nervous system has nerve ring and nerves.
10. Sexes are separate, hence, they are unisexual. e.g. Ascaris.
Sexual diamorphism in Ascaris
Male Ascaris Female Ascaris
1. The male is smaller than female 1. The female is relatively longer.
2. The male has a curved posterior end. 2. The female has a straight posterior end.
3. Presence of a pair of penial setae. 3. Absence of penial setae.
5. Phylum: Annelida
Characteristics:
1. Annelids are free living or few may be parasitic.

2. The free living forms are aquatic. Some are burrowing and occur in moist soils.
3. They are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical and first true coelomates.
4. They show tube within a tube type of body plan.
5. Body is soft, elongated, cylindrical and metamerically segmented.
6. Digestive system is complete. Locomotion occurs by setae, parapodia or suckers.
7. Respiration takes place through body surface. Excretion occurs by nephridia.
8. Circulatory system is closed type. Haemoglobin is dissolved in the plasma.
9. Nervous system is formed by nerve ring and double, ventral ganglionated nerve cord.
10. These are mostly bisexual ( hermaphrodite ) animals but few may be unisexual(Nereis )
11. E.g. Nereis, Earthworm, Leech, etc.
Economic importance:
The ectoparasite, like leeches suck vertebrate blood. They are used for medicinal purposes to
remove rotten blood. They are used during operations. The saliva of leeches contains an
anticoagulant hirudin.
6. Phylum: Arthropoda
This is one of the largest and most successful phyla.
Characteristics:
1. Arthropods are solitary or colonial, free living or sedentary, parasitic, sangivorous,

(blood sucking), burrowing, creeping, crawling, walking, swimming, flying etc.
2. They are omnipresent, may be terrestrial, aquatic, aerial, underground, arboreal and
present even in the desert.
3. They are triploblastic, coelomate, bilaterally, symmetrical with tube within a tube plan.
4. Body is covered by a tough, chitinous cuticle which forms exoskeleton.
5. Body is divided into head, thorax and abdomen. Body shows metameric segmentation.
6. They feed on detritus food, flesh.
7. They possess legs for crawling, creeping, walking and wings for flying.
8. Digestive system is complete and divided into foregut, midgut and hindgut.
9. Mouth-parts are highly evolved and used for bitting, sucking, chewing.
10. Circulatory system is of open type. Blood cells are present.
11. Respiratory organs such as gills, trachea, book lungs, and book gills are present.
12. Excretion takes place by green glands or by Malpighian tubules.
13. Nervous system is formed by nerve ring and double, ventral, ganglionated nerve cord.
14. Sense organs are well developed as antennae, compound eyes, and taste receptors.
15. Sexes are separate, sexual dimorphism, mostly oviparous (Exception – Scorpion).
16. In some arthropods like honey bees, bugs it etc. the males or females are produced by
parthenogenesis (without fertilization).
17. e.g., Centipedes, crab, Spider, cockroach.
Economic important:
i) As honey bees for their honey and wax. ii) Lobsters, prawns, crabs as food. iii) Silk-worms
for production of silk. iv)Some arthropods are harmful which act as vectors e. g. Mosquitoes.
7. Phylum: Mollusca
Characteristics:
1. Molluscans are free living or sedentary. They are triploblastic, unsegmented.

2. They are mostly marine, benthoic or pelagic (floating) few are fresh water dwellers.
3. They are soft bodied. They show tube within a tube type of body plan.
4. Body shows anterior head, a ventral muscular foot and dorsal visceral mass.
5. Visceral mass is enclosed in thick muscular fold of body wall called mantle.
6. Mantle secrets a hard calcareous shell. The shell may be external, internal or absent.
7. Molluscans feed on plants and animal matter.
8. Locomotion by arms or foot. Foot is modified for creeping, burrowing and swimming.
9. Digestive system is well developed, complete with anterior mouth and postrerior anus.
10. Buccal cavity has a rasping organ called radula provided with transverse rows of teeth.
11. Aquatic forms show numerous gills called ctenidia, helping in exchange of gases.
12. Circulatory system is of open type (Except in sepia where it is of the closed type).
13. Blood contains respiratory pigment called haemocyanin.
14. Excretion occurs by kidneys, also called “Organ of Bojanus”.
15. Nervous system is formed by three pairs of ganglia.
16. Sense organs are eyes for vision, tentacles for sensation, osphradia for testing of water.
17. Sexes are separate, animals are mostly oviparous, and development is direct or indirect.
18. e. g. Chiton, Dentalium, Pila, Bivalve, Octopus.
8. Phylum: Echinodermata
Characteristics:
1. These are solitary, sedentary exclusively marine, gregarious and benthonic.

2. They are triploblastic, coelomate, radially symmetrical with pentamerous symmetry.
3. They are unsegmented, spherical, elongated or star shaped animals.
4. Body covered by a spiny exoskeleton which is made up of calcareous plates or ossicles.
5. The presence of water vascular system in which water enters through the madreporite.
6. This system is used in locomotion.
7. They are carnivorous, mainly feed on molluscans.
8. They move about with their arms and tube feet.
9. Respiration is by peristomial gills, papillae etc.
10. Circulatory system is greatly reduced. It is of open type, heart is absent
11. Nervous system is simple with a ring around the mouth and radial nerves in arms.
12. Sexes are separate, fertilization is external. Development is indirect.
13. They show high power of regeneration.
14. e.g. Sea lily, brittle star, sea star, sea urchin, sea cucumber.
9. Phylum: Hemichordata
Characteristics:
1. Hemichordates are simple, sedentary or free moving.

2. They are exclusively marine, usually living at the sea bottom in burrows.
3. They are triploblastic, coelomate and bilaterally symmetrical.
4. Body soft, fragile, vermiform, unsegmented and divide into proboscis, collar and trunk.
5. Buccal cavity forms rod like buccal diverticulum which is considered as notochord.
6. They feed on micro-organisms present in water through ciliary action.
7. The proboscis helps to make burrows while the entire body.
8. Alimentary canal is complete; U shaped long and bends with anus close to the mouth.
9. Respiration occurs by paired gills, present in the anterior trunk
10. Circulatory system is simple and of closed type. The blood is colourless.
11. Nervous tissue is embedded in epidermis on both the dorsal and ventral side.
12. The sexes are separate. Fertilization is external and development is
13. e.g. Balanoglossus, Saccoglossus.
14. This phylum is the connecting link between Non-chordates and Chordates.

8.3 SALIENT FEATURES OF CHORDATES:
1. Phylum Chordata
Characteristics:
1. Triploblastic, coelomate, bilaterally symmetrical with tube within a tube body plan.
2. Presence of notochord at least in the early embryonic life.
3. Presence of pharyngeal gill slits.
4. Circulatory system is of closed type with red blood cells having haemoglobin.
5. Phylum Chordata is divided into three subphyla on the basis of fate of notochord.
I. Subphylum: Urochordata e. g. Herdmania, Salpa.
Characteristics:
1. Notochord is present only in the tail of larva. It is lost during metamorphosis.

2. They are exclusively marine.
3. Body is soft and covered by of tunicine called test. Hence they are also called tunicates.
4. Pharynx has many gill slits.
II. Subphylum: Cephalochordata, e.g. Amphioxus.
 Notochord is present throughout life.

 Presence of pharyngeal gill slits, tail, and dorsal nerve cord.
III. Subphylum: Vertebrata

 In vertebrates, notochord is replaced by vertebral column.
 It shows two divisions- Agnatha (lacks jaw) and Gnathostomata (bears jaw).
Division: Agnatha
The lowest or most primitive of all vertebrates belong to the division Agnatha (Without jaws).
They include only one class of living vertebrates, the Cyclostomata.
Class: Cyclostomata
1. These are jawless and eel-like.

2. Skin soft, smooth, containing unicellular mucous glands but no scales.
3. Median fins are present but paired fins are absent.
4. They are ectoparasites. They have sucking and circular mouth without jaws.
5. Endoskeleton fibrous and cartilaginous. Notochord persists throughout life.
6. Digestive system lacks a stomach. Intestine with a fold called typhlosole.
7. Respiration occurs by 5 to 16 pairs of gill slits.
8. Heart is two –chambered with one auricle and one ventricle.
9. Gonad single, large, without gonoduct. Fertilization is external.
e.g., Petromyzon (lamprey), Myxine (hagfish)
Division: Gnathostomata
A) Superclass: Pisces (bear fins) and B) Superclass: Tetrapoda (bear limbs)
(A) Superclasses: Pisces
1. They are aquatic, present in fresh, marine and brackish water.

2. Pisces are poikilothermic i.e. cold blooded animals.
3. They feed on detritus material, planktons, algae, some feed on mollusc and others.
4. Exoskeleton is of dermal scales. Endoskeleton is either bony or cartilaginous.
5. Body is streamlined, boat-shaped to avoid resistance during swimming.
6. Respiration is by gills.
7. Its shows a single closed circulation. Blood cells are present and blood is red in colour.
8. Heart is two chambered and ventral in position.
9. They have a well developed brain with large olfactory lobes.
10. Sexes are separate. Most of the fishes are oviparous, some are viviparous.
11. e.g., Scoliodon, Labeo, Electric ray, Sting ray.
1. Class: Chondrichthyes
Characteristics:
1. Their endoskeletan is formed by cartilage hence they are called as cartlagenous fishes.
2. These are exclusively marine.
3. Exoskeleton is formed of minute of placoid scales.
4. Mouth is ventral in position.
5. There are two dorsal fins.
6. Male copulatory organs called claspers are present.
7. Tail fin is formed of two unequal lobes i.e heterocercal (asymmetrical)
8. Five to seven pairs of gill slits are present. Gill slits are not covered by operculum.
9. Fertilization is internal. They are viviparous.
e.g. Scoliodon, Electric ray, Sting ray.
2. Class: Osteichthyes
Characteristics:
1. Endoskeleton is mainly bony, hence they are called osteichthyes.

2. They are aquatic, present in both fresh and marine water.
3. Exoskeleton is formed of cycloid or ctenoid scales.
4. Mouth is terminal in position. 5. They show single dorsal fin. 6. Claspers are absent.
7. Tail fin is formed by two equal lobes i.e homocercal (symmetrical)
8. Four pairs of gill slits are present, covered by an operculum.
9. Fertilization is external and they are oviparous.
e.g., Pomphret, Labeo, Catla, Bombay duck.
B. Superclass: Tetrapoda
These animals bear two pairs of appendages. Some animals like snakes are limbless.
Superclass Tetrapoda includes 4 classes as follows:
1. CLASS: AMPHIBIA
Characteristics:
1. They are exclusively fresh water animals.

2. They are carnivores.
3. Two pairs of limbs arise from the pectoral and pelvic girdles respectively.
4. They help in locomotion. In frogs, between the digits, webs are present, which help to swim.
5. Body is differentiated into head, trunk and tail, neck is absent.
6. They are poikilothermic (cold blooded).
7. Skin is moist, glandular with mucous glands and has no exoskeleton.
8. External ear is absent. Tympanic membranes are present on lateral sides of head.
9. Mouth is devoid of teeth. Intestine and digestive glands are well developed.
10. Circulation is closed. Heart three chambered ventral, RBCs are biconvex, nucleated.
11. Respiration is by skin, lungs, bucco pharynx. Nervous system is well developed.
12. Sexes are separate. They are oviparous. Fertilization is external.They show metamorphism.
e.g., Salamander, Frog, Toad.
2. CLASS: REPTILIA
Characteristics:
1. These are crawling, carnivorous animals.

2. These are the first true terrestrial vertebrates, aquatic or semi-aquatic, in marshy areas.
4. Locomotion by limbs. The limbs have well developed pentadactyl digits and claws.
5. They help the animal to walk or creep. Snakes however are limbless.
5. They are poikilotherms.
6. Skin is dry, non-glandular and covered by an exoskeleton of epidermal scales or plates.
7. External ear absent. Ear drum is depressed.
8. Circulation is closed type, heart is ventral in position, and heart is not perfectly four
chambered (except in crocodile and tortoise, heart is four chambered).
9. They show respiration by lungs.
10. Well developed brain, olfactory lobes, cerebellum are better developed than amphibians.
11. Sexes are separate with prominent sexual dimorphism. Fertilization is internal.
12. They are oviparous. Most of the reptiles lay shelled eggs and show little parental care.
(Exception-viper is viviparous).
e.g., Cobra, Crocodile, Turtle, wall lizard.
3. CLASS: AVES
Characteristics:
1. The mode of life is aerial. They mostly build their nests on branches and leaves of trees.
2. Most of them are herbivores while some are carnivores.
3. Forelimbs are modified into wings for flying. Hind limbs are used for walking and running.
4. Aquatic birds have webs between their toes. e.g., Duck.
5. Body is differentiated into head, neck, trunk and a tail, streamline for flight.
7. They are warm blooded (homoetherms) i.e they keep the body temperature constant.
8. Their exoskeleton is made up of feathers. Scales are present on hind-limbs.
9. Skin is thin, dry, and non-glandular, Bones are hollow with air cavities to keep body light.
10. Jaws are modified into beaks.Teeth are absent, crop and gizzard are present.
11. They show closed type double circulation. RBCs are biconvex and nucleated.
12. Heart is ventral in position, perfectly four chambered with two auricles and two ventricles.
13. Respiration takes place by lungs, having air sacs to increase buoyancy.
1. Brain is enlarged with well developed cerebellum, Optic lobes; poor olfactory lobes.
15. Sexes are separate. Sexual dimorphism prominent, oviparous and lay shelled eggs with
16. Urinary bladder absent, females show presence of only the left ovary and left oviduct
which helps to reduce body weight and helps them in flight.
e.g., Ostrich, Kiwi, Parrot, Pigeon.

4. CLASS: MAMMALIA
Characteristics:
1. Mammary glands are present for the nourishment of the young ones.
2. They are omnipresent, mostly terrestrial, some are aquatic, and a few are aerial and arboreal.
3. Most of them are herbivores, a few are carnivores and some are omnivores.
4. Limbs used for walking, climbing, swimming etc.
5. Body is differentiated into head, neck, trunk and tail.
6. They are bilaterally symmetrical animals. 7.They are homoeotherms.
8. Exoskeleton is in the form of hair, fur, nails, hooves etc.
9. Sweat glands and sebaceous glands present. Mammary glands are modified sweat glands.
10. Body cavity is divided into two parts-thoracic cavity and abdominal cavity by a diaphragm.
11. They show presence of external ear (pinnae).
12. Teeth are of different types, incisors, canines, premolars and molars.
13. Double circulation is closed type. RBCs are biconcave and enucleated (except Camel).
14. Brain is highly developed. Cerebrum shows a transverse band called corpus callosum.
15. Optic lobes are better developed than olfactory lobes.
 Few mammals are oviparous e.g., Duck billed platypus.
 Some have pouches for development of immature young ones.
 These are called marsupials e.g., Kangaroo.
 Majority of the mammals are placental, viviparous (give birth to young ones),
 E.g. Human being, Bat, Camel, Whale, Monkey, Rat.
8.4 ZOOLOGICAL PARKS AND MUSEUMS:
A. Zoological Parks:
 Zoological garden, zoological park, menagerie or zoo is a place in which wild animals
are kept in enclosures and displayed to the public.
 These are the places where wild animals are kept in protected environments under
human care and which enable us to learn about their food habits and behaviour.
 All animals are provided the conditions similar to their natural habits (in situ).
Zoos or Zoological parks in India:
1. Rajiv Gandhi Zoological Park, Pune, Maharashtra.

2. Jijamata Udyaan , Mumbai, Maharashtra.
3. Nehru Zoological Park, Hyderabad.
4. National Zoological Park, Delhi. 14. Trivandrum Zoo, Trivandrum, India
5. Indria Gandhi Zoological Park, Visakhapatnam, AP, India.
6. Padmja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park, Darjeeling.
7. Mysore Zoo, Karnataka. 15. Allen Forest Zoo, Kanpur.
8. Lucknow Zoo, Lucknow. 16. ChattBir Zoo, Zirakpur, Punjab.

9. Arignar Anna Zoological Park, Chennai. 17.Chatt Bir Zoo, Zirakpur, Panjab
10. Alipore Zoological Gardens, Kolkata. 18. Parassinikkadavu Snake Park
11. Sakkarbaug Zoological Garden, Junagadh, Gujrat. Guwahati Zoo, Assam, India.
12. Madras Crocodile Bank Trust. 19. Sanjay Gandhi Jaivik Udyan, Patna.
13. Nandankanan Zoo, Orissa, India. 20. Marble Palace Zoo, Kolkata.
B. Zoological Museum in India:
Zoological museum is a place which exhibits natural history of plants, animals, ecosystems,
geology, palaentology and climatology.
Objectives:
 To impart knowledge about animals to the tourists and students

 To aware people about the animals and their behavioural patterns
 To preserve the animal specimens with formalin and alcohol and birds with stuffing
 To encourage natural heritage and eco-tourism
 To help the research and development activities through breeding rare species
Zoological Museums in India:
The zoological museum, Chennai Museum of zoology, Meerut

Zoological garden, Thiruvananthapuram Zoology museum, Muzaffarnagar
Indian museum, Kolkata Zoological Museum Jaunpur
Shree Bhavani museum Aundh, Satara, Maharashtra

Chapter 9: ORGANIZATION OF CELL
Introduction:
 All living organisms are made up of basic units called cells.

 The cell is the unit mass of protoplasm or living substance.
 Cell is the structural and functional unit of life, except viruses.
 The term cell derived from the Latin word ‘Cellula’ meaning a small compartment.
 The word ‘cell’was introduced by Robert Hooke in 1665.
 He described the spaces he observed in slices of cork under a microscope.
 He found that cork was composed of honey-comb like many polygonal compartments.
 The structures which Hooke had observed were actually cell walls.
 Later Anton van Leeuwenhoek in 1675, pursued microscopy and reported the existence
of cells such as human sperms, bacteria, red blood corpuscles etc.
 In 1831, Robert Brown discovered and named the nucleus in the cells.
 The science which deals with the study of structure, function, molecular organization,
growth, reproduction and genetics of the cells, is called Cell Biology or Cytology.
9.1 CELL THEORY:
 The German botanist M.J.Schleiden (1838) and the zoologist T.S. Schwann (1839)
established the cell theory in definite form.
 Both of them postulated that the cell is the basic structural and functional unit of cell in
all living organisms.
 This simple, basic and formal biological generalization is known as cell theory or cell
doctrine.
 In 1839, J.E. Purkinje coined the term protoplasm.
 Von Mohl in 1846 applied the name protoplasm to the contents of embryonic cells of
the plant. Protoplasm is the physical basis of life. Protoplasm divided into two parts, the
central parts is the nucleus or karyon and the peripheral extra-nuclear part as cytoplasm.
 The nucleus contains chromosomes (Waldeyer, 1888) on which the hereditary units, the
factors or the genes are linearly arranged.
Postulates of modern cell theory:
 All living organisms are made up of cells.

 Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life.
 Cells contain genetic information is passed on from cell to cell during cell division.
 Cells are similar in their chemical composition and in their metabolic activity
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
 Cells are self-duplicating, self-contained units and some cells are totipotent.

Totipotency:
 It is the capacity of living nucleated cell, to differentiate into any other type of cell and
thus can form a complete new organism.
 A cell is totipotent because it has the entire genetic information of the organism in its
nucleus.
 Embryonic animal cells are totipotent and termed as stem cells.
 Stem cells have a great potential for medical application such as curing many diseases.
Exceptions to cell theory:
 Viruses do not have cellular organization.

 Bacteria and blue-green algae are prokaryotes which lacks true cellular structures.
 Fungi like Mucor, Rhizopus and alga like Vaucheria are tubular and multinucleated.
 They do not fit in to the purview of the cell theory.
 These organisms have bodies containing undivided mass of protoplasm.
9.2 ULTRASTRUCTURE PROKARYOTIC CELL:
 Prokaryotic cells are small,

simple and most primitive.
 Nuclear material is not bound
by a definite nuclear membrane.
 Bacteria and cyanobacteria
show prokaryotic organization.
 The average diameter of a
bacterial cell is about 1 µm.
 There are four forms of
bacteria:
 Cocci (singular- Coccus) are spherical or ovoid in shape.
 Bacilli (singular -Bacillus) are rod shaped.
 Vibrios (singular-Vibrio) are comma-shaped.
 Spirilla (singular-Spirillum) are long twisted bacteria.
Structure of prokaryotic cell:
1. Cell envelope: It consists of three basics layers, namely glycocalyx, cell wall and cell
membrane. Together these three layers act as a single protective covering.
a. Glycocalyx: It is the outermost layer made up of macromolecules which helps in adhesion

of bacteria. It is a thick and tough covering called capsule. It is made up of polysaccharides
and may contain proteins.

b. Cell wall: It is present below the glycocalyx. It provides definite shape and gives strong
structural support. The cell wall material is peptidoglycan or murein in eubacteria and pseudo-
peptidoglycan in archaebacteria.
c. Plasma membrane: It is the innermost covering of the cell envelope made of lipids and
proteins. It separates the interior of the cell from its environment, serves as a barrier and helps
in intercellular communication. It is the site for critical metabolic processes like respiration,
photosynthesis, synthesis of lipids and cell wall components. It also holds receptor molecules
that help bacteria to detect and respond to chemicals in their surroundings.
2. Cytoplasm: cytoplasm is a semi-fluid ground matrix present inner to the cell membrane. It
consists of inorganic and organic compounds which provide a suitable chemical environment
for cellular activities. The cytoplasm does not show cytoplasmic streaming and lacks
membrane-bound organelles but mesosomes and chromatophores are present.
a. Mesosomes: These are invaginations of plasma membrane in the form of vesicles, tubules
and lamellae. They are involved in the formation of cell wall, DNA replication and distribution
of chromosomes to the daughter cells.
b. Chromatophores: These are usually found in photosynthetic bacteria and cyanobacteria.

They contain pigments such as bacteriochlorophylls, bactriophaeophytin and carotenoids.
c. Inclusion Bodies: These are free storage granules in the cytoplasm and are of two types.
i) Organic inclusions: These include cyanophycean starch granules and glycogen granules.
ii) Inorganic inclusions: These include phosphates and sulphur granules.
3. Ribosomes: They matrix of a prokaryotic cell possesses dense particles called ribosomes.
They are made up of RNA and protein. The prokaryotic ribosomes are of 70S type. Each 70S
is composed of two sub-units- 50S and 30S. The ribosomes help in protein synthesis.
The letter ‘S’ stands for Svedberg unit, which is a measure of particle size that depends upon
the speed at which the particle sediments in the ultracentrifuge.
4. Genetic Material (Nucleoid): The genetic material consists of a long, double-stranded,

circular DNA molecule known as prokaryotic chromosome. It is highly looped and coiled with
associated proteins not like histone proteins of a eukaryotic cell. The circular DNA molecule is
connected to the plasma membrane through the mesosome.
5. Plasmids: The prokaryotic cell possesses one or more molecules of circular DNA called
mini chromosomes. This extra chromosomal DNA is called plasmid. Plasmid is autonomous
and self-replicating with few genes which provide extra-survival advantage. Plasmids can
carry out additional functions, such as antibiotic resistance and fertility.

9.3 ULTRA-STRUCTURE OF EUKARYOTIC CELL:
1. Cell Wall: The protective semi-transparent

covering is called cell wall. It is thick, strong,
and rigid and measures 0.1 nm to several nm in
thickness. In higher plants, cell wall is made up
of cellulose, pectin, lignin, hemicellulose, cutin,
and suberin. It is absent in animal cells. Cell
wall provides rigidity, support and shape to the
cell. It protects the protoplasm against
mechanical injury. It also helps in the transport
of material.
2. Plasma Membrane: The cell is surrounded

by a plasma membrane constituting the outermost boundary of cell. It functions as a semi-
permeable membrane. It is about 70-100 Å in thickness. In plant cells, it is the outermost
boundary which encloses the plasmalemma. It is an important cell organelle composed of
almost equal parts of lipid and protein.
Fluid mosaic model:
 It was proposed by Singer and

Nicholson (1972).
 According to this model, different
protein sub-units are present in the
highly viscous fluid matrix of
phospholipids bilayer.
 Each phospholipid molecule consists
of two parts a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails.
 The lipid bilayer is 45 Å thick with the tails oriented inwards and at right angles to the
surface of the membrane.
 So, hydrophobic tails from two lipid layers facing each other.
 The external surface of lipid bilayer has hydrophilic heads.
 The hydrophobic region of the lipid bilayer provides maximum resistance to the entry
of hydrophilic and polar solutes.
 The membrane proteins are of two types – extrinsic proteins and intrinsic proteins.
 The extrinsic or peripheral proteins are loosely held to the phospholipids layers and can
be easily removed.
 The intrinsic proteins, on the other hand, are tightly bound to the phospholipids bilayer
and are embedded in it called integral proteins.
 Some larger proteins visible on one or both the surfaces called tunnel proteins.

3. Cytoplasm: Cytosol or cytoplasm consists of jelly-like colloidal, ground substance called
matrix. It is further differentiated into outer ectoplasm and inner endoplasm. The matrix shows
streaming movement called cyclosis. The composed of minerals, sugars, amino acids, tRNA,
nucleotides, vitamins, proteins and enzymes. Cells have a set of “little organs” called
organelles for vital functions. These are nucleus, golgi apparatus, mitochondria, peroxisomes,
lysosomes, plastids, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, centrioles etc.
4. Mitochondria: These are double membrane-bound organelles found in nearly all the
eukaryotic cells. The average number of mitochondria in a cell varies from 50 to 5000. The
mitochondria appear as rod shaped filamentous, small spherical or granular structures.
Generally size varies from 0.2μ to 2.0 μ in diameter.
Ultrastructure of mitochondrion:
 It is a double membrane organelle of which outer membrane is smooth freely permeable

about 60Å thick.
 The inner membrane is selectively
permeable. It is thrown into a
series of infoldings known as
cristae.
 Oxysomes or F1 particles are
attached to the cristae.
 The oxysome consists of three
parts, a rounded head piece of
about 100Å diameter, stalk of
about 32Å thickness and a base
piece about 45Å thick.
 Each oxysome is approximately
85Å in diameter. In a single
mitochondrion, there may be 1 lac to 10 lac oxysomes.
 These are the molecules of ATPase enzymes (coupling factor F1) responsible for
catalyzing the terminal step of ATP syntheses.
 The cavity of the mitochondrion is filled with dense fluid known as the mitochondrial
matrix. Matrix shows presence of proteins, lipids, few ribosomes, one or two DNA
molecules, RNA and certain other granules.
 A larger portion of the mitochondrial proteins represent enzymes.
 Electron carrier molecules or coenzymes of the electron transport chain namely
cytochromes, dehydrogenases and flavoproteins are present on the rest of the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
 Mitochondria are called the power houses of the cell because ATP molecules are
produced during cellular respiration. About 80% of the energy is formed in
mitochondrion.

 Only mitochondrion converts pyruvic acid to carbon dioxide and water during cell
respiration.
4) Endoplasmic Reticulum:
Endoplasmic reticulum is found in all the eukaryotic cells but is absent in prokaryotes and
even in ova and mature red blood corpuscles.
 The ER is membrane-bound organelle forming network of three types of elements viz.,

stacks of flattened parallel sacs called cisternae, tubules, and oval vesicles.
 ER is usually a continuous system connecting one end with the nuclear membrane and
the other with plasma membrane, thus, providing mechanical support to the cytoplasm.
 The lumen of the strands of ER is continuous with the lumen of the nuclear membrane.
 The diameter of lumen of the strands is 400-700Å filled with an endoplasmic matrix.
 Each membrane of the cisternae, tubules and vesicles of the ER is about 50-60Å thick.
 The network of ER helps in maintaining position of organelles thus, serves as an
intracellular supporting framework.
 As Glycogen, lipid is synthesized and stored in ER.
 It serves to circulate various materials from one part of the cell to the other.
Types of ER:
a. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER):
 It plays a role in the detoxification in the liver.

 The process of detoxification involves those biochemical reactions by which harmful
substances are converted to harmless substances suitable for excretion by the cell.
 SER plays a role in the synthesis and secretion of lipids and steroid hormones by
mammalian gonads and the adrenal cortex of the adrenals.
 It also provides precursors for different secretory substances to Golgi apparatus.
b. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER):
 It is primarily involved in protein synthesis owing to the presence of ribosomes on them

which are the ‘protein factories’ of the cell.
 RER gives rise to smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
7. Golgi Apparatus:
It consists of aggregation of many membrane-bound bodies forming a simple flattened group.
 Golgi complex was the first described in 1898 by Camillo Golgi, in the nervous tissue.
 Dalton and Felix (1954) were the first to describe the ultrastructure of Golgi apparatus
with the help of electron micrographs.
 They are membrane limited flattened cisternae or small tubules or vesicles.

 These are in the form of large vacuoles filled with amorphous or granular substance.
 These lamellae are closely stacked in parallel array.
 The membranes are smooth-
contoured and the number of
cisternae in the stack varies with the
cell type and its physiological state.
 Two to eight lamellae are common
but many are seen in invertebrates.
 These are around 50 in liver cells.
Functions:
 Golgi bodies chemically modify

material within it and releases it to transport vesicles.
 It is concerned with the secretion and stroage of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids.
 They synthesize complex carbohydrates from simple sugars.
 Golgi apparatus is responsible for the formation of primary lysosomes.
8. Plastids:
 The plastids are found only in algae, plant cells and certain protists.
 They are semi-autonomous organelles having DNA and double membrane envelope.
 Plastids are of three main types (leucoplasts, chromoplasts and chloroplasts).
 They store food material in the form of starch.
 Chromoplasts are coloured plastids containing pigments other than chlorophyll.
 They are yellow, orange or red in colour.
 These plastids are found in the coloured parts of flowers and fruits.
 Chloroplasts are green plastids containing green pigment chlorophyll.
 These are photosynthetic in fuctions.
9. Lysosomes:
 In 1955 de Duve termed them as lysosome.

 Lysosomes are single membrane-bounded bodies; round, elliptical or highly irregular in
shape, and having a battery of multiple
hydrolytic enzymes capable of digesting
all kinds of materials inside or outside the
cell. These are also called sucidae bags.
 They are important for remodelling of
tissue e.g. tadpole loses its tail during
metamorphosis.
 They also help in the removal of carcinogens.
 They originate from GERL (Golgi associated endoplasmic reticulum).
 These lysosomes are found clustered around the Golgi region.
 Lysosomes are practically present in all animal cells (exception is mammalianRBCs).
 Their number varies in different types of cells.)
 Lysosomes are dense bodies made up of single unit membrane.
 The membrane is composed of lipoproteins which encloses various hydrolytic enzymes.
 Lysomomes are round, elliptical or highly irregular in shape, having an average
diameter of 0.25 μm to 0.8 μm. Lysosomes are polymorphic in nature.
Types of Lysosomes:
1. Primary lysosomes:
 These have small granules with relatively homogeneous contents.

 Primary lysosomes are inactive
storage form or ready reserves of
hydrolytic enzymes.
2. Secondary lysosomes:
 These are somewhat larger bodies

with heterogeneous contents.
 These are also known as
heterophagic vacuoles formed by
the fusion of the primary
lysosomes with endocytosis
vacuoles.
3. Residual bodies:
 The digestion, involving lysosomal enzymes, occurs in the heterophagic vacuoles.

 The products of digestion pass out of the secondary lysosomes into the cytoplasm and
the indigestible matter remains in the heterophagic vacuoles (secondary lysosomes)
which become reduced in size.
 Such bodies containing indigestible material are called residual bodies.
 These are of varying sizes and density.
4. Autophagic vacuoles:
 These are single membrane-bounded bodies; round, elliptical in shape.

 These are having a battery of multiple hydrolytic enzymes capable of digesting all
kinds of materials inside or outside the cell.
 These are also called suicidal bags of the cell.
 A cell may digest its own organelles is called autophagy and autolysis.

 Primary lysosomes fuse to unwanted organelles or other material and form large sac-
like structure known as autophagic vacuole or autophagosome.
 The enzymes then digest the unwanted organelles like mitochondria, ER.
Role of lysosomes:
Lysosomes, owing to the presence of hydrolytic enzymes, are highly capable of digesting
substances both inside and outside the cells. Many cells showing diminished physiological
activity require internal remodeling. Excess organelles are, thus, eliminated by the process
known as autophagy.
a. Cellular digestion: In the dead cell, the lysosomal membranes break and hydrolytic
enzymes are released. These enzymes then digest the dead cell. Thus, lysosomes are also
called suicide bags.
b. Extracellular digestion: The sperm releases hyaluronidase enzyme which dissolves the
protective coating of the ovum thereby helping the sperm to penetrate the latter to ensure
fertilization. They contain forty different hydrolytic enzymes such as acid phosphates,
sulphatases, proteases, nucleases, lipases and glycosidases.
9. Sphaerosomes:
These are small membrane-bound organelles present in the cytoplasm. They help in the storage
and synthesis of fats. They are found mostly in plant cells.
10. Peroxisomes:
Peroxisomes are micro bodies which contain enzymes for the synthesis of peroxide. They are
seen both in plant and animal cells, and develop from the endoplasmic reticulum.
11. Glycoxysomes:
Glycoxysomes are micro bodies containing enzymes for oxidation of fatty acids.
12. Ribosomes:
 Ribosomes are granular organelles which do not have any enclosed membrane.
 Chemically they are made of ribonucleoproteins and are the active sites for protein
synthesis.
 Palade (1955) was the first cytologist to observe, under the electron microscope, some
dense, granule-like cellular particles now called ribosomes.
 In eukaryotic cells ribosomes are found attached to endoplasmic reticulum membranes.
 They are also found scattered in the cytoplasm, mitochondrial matrix and chloroplasts.
 Ribosomes are seen as spherical bodies of about 150-250Å in diameter.
 They are usually uniform in structure and in composition in different organisms.
 They contain RNA and proteins in almost equal proportions with little or no lipid.
 In active protein synthesis, 80S ribosomes occur in groups called polysomes or
polyribosomes.
 Polyribosome may have a linear arrangement or may form a rosette-shaped cluster.
 Their number in a polyribosome depends upon the length of m-RNA.
Functions:
 Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis hence, are known as the protein factories.
 Ribosomal RNA molecules possibly serve as a skeletal framework in the ribosomes.
 Ribosomes are also protective against the action of protein digesting enzymes
13. Centrioles:
 Thses are non-membranous rod like structures in animal cells and flagellated plant cells.
 Near nucleus is a dense cytoplasmic area radiating microtubules called centrosome.
 Within the centrosome is a pair of cylindrical structures called Centrioles.
 They diameter varies from 1500Å to 2500Å and length from 1600Å to 8μ.
 Each centriole shows nine clusters of three microtubules set in a circular pattern.
 The long axis of one centriole is at a right angle to the long axis of the other.
Functions:
 Centrioles play a role in the formation and regeneration of cilia and flagella.
 Centrioles are required for mitotic division by producing microtubules.
 Spindle fibres help to arrange chromosomes on it.
 It helps in formation of spindles, basal bodies, flagella and spindle poles.
14. Vacuoles:
 Vacuoles are membrane bound fluid filled spaces present in eukaryotic cell.
 Plant cells show two or three large and permanent vacuoles, whereas in animal cells
there are small and temporary sized vacuoles present.
 Vacuole is bound by single unit membrane called tonoplast.
 Vacuoles are filled with fluid which contains mineral salts, sugars, amino acids,
proteins, esters, alkaloids, tannin, waste products and pigments such as anthocyanine.
Fuctions:
 The contractile vacuoles are responsible for maintaining homeostasis in cells.

 They are also specialized for osmoregulation and excretion (e.g. Paramecium).
 They maintain the turgidity of the cell.

Differences between Cilia and Flagella
Cilia Flagella
Cilia are short, hair like appendages Flagella are long, threadlike appendages
extending from the surface of a living cell. on the surface of a living cell.
Nexin arm present. Nexin arm absent.
Shorter in length Longer than cilia
Rotational motion, like a motor, very fast Wave-like, undulating, sinusoidal, slow
moving movement compared to cilia
Many (hundreds) per cell Few (less than 10) per cell
Found in eukaryotic cells Found in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
Differences between Prokaryotic cell and Eucaryotic cell
Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

1. Nucleus not well organized. Nucleus well organized.
2. Nuclear membrane is absent. Nuclear membrane is present.
3. Nucleoid is equivalent to a single Nucleus contains more than one
chromosome. chromosome.
4. Genetic material is circular coil of DNA Genetic material of a double helix DNA
without histone proteins. with histone protein.
5. Membrane bound cell organelles are absent. Membrane bound cell organelles present.
6. Plasmids are many in number. Plasmids are absent.
7. True vacuoles are absent. True vacuoles are present.
8. Cytoplasm does not show streaming. Cytoplasm shows streaming movement.
9. Ribosomes are smaller of the 70S type. Ribosomes are larger of the 80S type.
10. Respiratory enzymes are present on plasma Respiratory enzymes are present within
membrane mesosomes mitochondria.
11. Cells are capable of Nitrogen fixation. Cells are not capable of N2 fixation.
12. Cell division is amitotic(fission) Cell division is by mitosis and meiosis.
13. Cell cycle very short lasts for 20-60 mins. Cell cycle is very long lasst for 12-24 hrs.
14. E.g. Cyano-bacteria (BGA) and Bacteria. E.g. Algae, Fungi, Plants and Animals.
Cell-inclusions:
Cell-inclusions are non-living substances present in vacuoles, cytoplasm or cell wall. They
may be organic or inorganic in nature.
9.4 NUCLEAR ORGANIZATION:
a) Nucleus:
 It is the controlling centre of a cell discovered by Robert Brown.

 It contains genetic material in the form of chromosomes.

 The prokaryotic cells do not have true nucleus i.e. the single circular and large DNA
molecule remains in the direct contact with the cytoplasm.
 Hence, the nuclear material is referred to as the nucleoid.
 The distinct nucleus is found in all eukaryotes and it is separated by nuclear membrane.
 It is absent in cells like mature sieve tubes of plants and mature mammalian RBCs.
 The nucleus is clearly visible during interphase.
b) Number: Usually the cells contain single nucleus, however, the number of nuclei varies as:
 Mononucleate cells- most of the plant and animal cells

 Binucleate cells - paramoecium and cells of the cartilage and liver
 Multinucleate cells- polykaryocytes of the bone marrow and striated muscle fibers
 The polynuleate cells of the animals are called syncytial cells.
 The polynucleate cells of the plants are known as coenocytes.
c) Position:
 Usually nucleus remains located in the centre.

 But its position may change according to the metabolic states of the cell.
 In embryonic cells nucleus occupies a central position, but may later become displaced.
 In glandular cells the nucleus occupies a basal position.
 In adipose tissue cells the fat globule displaces the nucleus in peripheral position.
d) Shape: Usually the shape of nucleus is related to the shape of the cell.
 The shape of nucleus is spherical - cuboidal cells

 Ovoid or elongated- columnar cells
 Disc shaped- squamous epithelial cells
 Bilobed or multilobed- WBCs
 C-shaped - Vorticella
e) Size: The size of the nucleus of a cell depends on the volume of the cell, amount of the
DNA and proteins and metabolic phase of the cell.
STRUCTURE OF THE NUCLEUS:
A) Nuclear envelope (Karyotheca): The nuclear content is separated from the cytoplasm by
an envelope of single membrane.Under electron microscope it consists of two membranes,
separated by perinuclear space. The nuclear envelope consists of nuclear membranes,
perinuclear space, nuclear pores, annuli, central granule and fibrous lamina.

i) Nuclear membranes: Nucleus is surrounded by two nuclear membranes. Each membrane
is about 7-8 nm in thickness. Outer membrane communicates with the ER at several points. It
has ribosomes on the outer side. The inner membrane is connected with the dense material
called fibrous lamina attached to its inner surface.
ii) Perinuclear space: The space between the two nuclear membranes is about 10-70 nm. It is
filled with fluid similar to that contained in ER. It contains thread like structures.
iii) Nuclear pores: In 1950, Callan and Tomlin first observed the nuclear pores in the nuclei
of amphibian oocytes. It is perforated by many apertures called nuclear pores. They are
random and octagonal or circular in shape. At the margin of each nuclear pore the outer and
inner nuclear membranes are continuous.
iv) Annulus: The nuclear pores are enclosed by an electron dense ring or cylinders called
annuli. It consists of eight sub-units arranged in radial symmetry surrounding the pore. The
nuclear pore together with annulus is known as pore complex. The annuli may function as kind
of diaphragm while pore complex work as structure for selective permeability.
v) Central granule: A central granule is present

in the pore complex. It is probably a
ribonucleoprotein. Its size varies with different
physiological states.
vi) Fibrous lamina: Harris and James (1952) first

described the presence of fibrous material on
inner surface of inner nuclear membrane of
Amoeba proteus. It is made of acid protein and
represents honey comb model. It is absent in
spermatocytes, oocytes and in plant cells.
Functions of nuclear envelope:
 It separates the nuclear material from the cytoplasm.

 It is concern with nucleo-cytoplasmic exchange of the necessary materials.
 It provides surface area for the attachment of cell organelles such as ER.
 It provides surface for the attachment of chromatin material.
 It is concerned with synthesis of certain proteins.
 It acts as a source membrane flow to other cell membrane.
 The outer nuclear membrane gives off vesicles which fuse and give rise to the ER.
B) Nucleoplasm:
It is a transparent, semi-solid, granular and slightly acidophilic ground substance or matrix

known as the nuclear sap or nucleoplasm or karyolymph. It is composed of nucleic acids,
proteins, enzymes and minerals. It contains chromatin threads and the nucleolus.
C) Nucleolus:
 The nucleolus was first discovered by Fontana.

 It is a spherical, acidophilic body situated within the nucleus.
 The cells, actively engaged in protein synthesis have large nucleoli (e.g. oocytes, neurons).
 The cells without synthetic actions (sperm, blastomeres, muscle cells), have no nucleoli.
 The number of the nucleoli may be one, two or four (ganglion cells have single nucleolus).
 However, liver cells and certain lymphocytes have two nucleoli.
 It consists of continuous coiled filament called the nucleolonema embedded in a matrix.
 It has four components, matrix, nucleolar chromatin, fibrils and granules.
Functions of Nucleolus:
 RNA production: The nucleolus is one of the most active site of RNA synthesis.
 Ribosome formation: Nucleolus is the active site for ribosome formation.
 Protein synthesis: protein synthesis takes place in the nucleolus.
D) Chromatin material:
 It is a thread like coiled structures called as chromatin fibres or chromatin network.

 It is the genetic material consisting of DNA associated with nuclear proteins and RNA.
 In an interphase nucleusit is often called chromatin which is of two types as follows:
Heterochromatin Euchromatin
1. These are darkly stained and condensed 1. Light stained and diffused regions
2. It is metabolically and genetically inert 2. It is metabolically and genetically active
3. It contains small amount of DNA 3. It contains large amount of DNA
4. It has large amount of the RNA. 4. It has small amount of RNA
5. They contain repetitive sequences 5. They do not contain repetitive sequences
Chromosomes:
 These were first seen by Hofmeister and named chromosomes by Waldeyer.

 The chromatin is made up of small repeating units are called nucleosomes.
 These condensed to form distinct structures during cell division called chromosomes.
 The chromosomes are not visible in the active nucleus due to their high water content,
but are clearly seen during cell division (metaphase).
 These are the nuclear components of special organization, individuality and function.
Functions: 1. They have an ability of self-replication.
2. They play role in heredity, variation, mutation and evolution of species.
3. The number of chromosomes is constant for a particular species.
4. They determine the phylogeny and taxonomy of the species.

Functions of Nucleus:
 Nucleus is the controlling centre of the cell metabolism.

 It is site for the synthesis of DNA, RNA and ribosomes.
 It plays an important role in synthesis of proteins.
 It contains all the genetic information necessary for growth and development.
 It passes all genetic information to next generation.

Chapter 10: STUDY OF ANIMAL TISSUES
10.1 INTRODUCTION:
 The body of multi-cellular organism is made of many cells and of different types.
 The average number of cells in human body is nearly 100 trillion of 200 types.
 The cells differ from one another in their shape and size.
 Cells usually works in groups called tissue.
 A group of cells with same embryonic origin, structure and function is called tissue.
 They are unique in performing their specialized function.
 Tissues combine together to form large functional units called organs.
 Number of organ work in co-ordination and gives rise to organ - system.
 In multi-cellular organism cells are classified under two types somatic and germ cells.
Somatic cells are general body cells present all over the body except reproductive organs
and are responsible for all bodily activities.
 The germ cells are concerned with reproduction present in reproduction system/organ.
 The somatic cells are grouped into four types of somatic tissue epithelial, connective,
muscular and nervous tissue.
10.2 EPITHELIUM OR EPITHELIAL TISSUE:
 Epithelial tissue is found on

inner and outer body
surface.
 It is seen to line the hollow
organs, body cavities, blood
vessels and ducts.
 It originates from three
germ layers, ectoderm,
endoderm and mesoderm.
 Cells of epithelial tissue are
compactly arranged and no
intercellular space is seen.
 Cells are placed on thin, double layered, non-cellular basement membrane.
 Epithelial tissue has nerve supply of its own.
 This tissue lacks its own blood supply.
 Epithelial tissue has the capacity of self renewal and repair.
 The old injured dead cells are sloughed off regularly.
 It is further divided into two types covering (Simple) and glandular epithelial tissue.
A. Simple epithelium can be further classified as squamous, cuboidal, columnar, ciliated and
glandular epithelium. Squamous epithelium is found in peritoneum of coelom and endothelium
(Lining of blood vessels). The cells are polygonal in shape, thin delicate, flat. These are
uninucleated with centrally placed oval
nucleus. They appear like flat tiles when
viewed from above, thus are also called
pavement epithelium. Filtration and diffusion
of material are some of its functions.
a) Cuboidal Epithelium is generally found in thyroid gland and kidney. The cells are cube
shaped. These are also uninucleated with centrally placed round or spherical. They play in
important role in absorption and secretion.
b) Columnar Epithelium is found to line stomach, intestine and other internal organs. The
cells are tall, pillar- like with anterior free end much broader than posterior narrow end resting
on the basal membrane Nucleus is oval or elliptical near to the basal end. It can be further
classified as ciliated columnar and non-ciliated epithelium.
c) Ciliated columnar epithelium is found in upper respiratory tract, fallopian tube of

vertebrates. The cells are similar to columnar epithelium. They are tall, pillar- like with
anterior free end much broader than posterior narrow basal end attached to basement
membrane. The anterior free end show presence of large number of thin protoplasmic
extension called cilia, which are seen arising from basal granules. Nucleus is oval and is
placed at basal region. Cilia are capable of vibratory movement and are thus able to remove
foreign particles from the surface. Cilia help in movement of non-motile ovum.
d) Non-ciliated columnar epithelium: These are without cilia at its anterior free end and hence
called nonciliated columnar epithelium. They are further classified as goblet cell and cells with
microvilli.
e) Goblet Cells: These are modified non- ciliated columnar epithelial cell that secrete mucus
which acts as lubricants, lines digestive, respiratory, reproduction and urinary tract. Some of
the modified columnar cells at their apical region show presence of finger like projections
called microvilli. It helps in ncreasing the surface area for absorption.
B) Glandular Epithelium: Specialized epithelial cells capable of synthesizing substances like

enzymes, hormones, sweat, oil etc forms glandular epithelium. These secretions are carried
into ducts (tubes) onto surface or into blood. The structure formed by such specialized
epithelial cells is commonly called glands. It is either made of single cell or group/cluster of
cells. Glands are further classified as follows as endocrine and exocrine the type of mode of
secretion.
a) Endocrine gland pours their secretion directly poured into the blood stream. Such glands
lacks duct and are thus also called ductless gland. Some examples of endocrine glands are
pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, ovary, testis, adrenal, islets of Langerhans.

b) Exocrine Glands are glands with ducts. Their secretion is carried by means of a duct or tube
to site of action. These are responsible for bodily secretion and certain hormones and enzymes.
Tear glands, salivary glands, gastric and intestinal glands are some examples of exocrine
glands. Exocrine glands are classified further as per the number of cells as Unicellular and
multicelular glands. In unicellular glands an individual epithelial cell is modified into
glandular cell. Goblet cells secrete mucus.
In multi-cellular Glands: Large number of glandular cells aggregates and forms distinct
microscopic or macroscopic organ, e.g. Salivary gland, sebaceous gland (oil gland),
sudoriferous gland (sweat gland). Multicellular exocrine glands are classified on the bases of
their duct type (branched or un-branched) and the shape of their secretary portion as simple or
compound.
Functions of Epithelial Tissue:
 The epithelial tissue cover the body surface and helps protection from injury.
 They secrete antibacterial fluid (Sweat) and useful in metabolic activities.
 Epithelial cells also help in removal of excess and toxic material from the body.
 The microvilli are useful in absorption as increases surface area for absorption.
 The sensory cells are important site for reception of stimulation.
10.3 CONNECTIVE TISSUE:
 Connective tissues are found most prominently through out the body.
 It binds supports and provides strength to other body tissue.
 These are characterized by intercellular space filled with ground substance or matrix.
 Matrix is formed by secretion of the cells present in the connective tissue.
 Thes are characterized by presence of cells and ground substances.
 They interconnect by means of connective tissue.
 Almost all connective tissues are highly vascular except cartilage.
 These are connective tissue proper, skeletal tissue and fluid connective tissue.
A) Connective Tissue proper: it helps in connecting different part of body.
a) Areolar Connective Tissue:
 It is found below skin, muscles and

bones.
 The extra-cellular ground substance is
jelly like made up of gelatin.
 It contains two types of fibers white
and yellow.
 White Fiber is un-branched, wavy
arranged in bundles.
 White fibers are also called collagen fiber. They give flexibility to tissue.
 The fibers are secreted by large, flat, star shaped fibroblast (or fibrocytes).
 Yellow Fibers are very few in number and are thin, slender arranged singly.
 In contrast to white fibers, these are branched.
 They possess elastic property due to presence of a protein called elastin.
 Four main types of cells found are fibroblast, mast cells, macrophages and adipocytes.
 Fibroblast is large, flat cell useful in secretion of both types of fibers.
 Mast cells are many contain heparine and histamine granules.
 Heparine prevents clotting of blood and histamine is useful in dilating blood vessel.
 Macrophages are large phagocytic cells. Adipocytes are useful in storage of fats
b) Adipose connective tissue:
 Adipose tissue is found in association with aerolar connective tissue.

 It consists of large number of adipocytes i.e. cells specialized for storage of fats.
 The adipocytes contain fats so nucleus and cytoplasm is shifted towards periphery.
 Two types are White adipose tissue with large adipocytes commonly seen in adults.
 Brown adipose tissue is reddish brown due to large number of blood vessels.
 It is mostly found in developing foetus and infants.
 The adipose tissue is good insulator and is the major source of energy reserve.
 It supports and protects the various internal organs.
B) Skeletal tissue:
It acts as supporting framework of the body. It can be classified as cartilage and bone.
a) Cartilage:
 It is tough, flexible skeletal tissue which forms endoskeleton in vertebrates.

 The cartilage is enclosed with sheath of white fibrous tissue called perichondrium.
 It contains blood vessels and nerve fibers.
 Perichondrium encloses semisolid matrix called chondrin.
 Towards the periphery chondroblasts are seen which get converted into chondrocytes.
 The chondrocytes are enclosed within lacunae and are seen scattered in matrix.
 Each lacuna contains 2-8 chondrocytes without protoplasmic extensions.
 Depending on the nature of matrix the cartilage is classified as hyaline, fibrous and elastic.
1. Hyaline cartilage:
 It is the weakest of three types of cartilage.

 It is found at ends of long bones, anterior end of ribs, nose tip, larynx, and bronchial tree,
foetal and embryonic skeleton.
 It is abundantly found in the body and is compressible and elastic in nature.

 It is surrounded by perichondrium.
 The matrix is bluish white gel like contains very fine collagen fibers and chondrocytes (2-8
in each lacuna).
 It provides flexibility and supports the body.
 It helps in reducing friction and is a good shock absorber.
2. Elastic cartilage:
 It is found in epiglottis (Lid on top of larynx), external ear (auricle), trachea, etc.
 It is surrounded by perichondrium with matrix contains thread like network of elastic fiber.
 Chondrocytes are few and are encircled by elastic fiber.
 It gives support and maintains shape.
3. Fibrocartilage:
 It is the strongest and rigid cartilage present in the body.

 It is found in pubic symphysis, intervertebral disc, etc.
 It is not surrounded by perichondrium.
 The matrix contains bundles of collagen fibers.
 Chondrocytes are few in number and are seen scattered in bundles of collagen fiber.
 This cartilage helps in support and fusion of different organs of the body
b) Bone:
 It is the supporting and protective tissue of vertebrates.

 Bone is enclosed in thin layer of white fibrous connective tissue called periosteum.
 Blood vessels and nerves pierces through periosteum.
 Periosteum is internally lined by endosteum which wraps the marrow cavity.
 Bone shows presence of hard, solid, calcified matrix called ossein.
 In bone the matrix is arranged in concentric circles called lamellae with a large number of
living cells called osteoblast or osteocytes in fluid filled cavity called lacuna.
 Osteoblasts are active bone cells and osteocytes are inactive.
 Each lacuna has fine cytoplasmic extensions called canaliculli.
 The structural unit of bone is Haversian system or osteon.
 Haversian canal consists of blood vessels both artery and vein, lymph vessel and a nerve.
 Lacunae containing osteoblasts or osteocytes found concentrically around Haversian canal.
 The two adjacent Haversian system are interconnected by Volkmann’s canal
Types of bones: Bones are classified on the basis of the matrix
Spongy bone is seen in the expanded ends (epiphysial region) of long bones. The matrix is
web like containing trabacule with many spaces in between. It is filled with soft tissue called
red marrow responsible for heamopiosis. It lacks Haversian system.

Compact bone is seen in the shaft of the long bones. The matrix is hard, solid, and dense
without space. It is filled with fatty tissue called yellow marrow which stores fats cells. It has
many haversian systems which is the basic unit of compact bone.
Functions of Skeletal tissue:
 It supports the body by forming endoskeleton of organism.

 It is useful in protection of internal organ.
 It forms the base for attachment of muscles.
 In long bones, the yellow marrow cavity is concerned with storage of reserve food
material while the red cavity is useful in haemopioesis.
10.4: MUSCULAR TISSUE
 It is made of thin, elongated, contractile muscle fibers hence is also called contractile tissue.
 They have the ability to contract due to presence of protein filament –myosin and actin.
 Thus, they play and important role in locomotion and movement.
 Muscle fibers are thin, elongated cells with one or many nuclei.
 They are bounded with sarcolemma and contain specialized cytoplasm called sarcoplasm.
 The sarcoplasm contains myofibrils made up of contractile protein- myosin and actin.
 Muscular tissue is innervated with nerve fiber.
 They are vascular, 40% of total body weight is due muscles in mammals.
 They are striated, nonstriated and cardiac muscle fibers
A) Striated muscle fibers:
 These are attached to bones in head, trunk and limb region also called Skeletal muscle.
 Working of skeletal muscle is under the control of the will.
 Hence they are also known as voluntary muscle.
 Striated muscle shows presence of cross striations in the form of light and dark bands.
 They also contain large number of peripherally placed nuclei.
 Distinct cross- striations in the form of alternately arranged light and dark bands.
 So they are called Striated muscle fibers.
 Light band are also called “I” or Isotropic band.
 A narrow dark line is seen in light band called “Z- line” or Krause’s membrane.
 Dark band A or Anisotropic band does not allow light to pass through and so appear darker.
 Dark band is interrupted with narrow line called “H Line” or Hensen’s line.
 A portion between two “Z-line” is called sarcomere.
B) Unstriated muscle fibers or smooth muscle fibers:
 Unstriated muscle fibers or smooth muscle are seen in the walls of all visceral organs like
stomach, intestine, reproductive and urinary system etc.
 Therefore, they are also known as visceral muscles.
 They are involuntary in nature i.e. there movement is not controlled by our will.
 Unstriated muscle fibers are elongated, slender and spindle shaped( with tapering ends).
 They are arranged in sheets or layers and are bounded by sarcolemma.
 Cross-striations are absent within the sarcoplasm.
 This spindle fiber shows presence of centrally placed single large oval nucleus.
 Each muscle fiber contains many fine contractile myofibrils arranged longitudinally.
 These are innervated by autonomous nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic).
 These cells are involuntary in action.
 They undergo prolonged but slow contractions and relaxation.
 They are responsible for the peristaltic movements i.e.movement of food.
C) Cardiac muscle:
 These are involuntary muscles and are found only in the wall of heart or myocardium.
 These are short, branched fibers with ill defined sarcolemma.
 The fibers are uninucleated but as they are joined together by neighboring cardiac muscle
fiber it appears to be multinucleated.
 The branches of different fibers join together to form a network.
 The place were these fibers unite is marked by presence special zig-zag junctions called
intercalated disc (intercalate- to insert between).
 Intercalated disc are formed by transverse thickening of sarcolemma.
 They show presence of alternate light and dark bands.
 The contraction of cardiac muscle is initiated by pacemake hence called myogenic.
 When controlled by nerve hence called neurogenic.
 Cardiac muscles are responsible for contraction and relaxation of heart which helps in
circulation of blood through out the body.
10.5: NERVOUS TISSUE
 It is made up of nervous tissue and supportive cells called glial cell or neuroglia.
 Nervous tissue is composed of millions of nerve cell called neurons.
 They provide the quickest means of communication within the body and help the body give
response to the external stimulus.
 Thus, the neuron is considered as
impulse generating and impulse
conducting unit.
 Neurons possess two important
basic properties excitability and
conductivity.
 Excitablity is external stimulus by changing the action potential of their membrane.
 The Conductivity is to carry a wave of electric impulse from the Dendron to axon.
A) Neuroglial cells:
 In the central nervous system the interneuronal space is filled with large amount of
supporting non nervous cells called neuroglial cells.
 These cells are more in number as comparedto neurons.
 They are capable of regeneration and division which is lacking in nerve cell.
 The glial cells are useful in supporting the functions of neurons, nourishment of neuron and
provide protection to neurons by engulfing the foreign particles (phagocytosis).
B) Neuron:
 Neuron is covered by neurilemma made of cyton and cytoplasmic extensions.

 Cyton or Cell body is also called perikaryon or soma and contains granular cytoplasm
with large number of network of neurofibrils, various cell organelles like mitochondria,
Golgi complex, RER and centrally placed nucleus.
 The granules present in cytoplasn are conical, rich in RNA and are involved in protein
synthesis. These are called Nissl’s granules.
 Cytoplasmic extensions- dendrons or dendrites and axon.
 Dendrites are thin, small cytoplasmic extension of cyton or cell body of neuron.
 Axon is the longest cytoplasmic process conducting impulse away from the cell body.
 It is lined by axonal membrane and encloses cytoplasm called axoplasm.
 The axoplasm is in continuation with the cytoplasm of cyton.
 It contains mitochondria, RER but lacks Nissl’s granules and Golgi complex.
 The axon is wrapped by Schwann cell which forms insulating myelin sheath.
 Such neurons are called myelinated neurons.
 When Neuron lacks the myelin sheath are non-myelinated neurons.
 The terminal end of the axon in both myelinated and non-myelinated neurons shows
presence of many swollen knob like structure called telodendrons.
 They are filled with acetylcholine and adrenaline acts as neurotransmitter.
Types of neuron:
 The neurons are classified as unipolar, bipolar and multipolar neurons.

 Unipolar are neurons with two processes which joins the cyton at one pole.
 They are also called monopolar neuron.
 Bipolar are with fibrils which originates from the opposite poles at the cell body.
 Multipolor are with more than two fibrils or with many fibrils.
 Depending on the function they are classified as sensory, intermediate and motor neuron.
 Sensory neuron responds to external stimulus and carries impulse towards CNS.
 The axonal part of sensory neuron terminates in the interneuron.
 Intermediate neurons are seen in brain and spinal cord.
 Motor neurons carry impulse from CNS towards the receptor organ.
 They are further classified as medullated or non medullated neurons.
Myelinated or Medullated nerve fiber:
 It is the one which nas its axon surrounded by many cells called schwann cells.
 They secrete insulating fatty layer around the nerve fiber which forms myelin sheath.
 It is interrupted at regular intervals and is called Nodes of Ranvier.
 A thin delicate membrane called neurilemma surrounds the axon.
 Cranial nerves of vertebrates are of this type.
 Myelinated or Medullated nerve fiber is useful in conducting impulse at faster rate.
 At the impulse jumps from one Node of Ranvier to another, this is called Saltatory
conduction.
Non-myelinated or non medullated nerve fiber:
 The axon of the nerve fiber lacks the myelin sheath as the Schwann cells present around
the nerve fiber does not secrete the sheath.
 Autonomous nerves of vertebrates and in invertebrate nervous system show presence of
nonmedullated neurons.
 These nerve fibres also help in conduction of impulses but at much slower rate as
compared to myelinated nerve fiber.
 Each nerve is surrounded by a sheath of connective tissue called endoneurium.
 A large number of nerve fibers are bound together in the bundles by perineurium and
several bundles are surrounded by epineurium which collectively makes a nerve.

Chapter 11: STUDY OF ANIMAL TYPE: COCKROACH
11.1 INTRODUCTION:
 Cockroaches are common house-hold pest with a very high ability of acclimatization.
 They are omnipresent and are found in warm, dark damp places such as kitchen, store
houses, man holes, etc.
 They are nocturnal in nature i.e. they are active at night and come out for feeding.
 During the day time they hide themselves in the cracks and crevices or under the objects
in kitchen, cupboards, etc.
 They are omnivorous and feed on all plant and animal matte.
 They are cursorial in nature i.e. they are fast runners.
 They have wings and can fly but they rarely exhibit their ability to fly.
 Periplaneta americana and Blatta orientalis is common in India
11.2 SYSTEMATIC POSITION WITH REASONS:
Phylum : Arthropoda- jointed appendages, body segmented and chitinous

Class : Insecta- two pairs of wings and three pairs of legs
Genus : Periplaneta- nocturnal, mouth parts biting and chewing type
Species : americana- origin in new mexico-America
11.3 EXTERNAL FEATURES OF COCKROACH:
 Periplaneta americana are elongate, dorso-ventrally depressed, or flattened showing

bilateral symmetry.
 Body of cockroach is protected by hard waxy, water proof chitinous exoskeleton.
 It is made up of polysaccharide called chitin.
 It also helps in providing the surface area for attachment of muscles.
 In each segment it is further subdivided into four plates, namely dorsal tergum, ventral
sternum and two lateral pleurons.
 The body is divided into the three regions i.e. head, thorax, and abdomen
A. Head:
 The head is ovate, dorso-ventrally flat pear-

shaped, attached at the right angles to the
thorax by thin narrow movable neck or cervix.
 Hence the broader end is directed upwards and
the narrow end is directed downwards.
 Head is formed by 6 fused chitinous sclerites.
 Head bears four important parts-pair of
compound eyes, a pair of antennae, a pair of fenestrae and mouth parts.
i. Compound eyes are paired, dark kidney shaped structures placed on the lateral side of the
head and are made up of large number of hexagonal facets called ommatidia. Each
ommatidium acts as a single simple eye and forms a part of image of an object. All such
images combine together in the brain and forms complete single but blur mosaic image.
ii. Antennae: These are paired, long slender filamentous, many jointed structure present
between compound eyes lodged in the membranous pits, called antennal sockets. These are
the tacto receptors or organ of olfaction (sense of smell) useful in organizing the food material
in the vicinity.
iii. Fenestrae: These are also called the oscillar spots situated at the base of each antenna and
appears as white spots .they are believed to be reduced non functional simple eye.
iv. Mouthparts: Mouthparts or trophi in cockroaches are present around the mouth and are of
chewing and biting types. These are movable, segmented appendages which assists ingestion
of food. The mouthparts are-
 Labrum or upper lip- useful in holding of the food

during feeding.
 Mandibles or true lip- are useful in cutting and
crushing the food.
 Maxillae- useful in cleaning the antennae, palps,
and front fore legs.
 Labium or lower lip- pushing food in mouth and
prevents loss of food during chewing.
 Hypopharynx or tongue-mixing food with saliva. Mouthparts of cockroach
B. Thorax:
Thorax is made up of three distinct segments prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax. It bears
two pairs of membranous wings and three pairs of legs. Forewings are first pair of dark
opaque thick wings which are protective in function. Hind wings are thin broad membranous
delicate and transparent attached to tergum of metathorax .theses are useful in flight and hence
are also called true wings. These are supported by many thin networks of vein or nervures.
Legs are present on ventral side of cockroach. They are present in each thoracic segment,
prothoracic, mesothoracic and metathoracic. Each leg is five segmented made of parts as:
a. Coxa: It is short, broad first segment of leg.

b. Trochanter: It is triangular freely movable on
segment fuses coxa to femur.
c. Femur: It is the strongest and thick segment which
is attached posteriorly with tibia.
d. Tibia: It is thin slender and longest segment of leg.

e. Tarsus: It is last segment with five movable tarsomers and fleshy pad called arolium.
Arolium on it’s under side bears adhesive pads called plantulae. The claws and arolium
helps in clinging on the smooth vertical surfaces while plantulae helps in providing the grip
for clinging.
Spiracles: Thorax also bears 2 pairs of small, white, oval laterally placed thoracic spiracles.
C. Abdomen:
 The abdomen is the largest of three segments and contains most of the viscera.
 The abdomen consists of 11 segments of which the 11th is reduced and fused with the
10th so that a maximum of ten segments are distinct and visible.
 Dorsally each segment is covered by a sclerotized tergite and, similarly, is covered
ventrally by a sclerotized sternite.
 Consecutive sternites articulate with each other by unsclerotized articular membranes.
 Laterally, tergites and sternites are connected by unsclerotized flexible pleura.
 Eight pairs of spiracles are present in the abdomen and are much smaller than the -
thoracic spiracles.
 Genital openings are present on different segments in both the sexes and are
surrounded by chitinous bristles in both which are collectively called gonapophyses.
 They are useful in mating.
Cockroaches exhibit the sexual dimorphism as follows:
No Male cockroach Female Cockroach

1 The terminal end of abdomen is The terminal end is narrow
broad
2 There is no formation of brood pouch The 7th, 8th and 9th sternum is modified
into brood pouch.
3 Genital opening is present between Genital opening is present in the 9th
9th and 10th abdominal sternum abdominal sternum
4 Anal style is present Anal style is absent.
5 It is thin and longer It is short and stout
11.4 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF COCKROACH:
Digestive system of cockroach consists of alimentary canal and its associate organs.
Alimentary canal is 6 -7 cm in length. It has variable diameter and divisible into three parts:
1. Fore gut (Stomodaeum): oral cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, crop and gizzard.
2. Mid gut (Mesenteron): stomach and hepatic cecae.
3. Hind gut (Proctodaeum): ileum, colon and rectum.

1. Fore Gut:
 It is anterior part of alimentary canal. The whole

fore-gut is lined by cuticle.
 It protects the alimentary canal from rough food
particles.
 Food is crushed initially by mandibles. It is mixed
with saliva.
 The mixed food enters the mouth and reaches
pharynx.
 Pharynx is short muscular and tubular. Both mouth
and pharynx possess taste sensillae.
 Pharynx rises vertically upward and bends to join a
narrow tubular passage called oesophagus.
 Oesophagus passes through the neck and opens into a sac like structure called crop.
 Crop is large pear shaped sac that stores food.
 From crop food enters a conical and muscular part called gizzard or proventriculus.
T. S. of Gizzzard:
 Its internal structure has six large chitinous teeth in

the anterior part, 6 thin plates and then 6 pads having
bristle studded cushions in the posterior part.
 Fine bristles also occur in the grooves of gizzard.
 Gizzard has, therefore, an efficient grinding and
straining apparatus.
 Gizzard marks the end of fore-gut.
 Its posterior end projects in the form of a narrow tube into the mid-gut.
 It is called stomodaeal valve.
 The valve checks regurgitation.
2. Mid-gut (Mesenteron):
 It is a short and narrow tube of uniform diameter is lined by glandular epithelium.

 It possesses a whorl of 7-8 finger like blind tubes called hepatic caeca, secrete
digestive enzymes.
 The same are also secreted by glands present in lining layer of mid-gut.
 The mid-gut area is, therefore, the major organ of digestion.
 It is also the seat of absorption of digested food.
 A thin permeable peritrophic membrane protects the soft lining of mid-gut.
 The posterior part of mid-gut has a spincter that keeps it closed.

3. Hind-gut:
 It is slightly broader than the mid-gut and is lined internally by cuticle.

 Hind-gut is differentiated into three parts- ileum, colon and rectum.
 Ileum is short and narrow. It internally bears short spines.
 At its junction are ring of up to 150 yellow thread like blind Malpighian tubules.
 They are excretory in nature. Their product is poured into the ileum.
 Colon is coiled and wide tube. Internal spines are absent.
 Rectum is the last part of the hind-gut. It is short wide with six internal longitudinal
fold of rectal papillae.
 The papillae bear rectal glands which absorb water and salts from undigested food.
 Rectum opens to the outside by anus which lies below the 10th tergum.
Salivary Gland:
 Cockroach has two salivary glands, one on each

side of crop.
 Each gland has two glandular lobes and a
receptacle or reservoir.
 Their ducts join to form a common salivary duct
which opens over hypopharynx.
Food:
Cockroach is omnivorous, feeding on all types of organic foods. The animal also has the
tendency of even eating its own kind especially under overcrowded condition. It is called
cannibalism.
11.5 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM:
Cockroach shows open type of circulatory system made of haemocoel, haemolymph, heart and
alary muscles.
a) Haemocoel:
 Body cavity of cockroach filled with haemolymph is called haemocoel.

 It is divided into three parts by dorsal and ventral diaphragms.
 These are dorsal (pericardial) sinus, middle perivisceral sinus and perineural sinus.
b) Haemolymph:
 It is a colourless fluid made of plasma and haemocytes.

 Respiratory pigments are absent hence no role in transport of gases.
 It contains absorbed food and waste.

c) Heart:
 It is a muscular tube present in the pericardial sinus.

 It is closed behind and opens in front.
 It consist of 13 chambers of three are thoracic and ten are
abdominal.
 It extends in the head sinus as anterior aorta. Each chamber has
opening called ostia.
 It allows the blood flow from posterior to anterior direction by
peristalsis.
d) Alary muscles:
 There are 12 pairs of alary muscles attached to dorsal diaphragm.

 They are connected to tergal plates.
 They cause pulsation of the heart leading to blood circulation.
BLOOD CIRCULATION:
11.6 NERVOUS SYSTEM OF COCKROACH:
The nervous system of cockroach consists of
1. Central Nervous System ( CNS )

2. Peripheral Nervous System ( PNS )
3. Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
1. Central Nervous System:
The central nervous system consists of a pair of Supra Oesophageal Ganglia, a pair of Sub
Oesophageal Ganglia, a pair of Circum Oesophageal Connectives and a Nerve Cord.
i) Supra Oesophageal Ganglia or Cerebral Ganglia: Supra oesophageal ganglia is regarded

as the brain. It is a bilobed mass, situated in the head above the oesophagus between the basas
of the antenna. It is formed by the fusion of three pairs of ganglia namely protocerebrum ,
deuterocerebrum and tritocerebrum of the head region.

ii) Sub Oesophageal Ganglia: It is a bilobed mass, situated
in the head below the oesophagus. It is also formed by the
fusion of three pairs of ganglia of the head region.
iii) Circum Oesophageal Connectives: Arising from the

supra oesophageal ganglia are a pair of nerves called circum
oesophageal connectives. These connectives join the sub
oesophageal ganglia encircling the oesophagus. All these
three strures from the nerve ring.
iv) Nerve Cord: It is a solid, double, ventral nerve cord. It

arises from the sub oesophageal ganglia and extends
throughout the lenth along the mid-ventral side of body.
 Along its length, the nerve cord enlarges to from the
paired segmental ganglia.
 There are three pairs of thoracic ganglia and six pairs of abdominal ganglia.
 Each thoracic segment contains a pair of ganglia.
 There are six pairs of abdominal ganglia. The first five pairs of abdominal lie in the first
five abdominal segments. The sixth abdominal ganglia is the largest and lies far behind. It
is probably formed by the fusion of the ganglia, of the last few abdominal segments.
2. Peripheral nervous system:

The peripheral nervous system comprises of the nerves that arise from the supra-oesophageal
ganglia, sub-oesophageal ganglia, circum oesophageal connectives and the segment ganglia.
3. Autonomic nervous system: It consists of gamglia and nerves that controls visceral organs.
11.7 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:
 It consists of spiracles, trachea,

tracheoles and body tissiues.
 Spiracles are the openings on the body
surface from thorax and abdomen.
 These are connected to larger tubes
called tracheae.
 Each trachea is branches into the
smaller tubes called traceaoles.
 They surround all the insect organs and tissues.
 Air enters the body through spiracles and passes into the trachea, then to tracheoles and
finally imto the body tissues.
 Exchange of gases takes place at tissue level.

11.8 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF COCKROACH:
1. Female reproductive system:
 It consists of pair of overies, a pair of oviducts, a common oviduct or vagina and

spermatheca.
 Each ovary shows 8 ovarioles containing a chain of developing ova.
 Ovarioles from each side unite to form oviduct.
 Both the oviducts unite to form a single common oviduct called vagina.
 Spermatheca is present in 6th abdominal segment.
 It receives the sperms from male during copulation. Sperms fertilize the eggs.
 The accessory glands are collateral glands.
 Their secretion helps in the formation of leathery, dark reddish brown egg case called
ootheca.it contains 14-16 eggs and protects the fertilized eggs.
2. Male reproductive system:
 It consists of a pair of testes, a pair of vasa defferentia and single ejaculatory duct.
 Each testis is present in 4th to 6th segments. They produce sperms.
 From each testis arise a thin vas deference which opens into ejaculatory duct through
seminal vesicle.
 The ejaculatory duct opens into gonopore below anus.
 The sperms are stored in seminal vescicle in the form of bundles called spermatophores.
 The glands are mashroom glands and phallic glands.

Chapter12: HUMAN NUTRITION
12.1 INTRODUCTION:
 Nutrition is the process through which food is taken in, digested, absorbed, and utilized
and finally, the undigested matter is eliminated outside the body.
 Thus, nutrition includes the processes like ingestion, digestion, absorption assimilation
and egestion (defecation).
 During ingestion, food is taken inside the body.
 This ingested food is then digested.
 Digestion is defined as the process during which the complex, non-diffusible and non-
absorbable food substances are converted into simple, diffusible and absorbable
substances.
 During absorption, the simple substances get diffused into the blood.
12.2 ORGANS OF DIGESTION:
Human digestive system consists of alimentary canal and associated digestive glands.
Alimentary canal is a long tubular structure of varying diameter starting from mouth and
ending with anus. The associated digestive glands include salivary glands, liver and pancreas.
A) Alimentary canal:
Alimentary canal is about 8-10 meters long and it consists of mouth, buccal cavity, pharynx,
oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large
intestine and anus.
1. Mouth:
 This is the uppermost transverse-slit-

like opening of the alimentary canal.
 It is bounded by an upper lip and a
lower lip.
 It leads to a large cavity called buccal
cavity or oral cavity.
 Mouth is used to ingest the food.
2. Buccal cavity:
 It is the space formed by cheeks, roof, upper and lower palate and floor.
 It is lined internally by a mucous membrane.
 Tongue, teeth and salivary glands are also present in the buccal cavity.
Tongue:
 It is a muscular fleshy organ lying along the floor of the buccal cavity.

 It is roughly triangular in shape.
 The upper surface of the tongue bears numerous projections called papillae.
 These papillae have sensory receptors called taste buds which taste the food.
 Besides, the tongue is used to mix saliva with the food.
 The tongue is used to mix saliva with the food.
 It helps in swallowing and in speech.
 Its secretions also keep the buccal cavity moist.
Teeth:
There are total 32 teeth in the buccal cavity of an adult human being.
Tooth has two parts, the root embedded in jaw bone and crown as the visible portion.
Crown is hardest material of body covered by a white coating material called enamel.
The body of the tooth is made up of dentine which is bone like substance.
Beneath the dentine is the central cavity which contains blood vessels, nerves and pulp.
Study of teeth with their number, arrangement, development etc. is called dentition.
In human beings, dentition is of the heterodont type as there are four different types of
teeth namely, incisors (I), canines (C), premolar (PM) and molars (M).
Dental formula: Human dentition in adult can be represented in the form of a formula as:
2 1 2 3
DENTAL FORMULA = I -- C --- PM--- M ---
2 1 2 3
 The total number of teeth in the upper jaw is 16 and that in the lower jaw is also 16.
 Therefore, the total number of teeth in the buccal cavity is 32.
 The teeth masticate the food into small particles and help to mix food with saliva.
3. Pharynx:
 The buccal cavity leads to pharynx which is common opening of digestive and
respiratory systems.
 The opening of the respiratory system in pharynx is called glottis.
 It is guarded by a cartilaginous flap called epiglottis.
 It prevents entry of food into the respiratory system.
 It closes during the swallowing action. Pharynx passes the food towards the
oesophagus.
4. Oesophagus:
 It is long, thin and narrow tube connecting pharynx to the stomach.

 It is about 25 cm passing through thoracic cavity, pierces diaphragm and joins stomach.
 The food moves through the oesophagus due to rhythmic contraction of longitudinal
and circular muscles. This wave of contraction and relaxation is called peristalsis.

 Mucous secreted by the epithelial cells in the inner lining helps in the smooth passage
of food.
5. Stomach:
 It is a sac like, 'J' shaped, 25-30 cm long divided into Cardiac, Fundus and Pyloric
stomach. Cardiac stomach is the first part in which oesophagus opens.
 The middle part is called fundus and the remaining part is the pyloric stomach.
 The pyloric stomach opens into the duodenum.
 Sphincters are present at both the ends of stomach.
 The anterior sphincter at the opening of the oesophagus into stomach is cardiac
sphincter while posterior at opening of stomach into the duodenum is called pyloric
sphincter.
 The cardiac sphincter prevents the regurgitation of food i.e. the passage of food back
into the buccal cavity.
 The pyloric sphincter regulates the passage of food into the duodenum of intestine.
 The stomach stores the food and churns it. The churning breaks up the food into small
pieces and facilitate the mixing of the food with gastric juice secreted by the inner wall
of the stomach.
Histologically, the wall of stomach is made up of four distinct layers:
1. Serosa: It forms the outer protective covering of the stomach. It has an outer layer of
squamous epithelium and an inner layer of connective tissue.
2. Muscular layer (Muscularis externa): It is a thick layer made up of three kinds of

muscles, outer longitudinal muscles, middle circular muscles and inner oblique smooth
muscles. This muscular layer is the thickest part responsible for churning.
3. Submucosa: It is a connective tissue layer containing blood vessels, lymph vessels and
nerves. It supports mucosa.
4. Mucosa: It is the innermost layer thrown into large folds called rugae. It is made up of
three parts, muscularis mucosa, lamina propria and epithelium. Its muscularis mucosa is
prominent and formed of outer longitudinal and inner circular muscles. Lamina propria
contains gastric pits and gastric glands. Epithelium of mucosa is columnar and folded to
form gastric glands.
5. Gastric glands: These are simple, tubular, branched or unbranched glands, embedded
in the lamina propria. Each is made up of the following types of cells:
a. Chief cells or Peptic cells- They are pyramid shaped and present deep in the base of the
glands. They secrete the digestive enzyme pepsinogen.
b. Parietal cells or Oxyntic cells- They are large oval cells bulging out of the mucous
membrane. They secrete dilute HCl and an intrinsic factor.
c. Mucous cells- They are present in the neck region and secrete mucous.
6. Small Intestine:
It is about 6 meters long and 2.5 cm broad tube compactly coiled within abdominal
cavity. The coils are held together by connective tissue membrane called mesenteries
supporting the blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerves. It is divided into three parts:
a. Duodenum- It is 'U' shaped and is about 25 cm long. The bile duct and the pancreatic
duct open into the duodenum.
b. Jejunum- It is about 2.5 meters long and narrower than the duodenum.
c. Ileum- It is about 3.5 meters long. It is a little bit broader than the jejunum.
Histologically the mucosa, the innermost layer of the small intestine is highly folded into
numerous finger like projections called villi.
 Each villus is lined by columnar epithelium cells.

 These cells have microvilli to increase the area of absorption.
 The core of each villus has loose connective tissue with a lymph vessel called lacteal.
 It absorbs fats. There are a large number of capillaries in the core for absorption.
7. Large Intestine:
It is broader than the small intestine, about 1.5 meters long showing two parts, colon
and rectum.
a. Colon: It is the anterior region and is differentiated into three parts: the ascending
colon, the transverse colon and the descending colon. The colon is lined internally by
mucosal cells which secrete mucous makes the passage of undigested material easy.
b. Rectum: It is the posterior region of large intestine. Undigested material called

faecal matter is stored in the rectum temporarily before it is expelled through the anus.
At the junction of the ileum and colon there is a blind pouch called caecum. An elongated
worm like vermiform appendix arises from the caecum. It is a vestigial organ in human beings.
It is functional in herbivorous animals for the digestion of cellulose.
8. Anus:
The rectum opens to the outside by the opening called anus. Anus is guarded by a
sphincter. It removes undigested matter to the outside by the process known as
defecation or egestion.
B) Digestive glands: They are the salivary glands, liver and pancreas.

1. Salivary glands:
 These are multicellular glands which open into the buccal cavity.
 There are three pairs of salivary glands, Sub-lingual below tongue, Sub-mandibular
below lower jaw and parotid glands in front of the ear.
 The salivary glands have two types of secretary cells- serous cells and mucous cells.
The serous cells produce a watery fluid which contains the digestive enzyme
salivary amylase or ptyalin.
 The mucous cells produce mucous. It binds the food and makes it slippery so that it
can be easily swallowed.
 The secretion of the salivary glands is called saliva.
2. Liver:
 It is the dark reddish brown largest gland of the body weighing about 1.5 kg in an
adult. It is made up of two lobes.
 It is located on the right side, just below the diaphragm.
 Cells of the liver produce the bile juice stored in a small bag called gall bladder.
Histology of liver:
 Liver is covered by a thin membrane of connective tissue called Glisson's capsule.

 Hepatic cells are large, polygonal with distinct nucleus and granular cytoplasm.
 The cytoplasm stores glycogen and fat droplets.
 Hepatic cells are responsible for secretion of bile.
 Lying around them are large amoeboid Kupffer cells.
 They are Phagocytic and remove toxins from the blood and ingest worn out and
dead R.B.Cs.
Functions of the liver:
 Liver secretes bile which emulsifies fats and makes the food alkaline.
 Liver stores excess glucose in the form of glycogen which is used during starvation.
 Excess amino acids are converted into ammonia by the process called deamination.
 It synthesizes vitamin A, D, K and B12.
 Blood proteins like prothrombin and fibrinogen are formed in the liver.
 It produces RBCs during early development thus working as a haemopoietic organ.
 Kupffer cells digest old R.B.Cs.
3. Pancreas:
 It is a leaf shaped gland lying in the gap between the duodenum and stomach.
 It is a mixed gland because it is exocrine as well as endocrine in function.
 The exocrine part is made up of pancreatic lobules called acini.
 They are flask shaped and formed of a single layer of large glandular pyramid cells.
 These cells secrete the pancreatic juice.
 The endocrine part is made up of islets of Langerhans.
 They are made of 'A' or alpha (α) cells that secrete glucagon and 'B' or beta (β) cells
that secrete insulin. Both these hormones together control the blood sugar level.
 In addition delta (δ) cells secrete somatostatin hormone, which decreases glucagon
and insulin secretion.
12.3 PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION:
 The food eaten is insoluble and it can not become a part of our body.
 The food undergoes many physical and chemical changes so that it is converted into
the simple soluble absorbable form.
 This is absorbed into the mucosa cells of the alimentary canal and then diffused into
the blood capillaries.
 The mechanical changes include breaking up of the food into smaller finer particles
due to mastication, churning and peristaltic movements.
 Chemical changes are brought about by the action of different enzymes.
a) Digestion in the buccal cavity:
1. The food is broken down into pieces mechanically by mastication, chewing etc.
2. The tongue mixes the food with saliva secreted by the salivary glands.
3. Saliva is watery; it converts the food into a paste.
4. The saliva contains salivary amylase or ptyalin which acts on starch and convert it
into maltose. Enzyme maltase acts on maltose and converts it into glucose.
5. A round food ball called bolus is formed which is then pushed into the oesophagus
by the action of the tongue. The tongue presses against the palate and pushes the
bolus into the pharynx; this is called swallowing or deglutition.
Starch Salivary amylase Maltose
(Polysaccharide) (Disaccharide)
Maltose maltase Glucose
b) Digestion in the stomach:
1. The stomach churns the food by strong peristaltic movements. This is physical
digestion. Food gets properly mixed with the gastric juice produced in the stomach.
2. The gastric glands start producing gastric juice when food enters the stomach.
3. Gastric juice contains dilute HCl, mucous and inactive enzyme called pepsinogen.
4. HCl performs the following functions-
a) Stops the action of salivary amylase.
b) Provides the acidic medium to convert inactive pepsinogen to active pepsin.
c) It kills the germs that may have come along with the food.
d) It helps to soften the food.
5. Pepsin acts on proteins and converts into simpler peptones and proteoses.
6. Mucous forms a protective layer on stomach mucosa to prevent the action of HCl.
7. Secretion of gastric juice is controlled by the sight, smell and taste of food.
8. After digestion in the stomach food is converted into a semisolid mass called
chyme. Acidic chyme travels into the duodenum through the pyloric sphincter.
Pepsinogen HCl Pepsin
(Inactive enzyme) (active enzyme)
Proteins Pepsin Peptones+ Proteoses.

acidic medium
c) Digestion in the small intestine:
 In the duodenum the secretions of the liver and pancreas are poured.
 Secretion of liver is bile and secretion of pancreas is pancreatic juice.
 Bile help to neutralize the acidic chyme. Bile juice is a yellowish green liquid.
 It is made up of water, cholesterol, bile salts and bile pigments.
 Bile salts bring about emulsification of fats.
 Bile pigments bilirubin and biliverdin are produced as a result of breakdown of
haemoglobin. They give colour to faecal matter. Bile also helps to neutralize the
acidic chyme.
 Pancreatic juice contains water, sodium salts and various enzymes.
 The action of various enzymes present in the pancreatic juice is as follows:
1. Amylase acts on the starch to form maltose.
Pancreatic amylase
Starch Maltose
alkaline medium

2. Lipase converts lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.
Pancreatic Lipse
Lipids fatty acids+ glycerol
alkaline medium
3. Inactive trypsinogen is converted to trypsin by enterokinase from intestinal juice.
enterokinase
Trypsinogen Trypsin
alkaline medium
4. Trypsin acts on proteins, peptones and proteoses to form polypeptides.
proteins+ peptones+ proteoses Trypsin polypeptides
5. Chymotrypsinogen is converted into active Chymotrypsin by trypsin.
Chymotrypsinogen(inactive) Trypsin Chymotrypsin (active)
Polypeptides Chymotrypsin Dipeptides.
Intestinal juice is secreted by the intestinal glands. It contains many enzymes which act
as follows:
a) Enterokinase converts trypsinogen to trypsin and Chymotrypsinogen to

chymotrypsin
b) Maltase acts on maltose to form glucose
Maltose maltase glucose
c) Sucrase acts on sucrose to from and fructose.
Sucrose sucrase glucose + fructose
d) Lactose Lactase glucose+ galactose.
e) Dipeptidase acts on dipeptides to form amino acids.
Dipeptides Dipeptidase Amino acids
f) Emulsified fats are converted into fatty acids and glycerol by lipase.
Emulsified fats + lipase fatty acids + glycerol

At the end of digestion chyme is converted into a liquid from called chyle, which
contains amino acids, glucose, fructose, fatty acids and glycerol. All these are the
digested forms of carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
Absorption:
 Digested food enters blood through lining of the digestive tract called absorption.
 Water, inorganic salts and glucose is absorbed by the inner wall of the stomach.
 Rest of the absorption is done by the small intestine.
 The villi increase area of absorption.
 Glucose and fructose are absorbed into the blood vessels.
 They are absorbed by osmosis, diffusion and active absorption.
 Amino acids are absorbed by the blood vessels.
 Fatty acids and glycerol get absorbed in the lymph capillaries or lacteals.
 They enter lacteals and get absorbed in the lymph. Lacteals open into blood vessels.
Assimilation:
 The absorbed food material becomes a part of the protoplasm. This is called
assimilation.
 The mitochondria oxidize food to liberate energy in the form of ATP.
Egestion:
 After the process of digestion in the small intestine its soluble and useful part is
absorbed, while the undigested, unwanted residue is sent to the large intestine.
 Water is reabsorbed in the large intestine and a semisolid waste called faeces is thrown
out of the body through the anus.
12.4 CALORIFIC VALUE OF NUTRIENTS:
 Amount of heat liberated by complete combustion of 1gm food in a bomb calorimeter is

called calorific value.
 Actual energy produced by 1gm of food is called physiological value.
 The calorific values of the nutrients is as follows:
a. Protein: 4 calories per gram (16.8 joules/gram)

b. Carbohydrate: 4 calories per gram (16.8 joules/gram)
c. Fat: 9 calories per gram (37.8 joules/gram)
d. Alcohol: 7 calories per gram (29.4 joules/gram)

12.5 NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS:
 The diet with inadequate nutrients causes deficiency diseases.

 The deficiency disorder affects structure and function of the body.
 The excess of nutrients is also harmful for the body.
 Excess animal proteins may cause cancer of large intestine.
 Excess of vitamins, such as A and D, has an adverse effect on the body.
 Thus, diet should neither have an excess nor a deficiency of nutrient for normal
health.
 The deficiency diseases are caused by inadequate proteins, calories, vitamins and
minerals in the diet. These are briefly discussed below.
1. Kwashiorkor:
 It is a protein deficiency disease.

 It commonly affects infants and children between 1 to 3 years of age.
 The common symptoms are underweight, stunted growth, poor brain development, loss
of appetite, anaemia, protruding belly, slender legs, and bulging eyes.
 Oedema of lower legs and face and change in skin and hair colour may also occur.
 The causes are i) protein-deficient diet due to ignorance and poverty and
ii) Infectious diseases, like diarrhoea, measles, respiratory infections, intestinal worms.
 Some contributory factors are ill-spacing of children, large family, poor maternal health,
early termination of breast feeding, late introduction of supplementary diet, and adverse
practices of child rearing such as the use of over-diluted cow's milk.
 The proteins are essential for growth and repair of the tissues and also for body defense.
 Therefore, adequate amount of proteins must be present in the diet.
 For normal health, daily diet should contain one gram of proteins in case of adults, and
2 grams of proteins in growing children per kg body weight. Proteins obtained from
cereals, pulses, meat, fish, milk, cheese, leafy vegetables, groundnut, peas and beans.
2. Marasmus:
 It is form of prolonged protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) which affects infants under.

 It is caused by deficiency of proteins and total food caloric value. It affects the infant if
mother's milk is replaced too early with foods having low protein content and caloric
value. This often happens when mother conceives before infant is ready for weaning.
 Subcutaneous fat disappears, ribs become very prominent, limbs become thin and skin
becomes dry, thin and wrinkled. There is emaciation (extreme thinness) and loss of
weight. Digestion and absorption of food stop due to atrophy (degeneration) of
digestive glands and intestinal mucosa leading to diarrhoea. There is no oedema
characteristic of kwashiorkor.
 Diet with adequate proteins and proper caloric value should be given to the infants.

3. Indigestion:
 The abdominal complaints like heart burn, regurgitation and dyspepsia is called
indigestion.
 The main causes are-gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD), large meal,
hyperacidity, lying, bending over, tight cloths, loss of oesophageal sphincter tone, etc.
 To prevent indigestion, a person should avoid large meals, smoking, alcohol, fatty
foods, etc.
4. Constipations:
 Decrease in the frequency of stools to less than one per week or difficulty in defaecation
resulting in abdominal pain, distortion and rarely perforation is called constipation.
 Main causes are neurological dysfunction- diabetes, spinal injury, etc.
 Some factors may include inactivity, low fibre diet, etc.
 Increased dietary fibres, increased fluid intake and exercises can prevent constipation.
5. Jaundice:
 It is a sign of abnormal bilirubin metabolism and excretion.

 Due to abnormal metabolic sequence caused by excess haemolysis of RBCs that result
in excess bilirubin production.
 Hence the bile flow gets hampered and cause liver disfuctioning.
 The effects of excess bilirubin are itching of skin, pale face dark urine and whitish stool.
 The treatment includes supportive care, bed rest, proper diet, etc.
6. Vomiting:
 It is the reverse peristalsis that throws stomach contents from mouth is called vomiting.
7. Diarrhoea:
 Passing of loose watery stool recurrently is called diarrhea. It causes dehydration.

 It is caused by bacterial, viral or parasitic infection.
-----------------------------------------------

Chapter 13: HUMAN RESPIRATION
13.1 INTRODUCTION:
 Respiration can be defined as a biochemical process by which organic compounds

(food) are oxidised to liberate chemical energy.
 This chemical energy if released at once might result in a brief blast of light and heat
and may lead to death of the cell.
 Hence the energy is released in a step-wise process.
 The energy released is trapped in chemical bonds of the ATP molecules.
 The energy obtained from the ATP molecules is called biologically useful energy
because it drives all the life processes.
 When a cell requires energy, hydrolysis of ATP converts it to ADP (adenosine
diphosphate) and energy is released.
 Respiration is a process of gaseous exchange where oxygen is taken in and carbon
dioxide is released out as a result of oxidation.
 In this process, respiratory organs, blood and the body cells play an important role.
13.2 ORGANS OF RESPIRATION:
The main respiratory organs of human include nostrils and nasal chambers, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs and accessory respiratory organs such as diaphragm and
inter-costal muscles.
1. Nostrils and Nasal chambers:
 Nostrils are the openings of the nose through which oxygen rich air is taken inside the
body and carbon dioxide rich air containing water vapour is expelled outside the body.
 The space between the external and internal nares is known as nasal chambers lined by
a mucous membrane.
 It is divided into right and left parts by a cartilage known as mesethmoid.
 Each nasal chamber is further divided into three regions:
a. Vestibule:
It is anterior part of the nasal chamber. It has hair to trap dust particles and prevent their entry.
b. Respiratory part:
This is the part richly supplied with capillaries; it warms the air and makes it moist.
c. Sensory part: This is lined by sensory epithelium for detection of smell.
2. Pharynx:
 Nasal chamber opens into the pharynx, which is a short, vertical tube about 12 cm.

 The respiratory and the food passages
cross each other in the pharynx.
 Its upper part is known as naso-
pharynx and the lower part is called
laryngo-pharynx.
 In the pharynx, there are tonsils which
are made up of lymphatic tissue.
 They kill bacteria trapped in the
mucous.
3. Larynx:
 It is the sound producing organ.

 In males the larynx increases in size at
the time of puberty.
 Hence, it is called Adam's apple and can be noticed in the neck region.
 From the pharynx air enters the larynx through an opening called glottis.
 The glottis is guarded by a flap called epiglottis.
 It prevents the entry of food particles into the respiratory passage.
 Along the sides of the glottis are two folds of elastic tissue called vocal chords.
 These are responsible for producing sound.
4. Trachea:
 It is also known as wind pipe. It is about 12 cms long and 2.5 cms wide.
 It lies in front of the oesophagus and extends downward into the neck.
 The wall of the trachea is made up of fibrous muscular tissue supported by 'C'- shaped
cartilage rings. These are 16-20 in number. They make the trachea rigid.
 The trachea is internally lined with cliliated epithelium and mucous glands.
 If any foreign particle enters, it is immediately expelled out by coughing action.
 Dust particles get trapped by the mucus.
 By ciliary movement, they are swept towards the larynx and finally they enter the
oesophagus.
5. Bronchi and bronchioles:
 The distal end of the trachea is divided into two bronchi behind the sternum.
 Each bronchus is supported by a complete ring of cartilage.
 It enters into the lung of its respective side.
 On entering the lung, each bronchus further divides into secondary and then tertiary
bronchi.
 Tertiary bronchi divide into many minute bronchioles.
 Wall of each bronchiole does not have cartilage rings.
 Each bronchiole ends into a balloon- like alveolus.
 These alveoli make the lungs spongy and elastic.
6. Lungs:
 These are the principal respiratory organs. Lungs are paired, hollow, elastic organs.
 They are located in the thoracic cavity. Each lung is enclosed in pleural sac.
 It is made up of two membranes, outer parietal and inner visceral.
 The enclosed cavity is called the pleural cavity.
 It is filled with a pleural fluid, which lubricates the pleura and prevents the friction
when the pleural membranes slide over each other.
 Lungs are pink in colour, soft, spongy and highly vascular.
 The left lung is divided into two lobes. The right lung is divided into three lobes.
 Each lobe consists of bronchioles which terminate in a bunch of spherical thin walled
air sacs called alveolar sacs or alveoli.
 Each sac has about twenty alveoli which look like grapes.
 They are covered with a network of capillaries from the pulmonary artery and vein.
 Alveoli have very thin highly elastic walls. Each alveolus is about 0.1 mm in diameter.
 The human lung has about 750 million alveoli.
 The total area covered by them is about 50 times the surface area of skin.
 The large number of alveoli greatly increases the surface area for the exchange of gases.
Histology of lung:
 The outermost covering is made up of smooth muscle fibres called visceral pleura.
 Internally there are many lobules containing alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs and alveoli.
 The alveoli have very thin wall composed of simple non-ciliated, squamous epithelium.
 It has collagen and elastin fibres. This makes the alveoli very flexible.
 Alveoli are supplied by a network of pulmonary capillaries.
13.3 MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION:
The term respiration includes a complete process of taking in oxygen and giving out carbon
dioxide. It includes breathing, external respiration, internal respiration and cellular respiration.
1. Breathing:
 The process by which air comes in and goes out of the lungs is called breathing.
 It is the process that speeds up the rate of gaseous exchange.
 The terms respiration and breathing are not synonymous. \
 Breathing is a part of respiration.
 Breathing includes inspiration and expiration.

 During inspiration air containing oxygen is taken into the lungs while during expiration
air containing more carbon-dioxide and water vapour is forced out of the lungs.
a) Inspiration: Inspiration occurs in the following steps:
1. It is active process brought about by ribs, intercostal muscles, sternum and diaphragm.
2. The intercostal muscles contract, pulling ribs outward and increasing thoracic cavity.
3. The lower part of the breast bone (sternum) is also raised.
4. The diaphragm contracts and becomes almost flat.
5. Volume of the thoracic cavity is further increased.
6. Pressure on lungs decrease. The lungs expand and their volume increases.
7. Atmospheric air rushes into the lungs through the respiratory passage to make the
pressure equal. Thus the air enters the lungs.
b) Expiration: It takes place in following steps:
1. It is a passive process.
2. The inter-costal muscles relax pulling the ribs inwards.
3. This reduces the volume of the thoracic cavity.
4. The diaphragm relaxes and again becomes dome shaped.
5. This reduces the volume of the thoracic cavity from the bottom.
6. The pressure on the lungs increases.
7. The lungs get compressed and the air in the lungs, rushes out through the air passage.
Alternate inspiration and expiration together form the respiratory cycle. It occurs 16-20 times
per minute in man. Breathing is under the control of the medulla oblongata of the brain
13.4 TRANSPORT OF GASES:
The transport of respiratory (O2 and CO2) gases takes place in the following events-
1. External respiration 2. Internal respiration 3. Cellular respiration
1. External respiration:
 It includes the respiratory processes which take place in the lungs.

 Oxygen in taken up by the blood in the lungs capillaries and carbon-dioxide from the
blood is released in the air in the lungs.
 External respiration includes three events:
A. Exchange of gases:
Concentration of oxygen is higher in the inspired air than in the alveolar blood and the
concentration of carbon-dioxide is higher in the alveolar blood than in the inspired air. This
results in the exchange of oxygen from the air into the blood and carbon-dioxide from blood
into the air which is exhaled out.

B. Formation of oxy-haemoglobin: The absorbed oxygen combines with the haemoglobin of
RBCs. Haemoglobin is a respiratory protein pigment. It forms the unstable oxy-haemoglobin
Haemoglobin + Oxygen - Oxy-haemoglobin
Hb + O2 HbO2
C. Release of carbon-di-oxide: Carbon-dioxide from the blood is released in the air. CO2 is
brought from the tissue cells by the blood in the form of sodium and potassium bicarbonates in
the blood plasma. Some amount of CO2 is also brought by haemoglobin in the from of
carbamino-haemoglobin. CO2 brought in all these forms is released.
The bicarbonates break down to liberate carbonic acid.
NaHCO3 H+ Na+ + H2CO3
KHCO3 H+ K+ + H2CO3
Carbonic acid breaks down to form CO2 and water vapour.
H2CO3 H2O+CO2
Carbamino-haemoglobin also releases CO2
HbCO2 Hb+CO2
2. Internal respiration:
It includes the respiratory processes which take place in the tissue cells. Oxygen brought by the
blood is given to the tissue cells and carbon-dioxide from the tissues, is passed into the blood.
When the blood reaches the tissue cells, the unstable oxy-haemoglobin breaks up to form
haemoglobin and oxygen.
i. Carbon-dioxide dissolves in the cellular fluid and passes into the plasma. CO2 dissolves in
the water to form carbonic acid which is converted into sodium and potassium bicarbonates.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
About 80% to 85% carbon-dioxide is carried by the blood in the form of bicarbonates.
ii. Small amount of CO2 combines with haemoglobin to form carbamino-haemoglobin.
iii. Some carbon-dioxide dissolves in the plasma and is carried to the lungs.
3. Cellular respiration:
The ultimate purpose of respiration is to release energy. This is carried out in the cells by
oxidation of food. This process is called as oxidative phosphorylation. It results in the
formation of ATP molecules. Energy is stored in this form. This energy is used to carry out
vital life processes.
Cellular respiration takes place mainly in the mitochondria of cells. ATP is formed as the main
product while by products are CO2 and water which are transported by the blood to the lungs.
Energy released as heat is used to maintain the body temperature.
Respiratory Volumes:
1. Tidal Volume (TV): It is the volume of air breathed in and breathed out during effortless
breathing. In an adult it is about 500 ml.
2. Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): Volume of air during forced inspiration is called
inspiratory reserve volume. It is about 2000 ml to 3500 ml.
3. Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): Volume of air during forced expiration is called
expiratory reserve volume. It is about 1000 ml.
4. Residual Volume (RV): The volume of air left behind in the lungs and respiratory passage
after forced expiration is called residual volume. it is about 1500 ml.
5. Vital Capacity (VC): It is the total volume of air expired after a maximum inspiration.
Carbon monixide poisoning: short note
 Hemoglobin has about 250 times more affinity for carbon monoxide than for oxygen.
 In the presence of carbon monoxide, it readily combines to form a stable compound
called carboxyhemoglobin.
 The oxygen combing power decreases as a result tissue suffers from oxygen starvation.
 It leads to asphyxiation and in extreme cases to death.
 The person needs to be administered with pure oxygen-carbon dioxide mixture to have
a very high PO2 level to dissociate carbon monoxide from hemoglobin.
 Carbon monoxide poisoning occurs often in closed rooms with open stove burners or
furnaces or in garages having running automobile engines.
13.5 RESPIRATORY DISORDERS:
1. Asthma:
 Asthma is a condition in which the airways of the lungs become either narrowed or
completely blocked, obstructing normal breathing.
 That is why asthma is technically called Reversible Obstructive Airway Disease (ROAD).
 The asthmatic's airways become obstructed by constriction of muscles surrounding airway
or inflammation and swelling or increased mucus production which clogs the airway.
 Once the airways are obstructed, more efforts needed to force air through them and
breathing becomes laboured.
 This forcing of air through airways can make a whistling sound, called wheezing.
 Irritation of the airways by excessive mucus may also provoke coughing.

 Asthma episodes can be triggered by a variety of factors, most notably allergens, infections,
environmental pollutants, and nonspecific stimuli such as exercise and emotional states.
 Between 50 and 70 per cent of adults with asthma suffer from allergies.
 In children under three years of age, viral infections are likely to be the most common
trigger. After three years, allergies also begin to play an increasing role as a trigger.
2. Occupational lung diseases:
 This group of lung diseases is caused by inhaling atmospheric pollutants at work.

 Recognition of the damaging effects of these substances has led to legislation that limits
workers exposure to them.
 To cause disease, particles must be so small and carried in inspired air to the level of the
respiratory bronchioles and alveoli, where they can only be cleared by phagocytosis.
 Larger particles are trapped by mucus higher up the respiratory tract and expelled by
ciliary action and coughing.
a) Silicosis:
This may be caused by long-term exposure to dust containing silicon compounds. High-risk
industries are quarrying: granite, slate, sandstone, mining, hard coal, gold, tin, copper, stone
masonry and sand blasting and glass and pottery work.
 Inhaled silica particles accumulate in the alveoli.

 The particles are ingested by macrophages, and are actively toxic to these cells.
 The inflammation triggered when the macrophages die causing significant fibrosis.
 Silicosis appears to predispose to the development of tuberculosis, which rapidly
progresses to tubercular bronchopneumonia and possibly military TB.
 Gradual destruction of lung tissue leads to progressive reduction in pulmonary function,
pulmonary hypertension and right-sided heart failure.
b. Asbestosis
 Asbestosis, caused by inhaling asbestos fibres, usually develops after 10 to 20 years'

exposure, but sometimes after only 2 years.
 Asbestos miners and workers are at risk.
 There are different types of asbestos, but blue asbestos is the most serious disease.
3. Emphysema:
 Emphysema gradually damages the air sacs (alveoli) in your lungs, making you
progressively more short of breath.
 Emphysema is one of several diseases known collectively as chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD).
 Smoking is the leading cause of emphysema.
 In emphysema, the inner walls of the air sacs weaken and eventually rupture-creating
one larger air space instead of many small ones.
 This reduces the surface area of the lungs and, in turn, the amount of oxygen.
 The damaged alveoli don't work properly and old air becomes trapped, leaving no room
for fresh, oxygen-rich air to enter.
 Treatment may slow the progression of emphysema, but it can't reverse the damage.
---------------------------

Chapter 14: HUMAN SKELETON
14.1 INTRODUCTION:
 The body is supported within or around by a hard framework called skeleton.

 In vertebrates, the skeletal system is divided into exoskeleton and endoskeleton.
 The external hard, supporting parts of body form exoskeleton e.g. chitin in arthropods,
scales in fishes and reptiles, feathers in birds while hair, fur and nails in mammals.
 Exoskeleton is mainly formed by a protein keratin. It is a nonliving structure.
 Bones and cartilage are the hard, supporting parts forming the endoskeleton.
 The study of bones is called osteology.
 Human endoskeleton is mainly bony with some supporting cartilages.
 The human endoskeleton consists of 206 bones in an adult.
14.2 FUNCTIONS OF ENDOSKELETON:
 It gives definite shape to the body.

 It protects the internal vital organs like heart, brain, lungs etc.
 It provides support to muscles, soft tissues and whole body.
 It acts as a system of levers and helps in movement of body parts and locomotion.
 Red bone marrow present in ends of long bones and spongy bones helps in production
of RBCs and other blood cells.
 Bones act as store house of Ca, P, Mg etc.
14.3 HUMAN SKELETON:
Human endoskeleton is divided into two Axial skeleton and Appendicular skeleton.
AXIAL SKELETON
Axial skeleton consists of 80 bones. It consists of Skull, Hyoid bone, Vertebral column and
Thoracic cage.
A) SKULL:
It is formed by 28 bones. The bones of head and face are called as skull. Human skull is
dicondylar (presence of two occipital condyles at the base of skull). The skull is immovable
except the mandible which is movable. It shows main parts like – Cranium, Face, Ear ossicles.
a) Cranium:
The skeleton of head is called cranium. It is formed by 8 flat and curved bones. Cranial bones
are attached to each other by immovable sutures enclosing a large cranial cavity. In the cranial
cavity, brain is well protected. The bones of cranium are Frontal, Occipital bone, Sphenoid
and Ethmoid, Parietal bone and Temporal bone.

b) Face (Facial bones):
 Face is formed by 14 bones including jaws.

 The upper jaw is firmly fused with the cranium which is immovable.
 The lower jaw is movable.
 The facial bones are Maxillae (2), Nasal bones (2), Zygomatic (2) and Mandible (1).
 The inner are Palatine (2), Lacrimal (2), Inferior nasal conchae (2), and Vomer (1)
 Ear ossicles: The bones of middle ear are called ear ossicles. These are 6 in number (3
pairs). Malleus (2), Incus (2), and Stapes (2).
Importance of skull:
 It gives protection to the brain.

 It forms different sockets – orbital socket, ear socket, nasal chamber.
 It gives proper shape to the head and face.
 Mandible bone helps in opening and closing of the mouth.
Hyoid bone:
It is single, horse shoe shaped bone. It is located in the neck region just above the larynx and
pharynx and below the mandible. It provides attachment to the muscles of neck and tongue.
B) VERTEBRAL COLUMN:
 It is also called as backbone or spine. It forms the central axis of the body.
 It consists of a chain of 33 small rings like bones called vertebrae.
 In adult, 5 sacral vertebrae fuse to form a sacrum and 4 coccygeal to coccyx bone.
 Therefore in adult, vertebral column consists of 26 bones.
 They are 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral and 4 coccyx vertebrae.
 Vertebral column shows four curvatures Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar and Sacral.
 The cervical and lumbar curvatures are directed forward while the thoracic and sacral
curvatures are directed backward.
 The curvatures primarily help to balance the erect posture of body.
Importance of vertebral column:
 Its main function is to balance the erect posture of body.

 It gives support to the skull and trunk.
 It gives protection to the spinal cord in neural canal.
 It provides attachment to the muscles of back and articulations to ribs and pelvic bones.
 It acts as shock absorber during running, jumping etc.
C) THORACIC CAGE:
 The thoracic cage is formed by 12 thoracic vertebrae, 12 pairs of ribs and a sternum.
 Ribs are articulated dorsally with 12 thoracic vertebrae and ventrally with sternum.
 Sternum (breast bone) is a long and flat bone.
 In adult, it measures about 15 to 17 cm in length. It is present in mid-ventral region.
 It is divided into three parts, Manubrium, Body and xiphoid process.
Functions of thoracic cage:
 It gives proper shape to the thorax.

 It helps in breathing movements along with muscular diaphragm.
 It provides surface for attachment of various muscles.
 It gives protection to the vital organs like heart, lungs, liver and large blood vessels.
 It provides articulation to clavicle.
14.4 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
 It consists of 126 bones. It includes mainly the bones of girdle and bones of limbs.
 Pectoral girdle is made up of two symmetrical halves, i.e. right half and left half.
 The two halves are located apart from each other.
 Each half consists of two bones, Scapula and Clavicle.
 Pelvic girdle consists of two large hip bones or innominate bones or coxal bones.
 It is formed by two symmetrical hip bones, which are articulated anteriorly in mid line
by cartilaginous joint called pubic symphysis.
 Each forelimb consists of 30 bones.
 It is divided into five parts and consists of different bones, such as Humerus, Radius
ulna and Bones of Hand.
 Each hind limb consists of 30 bones, Femur, Tibia Tibula and Bones of foot.
14.5 LOCOMOTION:
All living organisms exhibit movement. This movement is autonomic and takes place with the
help of some internal force.
I) Internal movements:
These include all sorts of movements of the body parts. In animals these movements are
voluntary as well as involuntary. These are controlled by all three types of muscles, these are:
 Peristalsis in alimentary canal, constriction and dilation of blood vessels etc. are
controlled by smooth muscles.
 Contraction and relaxation of heart is controlled by cardiac muscles.
 Movement of limbs, head, trunk, eyeballs, etc. are controlled by striated muscles.
Significance of movements:
 The body movements help to maintain equilibrium against gravity.

 It helps in food intake, speech etc.
 Movement of the diaphragm and rib cage help in breathing process.
 Rhythmic movement of heart helps in the circulation of blood.
II. Locomotion:
 Locomotion is the characteristic of animals, which distinguishes animals from plants.

 It is willful or voluntary act of displacement.
 The movement of living organism from one place to another is called locomotion,
 There are four basic types of locomotion found in animal kingdom:
 Amoeboid movement: performed by pseudopodia e.g. Amoeba, Entamoeba.
 Ciliary movement: performed by cilia e.g. paramecium
 Whorling movement: performed by flagella e.g. Euglena
 Muscular movement: performed by muscles, joints, bones. Characteristic feature of
vertebrate animals e.g. man
 Locomotion includes walking, running, creeping, swimming, hopping, flying, leaping,
jumping, etc.
 In higher animals locomotion is controlled by skeletal muscles.
 In all vertebrates, including man, locomotion is the combined action of bones joints and
skeletal muscles.
 During locomotion, bones serve as levers, joints as fulcrums and the skeletal muscles
generate energy - ATP.
Significance of locomotion:
 It helps the animals to escape from predators.

 It helps the animals to move about in search of food, water and shelter.
 It helps in reproduction i.e. courtship and mating.
 It increases the chances of survival and continuation of race.
14.6 JOINTS:
 A place where two or more bones of the skeleton come together and attached to one
another, is called as joint or articulation.
 It is a junction between two or more bones or cartilages.
 Study of structure and functions of various joints is called arthrology.
 At joint the bones are connected to each other by thread like structures called ligaments.
 Ligaments are tough, elastic fibrous connective tissue bands or threads which connect
bone to bone at joint.
 Ligaments keep the bones in proper position at joint and avoid disclocation of bones
during the movement.
Significance of joints:
 Joints help in locomotion.
 Joints help in desirable voluntary movements of body parts.
 Joints bring flexibility in rigid skeleton.
 Some joints are protective and shock absorptive in function.
Classification of Joints:
On the basis of structure and degree of mobility, joints are classified into:
I. Fibrous joints / Fixed joints / Synarthroses

1. Sutures of skull 2. Syndesmoses 3. Gomphosis / Peg and socket joint.
II. Cartilaginous joints / Slightly movable joints / Amphiarthroses
1. Synchondrosis 2. Symphysis 3. Intervertebral joints.
III. Synovial joints / Freely movable joints / Diarthroses
1. Ball and socket joint 2. Hinge joint 3. Gliding joint
4. Condyloid joint 5. Saddle joint 6. Pivot joint
I. Fibrous joints:
 The bones are united at joints by thin or dense layer of white fibrous connective tissue.
 The white fibres are made up of a protein collagen.
 These joints are fixed i.e. can not permit any movement of articulating bones.
 A short and thick fibre does not allow movement of articulating bones.
 The line of fusion at joint is called suture.
 Fixed joints are primarily meant for growth and may permit moulding during childbirth.
 Usually these joints are the places of growth.
 When growth period is over these joints tend to ossify.
1. Sutures of skull (Serrate sutures):
 These joints are found in flat and curved roofing bones of skull.
 These joints are also called as serrate joints because articulating surfaces of the bones
are having serrated margins.
 Bones are repeatedly interlocked; therefore joints become more fixed and protective.
 The prominent sutures between cranial bones of skull are:
i) Coronal Suture – present between Frontal bone and Parietal bones.
ii) Sagittal Suture – present between two parietal bones.
iii) Lambdoid Suture – present between parietals and occipital bone.
iv) Lateral suture – present between temporal and parietal bones.

2. Syndesmoses:
It is structurally fibrous joint but functionally slightly movable. The two bones are connected
by either cord ligament or a thin Interosseous membrane of white fibrous connective tissue.
Syndesmoses joints
3. Gomphosis / Peg socket joint:
It is characteristic of thecodont teeth. The roots of teeth are fixed in cavities of jaw bones. The
cement is fixing the fibrous connection with socket of the bone. The fibrous connections in this
case are many short periodontal ligaments.
II Cartilaginous joints:
 They are also called amphiarthroses because they are neither fixed nor freely movable.
 It is intermediate stage of joints when related to development and movement.
 They allow some motion in response to compression, tension or twisting.
 The line of fusion between articulating bones is called synchondrosis or symphysis.
1. Synchondrosis:
 The connecting material is hyaline cartilage.

 It is very soft and elastic cartilage with minimum strength e.g. Epiphyseal plate
 Epiphyseal plate is present between epiphysis and diaphysis of long bones in children.
 It is temporary joint present in children and ossifies in adult after completion of growth.
2. Fibrocartilaginous joints: The connecting material is fibrocartilage. Fibrocartilage is

opaque, comparatively strong but flexible due to the presence of numerous white fibres of
collagen.
a) Symphysis:
 It is present in front of pelvic region, between two similar pubic bones of pelvic girdle.
 The pubic bones are connected by a disc of fibrocartilage.
 It allows slight movement on compression, bending, twisting etc.
 It makes the joint more flexible in female to increase the size of birth canal for easy
parturition. In male it is comparatively less flexible.
b) Intervertebral joints:
 These joints are present between the centrum of adjacent vertebrae of backbone.
 The connecting discs are fibrocartilaginous.
 These joints help in shock absorption and protect the spinal cord from mechanical
injuries.
 These joints make the vertebral column slightly flexible.
III. Synovial joints
 They are called perfect joints due to the presence of all well developed structures
needed for free movement.
 These are most evolved and therefore, most mobile type of joints.
Typical synovial joint:
It consists of synovial cavity, synovial fluid, synovial membrane, capsule, ligaments and
articulating surfaces covered by hyaline cartilage.
a) Synovial Membrane: It lines the cavity and forms a synovial capsule. The membrane
secretes a slimy viscous fluid called synovial fluid. The membrane encloses fluid filled
synovial cavity and protects internal parts of joint. It contains fat cells, which form
cushion during the movement of joint.
b) Synovial fluid: It is a clear, yellowish, slimy and viscous fluid similar to lymph. The
viscosity of fluid is due to hyaluronic acid secreted by the cells of the synovial
membrane. It contains nutrients and mucus. The fluid
lubricates the joint and nourishes avascular hyaline
cartilage. The fluid also contains phagocytes, which
removes microbes and cellular debris. Deficiency of this
fluid causes arthrosclerosis.
c) Hyaline cartilage: It covers the end of articulating

surfaces of bone and avoids direct contact or friction
between bones.
d) Ligaments: The joints are provided with capsular

ligaments and numerous accessory ligaments. Accessory
ligament may be intra or extra capsular. Ligaments avoid dislocation of bones and make
the joints stronger.
Types of synovial (freely movable) joints:
1. Ball and socket joint:
 The spherical head of one bone fits into a cup-

shaped socket of other bone.
 These joints are prone for easy dislocation or
separation on sudden strain.
 These joint allow multi-axial movements like
circumduction.
 The shoulder joint allows rotatory or circular
movements (360o) and hip joint allows straight

o
movement (180 )
 Examples: Shoulder joints, Hip joint etc.
2. Hinge joint:
 Spoon shaped surface of one-bone fits into the concave cavity of other bone.
 There are strong collateral ligaments.
 These joints resist dislocation.
 These joints allow uniaxial movements and resemble movements of door and window.
 In elbow joint the ulna works as hinges so only forward movement is possible.
 In knee joint or knee cap works as hinges so only backward movement is possible.
 Examples: Elbow joints, Knee joints. etc
3. Gliding joints:
 The articular bones are permitted for gliding or sliding movements.

 These joints allow non-axial movements, which are neither back-forth nor side to side
but irregular.
 The articulating surface is convex so friction is avoided.
 Examples: Intercarpal joints, Intertarsal joints, etc.
4. Condyloid joint:
 These are also called as ellipsoid joints.

 Oval shaped condyle of one bone fits into elliptical cavity of other bone.
 These allow biaxial movements i.e. forward-backward and side to side but not rotation.
 Examples: Radius carpal, Metacarpo – phalangeal joints.
5. Saddle joint:
 The characteristic of this joint is that the articulating surfaces of bones are saddle
shaped i.e. each surface has both concave and convex area.
 Each surface is convex in one plane, concave in the perpendicular plane.
 It resembles condyloid joint but it allows greater freedom of movement for the joint.
 This joint allows biaxial movement. Edges of metacarpal and first phalange of thumb
are peripherally articulated so saddle joint makes free movement.
 Example: Carpo metacarpal joint of thumb.
6. Pivot joint:
 Articular surfaces comprise a central bony pivot (dense) surrounded by an

osteoligamentous ring.
 One bone remains fixed while other bone rotates freely around the pivot process
 It allows uniaxial movement i.e. rotation.

 Example: Atlas – axis joint.
 Atlas moves along with skull around the pivot like odontoid process of axis.
 This joint allows rotation movement of the skull.
14.7 MUSCULAR MOVEMENTS
 Muscular tissue is characterized by its property of shortening called contractibility.

 It also has the properties of extensibility, elasticity, flexibility, conductivity, etc.
 The muscular tissue consists of highly, elongated modified cells called muscle fibres.
 There are three kinds of muscles, striated, unstriated and cardiac muscles.
 The striated muscle performs voluntary movements while unstriated and cardiac
muscles perform involuntary movements.
I. Voluntary movements:
 The movements of body parts carried under the control of our brain are called
voluntary movements e.g. movements of limbs, movement of head, etc.
 All types of voluntary movements are performed by striated muscles.
 Striated muscles are elongated, cylindrical unbranched, multinucleated and with
alternate dark and light bands.
 The striated muscle cells are covered by sarcolemma and reticular connective tissue.
 Sarcolemma is electrical charged membranes in body.
 Each muscle is formed by many myofibrils, proteins actin and myosin in filaments.
 Actomyosin and Paramyosin are composite proteins.
 The contractile units of muscle are sarcomeres.
 In human body about 640 muscles are present.
 Striated muscles are found attached to skeleton by means of tendons.
 Tendons are inelastic thick bands of white fibrous connective tissue, which give firm
attachment to muscle with bone.
Location and structure of striated muscle:
 The muscle which moves a body part usually do not lie in that part but located in the
upper part e.g. biceps and triceps that move forearm are located in the upper arm.
 At any joint two types of bones are present i.e. stationary and movable.
 The end of muscle attached to stationary bone is called origin while the opposite end
attached to movable bone is called insertion.
 The middle thick part of muscle is called belly.
 All the fibres in a muscle do not extend from end to end and there is a maximum
concentration in the middle.
 Because of this, large muscles are most often fusiform in shape.

Types of striated muscles: On the basis of movements striated muscle are of three types-
 Prime movers (agonist) – Bring initial movement of part, e.g. Biceps.

 Antagonists – Oppose the action of prime movers, e.g., Triceps.
 Synergists – Assist prime movers e.g., Brachialis assist Biceps.
Working of striated muscles:
 Muscles work in pair and produce opposite action e.g. biceps (flexors) bring flexion
and triceps (extensors) bring extension of elbow joint.
 The muscles, which bring opposite action, are called antagonistic.
 If one member of a pair is capable of bending the joint by pulling of bones, the other
member is capable of straightening the same joint also by pulling e.g.
 Biceps and triceps of upper arm are antagonistic to each other.
 In antagonistic pair of muscles, one member is much stronger than the other, e.g., the
Biceps which flex the arm is stronger than the Triceps which extend it.
 Therefore, muscle can only pull
and not push the bone.
 The response or contraction of
striated muscles is quick and for
short duration.
 Therefore these muscles are
prone to fatigue. These muscles
are neurogenic i.e. need repeated
stimulus from CNS.
Antagonistic muscle pairs:
1. Flexor: On contraction results in bending or flexion of a joint e.g. Biceps.
Extensor: On contraction results in straightening or extension of a joint e.g. Triceps.
2. Abductor: It moves body part away from the body axis e.g. deltoid muscle of shoulder
moves the arm away from the body.
Adductor: It moves body part towards the body axis e.g. Latissimus dorsi of shoulder
moves the arm near to the body.
3. Pronator: To turn the palm downward backward.
Supinator: To turn the palm upward forward.
4. Levator: Raises a body part
Depressor: Lowers the body part

5. Protractor: To move forward.
Retractor: To move backward.
6. Sphincters: Circular muscles present in wall of anus, stomach for closure and opening.
II. Involuntary movements:
These movements are not under the control of the brain. It is under the control of ANS &
sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglion.
1. Movements of visceral muscles:
 The visceral muscles are present in the walls of visceral organs.

 These are elongated, spindle shaped, non striated, uninucleated and involuntary.
 Visceral muscles are arranged in longitudinal and circular layers.
 These are neurogenic and on receiving motor impulses from ANS, these muscle layers
show alternate contraction and relaxation.
 These muscles control the involuntary movements of visceral organs.
 Visceral muscles do not fatigue because their contractions are slow and for the longer
duration. So that they are able to do continuous work.
 E.g. Contraction of urinary bladder, Constriction and dilation of blood vessels,
Peristaltic movements of alimentary canal, Gastric movements of stomach, etc.
2. Movements of cardiac muscles:
 Cardiac muscles control movements of heart i.e. contraction and relaxation of heart.
 They are present in the wall of heart, i.e. myocardium.
 Cardiac muscle cells are elongated, cylindrical, striated, uninucleated, involuntary,
branched and connected to each other by intercalated discs.
 These muscle cells are arranged in the form of network.
 These are myogenic as the impulse of contraction orginates in the muscle node itself.
 Once stimulated these muscles show continuous, rhythmic contraction and relaxation.
 They do not fatigue due to the non accumulation of CO2 and nitrogenous waste matter.
14.8 SKELETAL DISORDERS:
1. Muscular dystrophy:
 It is inherited muscle destroying diseases.

 They are characterized by degeneration of individual muscle fibre.
 It leads to progressive atrophy of the skeletal muscle.
 Usually the voluntary skeletal muscles are weakened equally on both sides of the body,
whereas the internal muscles, such as the diaphragm, are not affected.
 The most common form of muscular dystrophy is Duchenne type.
2. Osteoporosis:
 It is a condition of porous bones.

 It is characterized by decreased bone mass and increased susceptibility to fractures.
 The basic problem is that bone resorption outpaces bone formation.
 Between puberty and mid-bye, sex hormones maintain bone tissue by stimulating the
osteoblasts to form new bones.
 Women produce much smaller accounts of estrogens after menopause and men produce
smaller amount of testosterone as they age, thus bone mass decreases.
3. Arthritis:
 Arthritis is characterized by inflammation of one or more joints.

 Inflammation pain & stiffness may also be present in adjacent parts of the body, such as
the muscles near the joint.
There are three types: 1) Gouty arthritis 2) Osteoarthritis 3) Rheumatoid arthritis
1) Gout arthritis:
 It is caused due to excessive accumulation of uric acid in the body.

 It get deposited in joints and causes severe pain. Gout is most common in men.
 It can cause an attack of sudden burning pain, stiffness, and swelling in a joint, usually a
big toe. These attacks can happen over and over unless gout is treated.
 Over time, they can harm joints, tendons, and other tissues.
2) Osteoarthritis:
 It is characterised by degeneration of cartilage pad

 Bones rub against each other, causing stiffness, pain and loss of joint movement.
 The pain and stiffness of more severe osteoarthritis make it difficult to walk, climb
stairs, sleep, or perform other daily tasks
 It affects mainly joints of knees, hands, spines, etc.
3) Rheumatoid arthritis:
 It is characterised by the inflammation of synovial membrane.

 The membrane becomes thick and the fluid increases in the joints.
 It leads to severe pain.
 Then the membrane secretes abnormal chemicals that cause erosion of the cartilage.
4) Mysthenia gravis:
 Myasthenia Gravis means "grave muscular weakness."

 The most common form of MG is a chronic autoimmune neuromuscular disorder that is
characterized by fluctuating weakness of the voluntary muscle groups.
 Myasthenia Gravis occurs in all races, both genders, and at any age.
 There is no cure for myasthenia gravis, but treatment can help relieve signs and
symptoms, such as weakness of arm or leg muscles, double vision, drooping eyelids,
and difficulties with speech, chewing, swallowing and breathing.
 Myasthenia gravis is caused by a breakdown in the normal communication between
nerves and muscles.
5) Tetany:
 Tetany is a symptom characterized by muscle cramps, spasms or tremors.

 These repetitive actions of the muscles happen when muscle contracts uncontrollably.
 Tetany may occur in any muscle in body, such as those in your face, fingers or calves.
 The muscle cramping associated with tetany can be long lasting and painful.
 A common cause of tetany is very low levels of calcium in the body.
 The medical term for low calcium is hypocalcemia.
 There are many causes of hypocalcemia that can lead to tetany vary widely in severity.
 Serious causes of tetany include severe diarrhea and kidney disease.
 Problems with thyroid can create low calcium levels, which may cause tetany.
 Pregnancy, breastfeeding, malnutrition, vitamin D deficiency, and some medications
may also cause hypocalcemia, leading to tetany.

DR RDP’s Biology Notes (XI Std

Încărcat de

Informații document

Descriere originală:

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

DR RDP’s Biology Notes (XI Std

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

DR RDP’S NOTES FOR SELF STUDY

MAHARASTRA STATE BOARD’S

DR. RDP’s SELF STUDY NOTES (XI –BIOLOGY) 1

STD. XI SCIENCE BIOLOGY

5 MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS 38

6 PLANT WATER RELATIONS AND MINERAL 71

7 PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 84

9 ORGANIZATION OF CELL 112

10 STUDY OF ANIMAL TISSUES 127

11 STUDY OF ANIMAL TYPE- COCKROACH 136

12 HUMAN NUTRITION 144

13 HUMAN RESPIRATION 155

14 HUMAN SKELETON AND LOCOMOTION 167

DR. RDP’s SELF STUDY NOTES (XI –BIOLOGY) 2

DR. RDP’s SELF STUDY NOTES (XI –BIOLOGY) 3

1.1 Diversity in living organisms:

 Variety of living organisms existing on the earth is known as Diversity.

SYSTEMATICS: “Systematics is the scientific study of identification, taxonomy, classification

 To know various kinds of plants on the earth.

 It is the arrangement of organisms or groups of organisms in distinct categories in

Why is the Need of Classification?

 There are large numbers of living organisms found on earth.

DR. RDP’s SELF STUDY NOTES (XI –BIOLOGY) 4

Table 1.1: Classification of Chinarose and Cobra.

Kingdom Plantae Animalia

Division/ Phylum Angiospermae Chordata

Class Dicotyledonae Reptilla

Sub- class Polypetalae Diapsida

Order Malvales Squamata

Family Malvaceae Elapidae

Genus Hibiscus Naja

Species rosa-sinensis Naja

Kingdom Division/ Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

DR. RDP’s SELF STUDY NOTES (XI –BIOLOGY) 5

CLASS: It is a group of related orders.e.g.class-Dicotyledonae includes orders Malvales,

DIVISION: It is a category composed of related Classes e.g. Division Angiospermae includes

 The art of naming an object is a science called nomenclature.

DR. RDP’s SELF STUDY NOTES (XI –BIOLOGY) 6

 These names are based on some criteria and principles.

Rules for Bionomial Nomenclature:

i) The names are simple, meaningful and precise.

1.3 Classification of living organisms:

FIVE KINGDOM SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION:

 The two kingdom system of classification was introduced by Carl Linnaeus.

DR. RDP’s SELF STUDY NOTES (XI –BIOLOGY) 8

 Cell organization - the organism is either prokaryotic or eukaryotic.

1. The organisms are microscopic, unicellular and prokaryotic.

1. The organisms are unicellular and eukaryotic.

DR. RDP’s SELF STUDY NOTES (XI –BIOLOGY) 9

4. Euglenoids: These are photosynthetic aquatic or heterotrophs e.g. Euglena.

1. It is a unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms, showing extracellular digestion.

DR. RDP’s SELF STUDY NOTES (XI –BIOLOGY) 10

1. It includes multicellular, eukaryotic and autotrophic organisms like Algae, Bryophytes,

 Algae e.g. Spirogyra, Chara, etc.

1. The organisms are multicellular and eukaryotic.

Advantages of five kingdom system of classification:-

1. All groups of organisms get proper place and taxonomic status.

DR. RDP’s SELF STUDY NOTES (XI –BIOLOGY) 11

1. Viruses do not find any place in five- kingdom system of classification.

Table 1.2: Comparision between five kingdoms

 Linchens are cosmopolitan in distribution. They grow in wide variety of habitats.

On the basis of fungal components the lichens were classified as: