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CHEMISTRY
E – LEARNING NOTE
2019/2020 ACADEMIC SESSION
FIRST TERM
DATE: …………………………………………………..
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NAME:…………………………..…………………………………………………………………..
JOLLAT MODEL COLLEGE
WEBSITE :www.jmcschools.orgE-MAIL :jollatmodelcollege@yahoo.com
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REFERENCE. TEXTS:
1.Comprehensive certificate chemistry for senior secondary schools by G N C Ohia.et al
2.Chemistry for Senior Secondary Schools 1 by Magbagbeola O, et al; Melrose Books and
Publishers.
3.New school chemistry for senior secondary schools by Osei yaw Ababio
4.Revised edition understanding chemistry for schools and colleges by Godwin O. Ojokuku.
WEEK 1
TOPIC: Introduction to Chemistry
CONTENT:
1. Meaning of chemistry
2. Career prospects tied to chemistry
3. Application (i) Hospital (ii) Military (iii) Teaching (iv) Chemical and petrochemical
industries.
4. Adverse effects of chemicals, drug abuse, poisoning,
Corrosion and pollution.
5. Scientific methods.
PERIOD 1: MEANING OF CHEMISTRY
Chemistry can be define as the composition, properties, uses and changes that matter
undergo during a chemical reaction. The word chemistry id derived from Egyptian word
‘Al-kemia’ transcribed to alchemy meaning turn leads into gold or turning a less valuable
substance to a more valuable substance. ‘Al-kemia’ or ‘Alchemy’ described as a chemist, later
the suffix (ry) was added to the word chemist(ry) to describe the act of chemist. Chemistry is
the study of matter: its structure, composition, properties and the changes it undergoes.
Chemistry is one of the three main branches of pure science, the other two being physics and
biology. Chemistry which probes into the principles governing the changes that matter
undergoes also deals with the composition, properties uses of matter. Some of the chemical
changes which matter undergoes include; lighting a match, cooking, burning fire wood,
making palm wine, rusting of nails, rotting of leaves. Chemical changes are otherwise known
as chemical reactions. The knowledge of chemistry helps us to subject some matter to
chemical processes thereby producing some materials for our every day today use. Such
materials include: soaps, detergents, hair cream, perfumes, oil, margarine and plastics
among others.
There are three main branches of chemistry: inorganic, organic and physical chemistry.
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(i) Teaching services: Concern those who teach in primary, secondary schools, colleges of
education and universities and even the laboratory assistants in schools and universities.
(ii) Health service: Involves pharmacists, biochemists, chemists, nutritionists, dieticians,
doctors, nurses, medical assistants, laboratory assistants and dispensers.
(iii) Food processing: Food processing involves food technologists and research chemists.
(iv) Petroleum and petrochemical industries –Involves application of the following people;
research chemists, chemical engineers and laboratory assistants.
(v) Extractive industry- Involves chemists, mining engineers and geologists.
(vi) Manufacturing Industry: This involves research chemists and chemical engineers in the
wide variety of manufacturing industries such as iron and steel works and cement factories.
(vii) Agriculture-Involves agricultural scientists, chemists, biochemists and physiologists who
engaged in research to improve the quality and yield of crops and livestock’s, and to advise
farmers.
(viii) Forestry: Scientists engaged in research to preserve and improve forests and forestry
products.
EVALUATION
1.Define the term chemistry.
2.Mention five changes that matter undergoes.
3.Give the uses of chemistry in our day to day life.
4.List at least five career opportunities in chemistry
5.Explain any three of the career opportunities mentioned above.
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6.Agriculture: Agricultural scientists, chemists, biochemists and physiologists engaged in
research to improve the quality and yield of crops and livestock, and to advise farmers.
EVALUATION
1. Enumerate and explain five application of chemistry you know.
PERIOD 3- ADVERSE EFFECTS OF CHEMICALS
The adverse effects of existence of chemistry
The existence of chemistry brought about the existence of chemicals. The adverse effects of
chemicals include; drug abuse, poisoning, corrosion and pollution.
1.Drug Abuse: simply involves wrong usage of drugs. Some of these drugs include heroin,
cocaine and morphine which are used as addictive. Unscrupulous people produce and sell
them at huge profits. Drug addiction is a major problem in our society, especially among
young people. Many countries have imposed strict laws to control pollution and drug abuse.
However, the most effective control measure is education. We must use what we learnt to
improve our life and to control these abuses.
2.Poisoning: This is where chemicals are used to poison the food we eat. This happens when
the chemicals used as addictive probably as preservative are added more than required or
expired in the food stuff where it was added, then instead of the food stuff bringing health to
our body, it turns to poison.
3.Corrosion:Corrosion of iron can also be called rusting and requires the presence of water
and oxygen. Rusting can also be regarded as the slow deterioration of iron to iron (iii) oxide.
This iron (iii) oxide is permeable to both air and water and cannot protect the iron from
further corrosion of iron.
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and carry out appropriate experiments to test it. Then, they carefully record their
observations and the results of their experiments.
If the experiments support the hypothesis, they carry out further investigations. They discuss
the hypothesis and results with other scientists in the field so that the hypothesis can be
further tested. When a hypothesis has been tested and found to be correct within the limits
of available evidence. It becomes a theory. A scientific law or principle is established only
after the theory has been extensively tested and proven true without any exception. If the
experiments give negative results, then the scientist goes back to his hypothesis and either
modifies it or puts forward a new hypothesis. This way of studying a problem is known as the
scientific method. It is the very foundation of all scientific discoveries.
DRAWING OF LABORATORY APPARATUS
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TOPIC: CHEMISTRY LABORATORY AND APPARATUS
CONTENT:
(a) Introduction
(b)Chemistry laboratory apparatus and their uses
(C) Chemistry laboratory set-ups.
(d) Common laboratory accidents
(e) Safety precautions
SUB-TOPIC1-INTRODUCTION:
A Chemistry laboratory is a place, usually a room, where scientific experiments are
performed by the use of pieces of apparatus and chemical reagents.
Chemistry laboratory apparatus: Mostly all the apparatus are usually made up of glass such
as Pyrex (borosilicate)soda glass, beaker, test tube etc., metals, wood, plastics, and porcelain.
Some are improvised i.e. they are locally made such as bamboo for making measuring
cylinder, coconut shell for making beaker etc.
EVALUATION
i) What is the purpose of laboratory?
ii) List three materials that can be used to produce laboratory apparatus.
Sub-topic 2-CHEMISTRY LABORATORY APPARATUS AND THEIR USES
1. BEAKER: Commonly made of Pyrex glass. It has a flat bottom, cylindrical and graduated,
usually with lip for easy pouring.
Beakers
USE: Used to keep reagents for chemical tests.For holding and pouring liquids.it is also used
for measuring the volume of liquids.
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2.SEPARATING FUNNEL: Made of glass with ashort stem, stopcork,and a stoper. It may be
conical, cylindrical,or spherical.
5. DISTILLATION FLASK: has a flat or round bottom made of glass with a slanting side arm.
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6. MORTAL AND PESTILE: are made of porcelain or agate.
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SUB-TOPIC 3:CHEMISTRY LABORATORY SET-UPS.
A laboratory set-up is the combination of two or more apparatus, which are arranged in such
a manner that the set-up is workable.
1. FILTRATION 2. SIMPLE DISTILATION
5.FRACTIONAL DISTILATION
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6.DESICCATORS
3. ACID BURNS
4. INHALING TOXIC GASES
5. EXPLOSION
6. ELECTRIC SHOCK
7. SWALLOWING TOXIC CHEMICALS
1. Clean the apparatus after use and replace them in their proper places.
2. Wipe down your bench and leave it clean and dry.
3. Do not light the Bunsen burner or other sources of heat until required. Turn it off when no
longer required.
Do not bring any food or drink in to the laboratory and avoid eating, drinking or smoking in
the laboratory.
No eating or drinking in the lab!
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WEEK 2
Topic: PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER
CONTENTS:
(1) Physical and chemical changes
(2) Elements and their symbols.
(3) Atoms, molecules, atomicity
(4) Dalton’s atomic theory
PERIOD 1: DEFINITION OF MATTER
Matter is anything that has a rest mass and volume, in other words matter is anything that
has mass and occupies space. The three elementary particle of matter are atom, molecule
and ion, while the three state of matter are solid, liquid and gas.
Characteristics of solid state of matter
1. They have fixed mass
2. They have fixed volume
3. They have fixed shape
4. They are incompressible
5. Particle vibrate and rotate about a fixed position
6. They are very dense.
Characteristics of liquid state of matter
1. They have fixed mass
2. They have fixed volume
3. They have no fixed shape, it takes the shape of it container
4. They are incompressible
5. Particle vibrate, rotate and move about within a restricted space
6. They are less dense.
Characteristics of gaseous state of matter
1. They have fixed mass
2. They have no fixed volume
3. They have no fixed shape
4. They are compressible
5. Particle moves about constantly at great speed and at random
6. They are least dense.
Physical Properties:
This are properties associated with physical changes. E.g boiling point, melting point, density,
hardness, malleability, crystalline, colour, odour and taste.
Chemical Properties:
Are those properties which are involved when matter undergo a change to form new
substance. E.g rusting, rotting etc.
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PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES
PHYSICAL CHANGES:
DEFINITION: A Physical change is one which is easily reversed and in which no new
substances are formed.
Examples:
i. Melting of solids to liquids.
ii. Freezing of liquids to solids.
iii. Vaporization of liquids to gases.
iv. Liquefaction of gases to liquids.
v. Sublimation of solids to vapour.
vi. Magnetization and demagnetization of iron
vii. Separation of mixture by evaporation, distillation, fractional distillation, sublimation,
crystallization
CHEMICAL CHANGE:
DEFINITION: A chemical change is one which is not easily reversed and in which a new
substance is formed.
Examples:
i. Burning of substances.
ii. Dissolution of metals and limestone in acids.
iii. Chemical decomposition – like digestion of food.
iv. Rusting of iron.
v. Charring of sugar.
vi. Dissolution of metals in acids.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGE
PHYSICAL CHANGE CHEMICAL CHANGE
1. Easily reversible Not easily reversible
2. No new substance is formed New substance is formed
3. No change is mass. There is a noticeable change in mass.
4. Not accompanied by heat Change Usually accompanied by heat change.
EVALUATION:
1. Mention three familiar process/changes which you know to be:(a) Physical changes (b)
chemical changes.
2. List three differences between physical change and chemical change.
3. Classify each of the following as physical change or chemical change.
(a) Boiling of egg (b) Burning of kerosene (c) Melting of wax (d) Rusting of iron(e)
Digestion of glucose (f) Dissolving iron in an acid.
4. State with a reason in each case whether each of the following is physical or chemical
change.
(a).Dissolving common salt in water.
(b).Burning of petrol.
(c).Digestion of glucose.
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WEEK 3:
ELEMENTS AND THEIR SYMBOLS
An element is a substance that cannot be broken into simpler substances by any chemical
methods. Examples of elements include: Iron, tin, aluminum etc.
There are about 118 known elements of which 92 are naturally exiting elements and the rest
are artificially made.
Symbols are modern ways of representing atoms of elements by using abbreviations. The
modern symbols were developed by Berzelius in 1814.
First, He used the first letter in the name of the element.
Examples
ELEMENT SYMBOL
Hydrogen H
Boron B
Carbon C
Nitrogen N
Oxygen O
Fluorine F
Phosphorus P
Sulphur S
Iodine I
The third principle is when the first letter and another letter in the name are used.
Example:
ELEMENTS SYMBOL
Magnesium Mg
Chlorine Cl
Chromium Cr
Manganese Mn
Zinc Zn
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The fourth principle is the elements that derived symbols from their Latin names.
Example:
ELEMENT LATIN NAME SYMBOL
Sodium Natrium Na
Potassium Kalium K
Iron Ferrum Fe
Copper Cuprum Cu
Silver Argentum Ag
Tin Stannum Sn
Gold Aurum Au
Mercury Hydrargyrum Hg
Lead Plumbum Pb
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Periodic table of elements
Electron
Nucleus
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PERIOD 3: ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER (NUCLEON NUMBER)
ATOMIC NUMBER:
DEFINITION: Atomic number is the number of protons in an atom of an element.
The atomic number of an element is a whole number and is designated z. In a neutral atom
the number of protons must be equal to the number of electrons(since protons are positively
charged and electron are negatively charged).
All the atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons in their nuclei (i.e.
they have the same atomic number). NO two elements have the same number of protons in
their atoms.
DEFINITION:
MASS NUMBER (NUCLEON NUMBER): The mass number is the sum of the protons and
neutrons in an atom of an element.
Mass number is represented by the letter A.
Mass number A = Number of protons + number of neutrons.
i.e. A = p + n. Where p=protons, n= neutrons.
Or number of neutrons n =A – Z.
An atom of an element can be described by writing its symbol together with its atomic
number and mass number.
Examples: The atom of carbon, oxygen and sodium can be written as 126C, 168O and2311Na
respectively.
EVALUATION:
(1) Define the following: (a) Atomic number (b) Mass number.
(2) Describe the atoms of the following elements using their symbol, atomic number and
mass number: (a) Phosphorus (b) Silicon (c) Calcium
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WEEK 4: ELEMENTS CONTINUE
MOLECULES
DEFINITION: A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance that normally exist alone and
still retain the chemical properties of that substance be it an element or a compound.
Some molecules can exist independently as single atoms e.g. He, Ne, Ar, Xe etc. Some
molecules may be made up of atoms of the same element e.g. a molecule of hydrogen is H2,
that of chlorine is Cl2, Oxygen is O2, phosphorus is P4, Sulphur is S8.Some molecules may be
made up of different elements e.g. a molecule of water is H2O, Methane is CH4, ammonia is
NH3, carbon (iv) oxide is CO2 etc.
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WEEK 5
TOPICS: PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER
CONTENTS:
1. Electronic configuration
2. Atomic number and mass number (nucleon number)
3. Relative atomic mass based on C-12 isotope
4. Isotopy of elements
PERIOD 1: ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
Electrons are found revolving around the nucleus of an atom in circular paths known as rings,
orbits, energy levels or shells. Each shell contains electrons with similar energy.Those with
the lowest energies being nearest to the nucleus.
3 (M shell)
Nucleus
2(L shell)
1 (K shell)
Thus, the arrangement of electrons in the atom according to energy is called ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION. Letters and figures are associated with these orbits or shells as shown
above. The maximum possible number of electrons that can be accommodated in a shell is
given by the formula:
Nmax= 2n2. Where Nmax = Maximum no of electron. n= no, of shell.
Thus K- shell can contain 2 × 12 = 2 electrons.
L- Shell can contain 2 × 22 = 8 electrons.
M- Shell can contain 2 × 32= 18 electrons etc
The electron structures of the atoms of the first twenty elements are given in the table
below.
Nucleus
K2 L1
K2L8
2,8
2, 8, 1
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Argon, Ar (atomic number 18 )
K L M
2 8 8
2,8,8
Potassium, K (atomic number 19) KLMN
2881
2, 8, 8, 1
Calcium, Ca (atomic number 20)
K L MN
2 8 8 2
2,8,8,2
EVALUATION: Draw the electronic configuration of the following elements.
(a)Carbon (b) Fluorine (c) Aluminium (d) Nitrogen
When n = 1 = K shell
When n = 2 = L shell
When n = 3 = M shell
When n = 4 = N shell
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The numbering of the shell starting from the innermost 1 and towards outside, that is, the
shell closest to the mulens is assigned number 1.
The electronic configuration of the first twenty elements in the periodic table is shown
below.
However, for charged ion (cation and anion) there electronic configuration will be slightly
different from those of their corresponding neutral atoms. E.g
23 2 2 6 1
11 Na = 1S 2S 2P 3S (neutral)
23 + 2 2 6
10 Na = 1S 2S 2P (cation)
32 2 2 6 2 4
16 S = 1S 2S 2P 3S 3P (neutral)
32 2- 2 2 6 2 6
18 S = 1S 2S 2P 3S 3P (Anion)
AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
This principle state that the filling of electrons into atomic orbital’s, orbital with the lowest
energy is filled first, followed by orbital with higher energy value.
The aufbau approach to the filling of electrons into orbital involves the use of a model which
enable someone to write down the electronic configuration of any atom for which the
atomic number is known.
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1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s 5p 5d 5f
6s 6p 6d 6f
7s 7p 7d 7f
QUANTUM NUMBER
This is the location of an electron in any orbital. There are four types
1. Principal Quantum number (n): this explains the energy level in which electron is located.
The value are K,L,M,N 1,2,3,4 …….n where n= whole numbers
2. Azimuthal Quantum number (L): this governs the shape of the orbitals. S-orbital, p-orbital,
d-orbital and f-orbital
3. Magnetic Quantum number (m): this described the orientation in space of the orbital.
S-orbital – has one(1) degenerate orbital, hence 2e (two electron)
p-orbital - has three(3) degenerate orbital, hence 6e (six electron)
d-orbital - has five(5) degenerate orbital, hence 10e (ten electron)
f-orbital - has seven(7) degenerate orbital, hence 14e (fourteen electron)
4. Spin Quantum number: this describes the spin of electrons in the orbital and have value of
+ 1/2 or – 1/2 or ± 1/2
SHAPE OF ORBITALS
s- orbital: it is spherical in shape and has no orientation in space.
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p-orbital: the orbital has a shape in which three possible orientations in space can be
obtained. It consist of three types of degenerate orbital with possible orientations of px, py
and pz called sub-orbital.
HUND’S RULES
This state that in the filling of electrons into orbital, the orbital of the same energy are filled
first with single electrons before pairing can further takes place in them.
It can also be define as the maximum number of electron in any orbital must not be more
than two and each must point in opposite direction, that is, opposite spin.
It is the pictorial representation of electron arrangement into orbital. e.g
12 2 2 2
6 C = 1S 2S 2P
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11 Na = 1S2 2S2 2P6 3s1
HYBRIDIZATION
This is the mixing of atomic orbital and electrons which are in the same energy level or shell
but not in the same type of orbital. The concept of hybridization of electron can purely
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understood by using the pictorial representation of electrons distribution into orbitals
according to HUND’S RULE.
12 2 2 2
6 C = 1S 2S 2P
Ground state configuration
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8 O = 1S2 2S2 2P4
Ground state configuration
EVALUATION:
1. Differentiate between ions and radicals.
2. List four examples each of ions and radicals.
3. State the valences of the following radicals: (a) PO43-(b) MnO4-(c) C2O42-
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WEEK 6:
ISOTOPY AND RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS
Definition: Isotopy is a phenomenon whereby atoms of an element exhibit different mass
number but have the same atomic number.
Mass spectrometric studies show that the atoms of most elements exist in more than one
form. This is due to the difference in number of neutrons present in these atoms. Such atoms
are known as isotopes. Isotope of an element is represented by the original symbol of the
element with the mass number and atomic numbers. For example 126C, 136C, 146C represent
atoms of the isotopes of carbon. For each atom, the number of neutrons can be obtained by
finding the difference between the mass number A and the atomic number Z i.e. A – Z. Each
isotope of an element has its own mass known as isotopic mass.
Isotopes of an element have slightly different physical properties because neutrons
contribute only to the mass of an atom and not its chemical behavior. But isotopes of an
element exhibit the same chemical properties because the number of valence electrons in an
atom of an element determines its chemical behavior (properties) and since isotopes have
the same number of valence electrons they will be chemically alike.
NOTE:
(i) An analysis of the chlorine isotopes.
Isotope 3517Cl Isotope 3717Cl
Mass number, A 35 37
Atomic number,Z 17 17
Number of protons 17 17
Number of electrons 17 17
Number of neutrons (A-Z) 35 – 17=18 37 – 17=20
Abundance in nature (%) 75 25
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CALCULATION INVOLVING ISOTOPY.
WORKED EXAMPLE:
Determine the relative atomic mass of element X from the data below
ISOTOPE MASS %ABUNDANCE
24X 24 78.70
25x 25 10.13
26
x 26 11.7
2432.47 = 𝑋
100
∴ 𝑋 = 24.3247
≅ 24
1. An element X has two isotopes of 2010X and 2210X in the ratio 1:3. What is the relative
atomic mass?
Add ratio of occurrence together. 1 + 3= 4
(20 × 1) + (22 × 3) = 𝑋
4
20 + 66 = 𝑋
4
86 = 𝑋
4
X = 21.5
2. Isotopes of an element X have isotopic masses 65 and 63 respectively. If the relative
atomic mass of X is 63.60. Find the relative abundance of each isotope of the element.
Let the relative abundance of element X be y and Z respectively.
Z +Y =100
∴ Z = 100 – y....... (i)
EVALUATION:
(a) How many neutrons are present on the isotopes of 4119X (45%) and 4019x(55%)
(b)Calculate the relative atomic mass of X.
Hydrogen 1 1.008
Helium 2 4.0026
Lithium 3 6.939
Beryllium 4 9.0122
Boron 5 10.81
Carbon 6 12.011
Nitrogen 7 14.0067
Oxygen 8 15.9994
Fluorine 9 18.9884
Neon 10 20.183
Sodium 11 22.9898
Magnesium 12 24.312
Aluminum 13 26.9812
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Silicon 14 28.086
Phosphorus 15 30.9738
Sulphur 16 32.06
Chlorine 17 35.453
Argon 18 39.948
Potassium 19 39.102
Calcium 20 40.08
The relative atomic masses of the first twenty elements in the periodic table are given in the
table below.
EVALUATION: From the complete periodic table of elements write out the relative atomic
masses of (A) Magnesium (b) Oxygen (c) Chlorine (d) Carbon
GENERAL EVALAUATION
OBJECTIVES TEST :
1.The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in the M-shell is. (a) 18 (b)
8 (c) 2 (d) 32
2.The atomic number of chlorine is (a) 17 (b) 18 (c) 20 (d) 7
3.Which of the following is an isotope of hydrogen?
(a)41H (b) 51H (c) 31H (d) 01H
ESSAY QUESTIONS
(1) Chlorine exists in two isotopic mixtures. The first has 17protons and 18 neutrons while
the second isotope has 17 protons and 20 neutrons. If the two isotopes are present in ratio
3:1 respectively, calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine.
(2)Show the electron structure of the following.
(a) Calcium (b) Magnesium (c) Sodium (d) Oxygen
(3) If the numbers of charged and unchanged particles in the centre of an atom are 6 and 7
respectively, what is the mass number of the atom?
(4) Calculate the number of neutrons in
(a) 2311Na (b) 3717Cl
(5) (a)What is an ‘isotopy’?
(b) Explain briefly why the chemical properties of isotopes of an element are similar.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT: Read about the topic ‘’mass spectrometer’’
WEEK ACTIVITY:
(a) Draw a labelled structure of a mass spectrometer showing its basic features. (b) Write
two features of a mass spectrometer.
PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT:
Read the topic ‘’symbols of elements’’ page 26 of New school Chemistry. By Osei Yaw
Ababio.
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Week 7
PERIOD 1:COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES
COMPOUND
A compound is a substance which contains two or more elements chemically combined
together. A compound is formed as a result of a chemical change. It is a new substance with
entirely different properties from those of substances from which it is formed. For example
water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen chemically combined in the ratio 2:1 by mass
respectively. Other example of mass are sound, limestone, common salt, petrol, kerosene
etc.
VALENCY OF ELEMENTS
VALENCY
The valency of an element is the combining power of the element. It is defined as the
number of atoms of hydrogen that will combine with or displace one atom of the element in
chemical reactions. Some elements have more than one valency. For example.
First twenty elements with their valencies show this character.
Atomic Element Symbol Valency
Number
1 Hydrogen H 1
2 Helium He Nil
3 Lithium Li 2
4 Beryllium Be 2
5 Boron B 3
6 Carbon C 2 or 4
7 Nitrogen N 3 or 5
8 Oxygen O 2
9 Fluorine F 1
10 Neon Ne Nil
11 Sodium Na 1
12 Magnesium Mg 2
13 Aluminum Al 3
14 Silicon Si 2 or 4
15 Phosphorus P 3 or 5
16 Sulphur S 2, 4 or 6
17 Chlorine Cl 1
18 Argon Ar Nil
19 Potassium K 1
20 Calcium Ca 2
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USING OF ION/VALENCY OF ATOMS TO FORM COMPOUNDS
Ca2+ + O2- - calcium will donate two electrons to oxygen while oxygen accept two
electrons to form CaO.
Al3+ + O2- - there is interchanging of valent electrons between the two atom to form
Al2O3
C4+ + H+ - there is interchanging of valent electrons between the two atom to form
C1H4 ( CH4)
Mg2+ + Cl- - there is interchanging of valent electrons between the two atom to form
Mg1Cl2 (MgCl2)
NO3- + Ca2+ - there is interchanging of valent electrons between the two atom to form
Ca1(NO3)2 or Ca(NO3)2
SO42- + H+ - there is interchanging of valent electrons between the two atom to form
H2SO4
EVALUATION:
1. What do you understand by the word chemical symbol?
2. Define valency of an element.
READING ASSIGNMENT:
Find out the valency of the following element.
(i)Gold (ii) Silver (iii) Zinc and copper
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WEEK 8
OXIDATION NUMBER OF ELEMENTS
To be able to write correctly chemical formulae for compounds, a system of small whole
numbers, related to the combining ratio of element has been developed on the basis of
arbitrary rules. Such numbers are called oxidation numbers or oxidation states.
Rules for assigning oxidation number
1.The ON of an uncombined free element, whether monoatomic or polyatomic is zero; e.g.
Noble gases (He, Ne, etc), metals (Na, Zn, etc),solid non-metals (O3, N2, F2,etc)
2.The oxidation number of a monoatomic ion is equal in magnitude and sign to its ionic
charge; e.g., the ON of bromide ion, Br-1, is -1; that of F+3, is +3.
3.The ON of hydrogen atom is +1 in its compounds, except in hydrides of metals (e.g. NaH),
where it is -1
4.For any neutral compound the sum of the ONs of all the atoms adds to zero.
5.The ON of oxygen in a compound is always -2 except in peroxides, H2O2, Na2O2, where it is -
1
6.In any radical, the sum of the ON of all the atoms is equal to the charge on its ion.
Worked examples on oxidation numbers
1.Calculate the ON of copper in Cu2O
Solution
Let y represents the ON of each copper atom.
ON of one hydrogen atom, O is -2.
In a neutral compound, sum of all ON is zero.
Therefore, in Cu2O: Cu2O
2y + (-2) = 0
2y = +2
y = +2/2 = +1
Thus, ON of a copper atom in Cu2O = +1
EVALUATION
Define oxidation number and, determine the ON of sulphur in SO32-
Give the IUPAC name of the following: (i) Al(NO3)3 (ii) MnO2 (III) CuSO4 .5H2O
What is the correct IUPAC name for NO2-?
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEST:
1.Which of these are found in the nucleus of an atom?
A. electrons and protons B. electrons and neutrons C. protons and neutrons D. photons and
electrons E. photons and neutrons.
2.The type of bond between two atoms of an element with atomic number 7 is? A. ionic B.
covalent C. hydrogen bond D. metallic bond E. coordinate covalent bond.
3.The ON of phosphorus, P in PH3is? A. +2 B. -3 C. -1 D. +3
4.Give the IUPAC name of the compound NO2. A. nitrogen dioxide B. nitrogen monoxide C.
nitrogen (II) oxide D. nitrogen (iv) oxide
5.Atomic number, Z, is the number of __________ in one atom an element. A. protons B.
neurons C. electrons D. atoms
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. By means of a diagram, show the arrangement of electrons in one atom of Sodium.
2. The electronic configurations for the metal calcium, the non-metals silicon and chlorine
can be represented as:
Ca : 2, 8, 8, ; Si : 2, 8, 4 ; and Cl : 2, 8, 7. (a) Explain, in terms of electrons, the formation of
calcium chloride and silicon chloride. (b) Give two (2) differences in physical properties you
would expect between calcium chloride and silicon chloride.
3. Compare the characteristics of ionic with those covalent compounds.
Use this fig. to answer questions 4 and 5.
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(a) Which of the following pairs of letters denotes elements containing the same number of
electrons in their outermost shell?
(b) What letter presents an element that participates in covalent rather than ionic bonding?
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
New School Chemistry for Senior Secondary Schools by Osei Yaw Ababio;
PRE–READING ASSIGNMENT:
Read about States of matter, its kinetic theory and application.
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Week 9
MIXTURE:
A mixture is made up of two or more substances which can be mixed together, mechanically,
in any proportion. It can be said to contain two or more constituents which easily be
separated by physical method. Examples are air, soil, well water, tap water, milk, sweat,
blood etc.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES
COMPOUNDS MIXTURES
1. Constituents are present in a Constituents can be mixed in any
fixed proportion by mass proportion
2. Constituents are joined by No chemical bond between
chemical bonds constituents
3. It is always homogeneous It may be homogeneous or
heterogeneous
4.The properties differ entirely The properties are the sum of those of
from those of its components its individual constituents
elements
5. Constituents of compounds Components of mixtures can be
cannot be separated by physical separated by physical means
means
EVALUATION:
1. Define and give one example of(a) homogeneous mixture (b) heterogeneous mixture
2. Describe an experiment to show that sea water is a mixture.
3. Explain why air is regarded as a mixture
PERIOD 2: SEPARATING A MIXTURE OF TWO SOLIDS
They following methods are employed in the separation of a mixture of two solids:
1. Sieving
2. Magnetic separation
3. Sublimation
1. SIEVING: This is a method used to separate a mixture of two solids of different sizes. The
mixture is placed on a sieve with a mesh of a particular size. Particles smaller than the mesh
size of the sieve will pass through the sieve while the bigger particles remain on the sieve.
Sieving method is applied in the mining industries, gari making industries etc.
2. Magnetic separation: To separate magnetic solids from non-magnetic ones. This method
is used in the steel industry and to remove magnetic impurities from tin ore.
3. Sublimation: Solids which sublime are separated from other solids that sublime (i.e. they
turn directly from solid to gas and from gas to solid without turning to liquid) example are
Ammonium chloride, Aluminum chloride, Camphor, Iodine crystals, Solid CO2 (dry ice)
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Purification by sublimation
EVALUATION
1. (a) Define sublimation (b) Give three examples that can sublime
2. Give three applications of sieving as separation technique.
3. FILTRATION:As shown below, the mixture is poured into s porous material (filter paper)
folded inside a funnel. The solid particle thatremains inside the liquid that drips through the
filter paper is known as the filtrate.
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EVALUATION:
1. Explain briefly, how a mixture of sand and water can be separated.
2. Explain how plasma can be separated from blood.
Evaporation process
Note: Evaporation method is not suitable for salts that can easily be destroyed by heating.
2. Crystallization: Crystallization is a method used to separate salts which decompose easily
on heating from their solutions. The salt solution (the mixture) is heated to drive away some
of the liquid (i.e. to evaporate some of the liquid) (i.e. to evaporate some of the liquid) until
solution becomes concentrated or saturated. The concentrated solution remaining is allowed
to cool slowly resulting in the formation of crystals. Crystal formation can be induced by (i)
adding crystals of the same salt to serve as seed. (ii) Scratching the inside of the vessel
containing the solution.
Note: If all the liquid is evaporated a powder will be obtained and not crystals. This powder
might also contain impurities which otherwise would have remained in the solution and not
contaminate the crystals. Many crystals formed on cooling saturated solution contain water
which is chemically combined and loosely bonded to the crystals. This water is called water
of crystallization. Salts which contain water of crystallization are said to be hydrated. Those
which do not are anhydrous. Those are often powders.
EVALUATION:
1. Outline the processes involved in recovery of salt from its aqueous solution.
2. State one difference between crystallization and evaporation to dryness.
3.Give two ways of inducing the recovery of salt by crystallization.
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. A mixture of gari and stones can be separated by (a) filtration (b) centrifugation
(c) sieving (d) sublimation
2. A mixture of iodine crystals and common salt can be separated by. (a) Sublimation
(b) filtration (c) sieving (d) centrifugation
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3. Sieving is a technique used to separate mixtures containing solid particles of (a) small sizes
(b) large sizes (c) the same sizes (d) different sizes
4. Which of the following methods can be used to separate a mixture of iron fillings and
sulphur? (a) Filtration (b) magnetization (c) sublimation (d) centrifuging
5. The following are subliming substances except (a)Ammonium chloride (b) sulphur
(c) Sodium chloride (d) Camphor
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. Draw a clearly labeled diagram to illustrate separation of a mixture of chalk suspension.
2. Explain how a centrifuge machine works.
3. Explain using diagram how you would separate a mixture of sand and ammonium chloride.
4. List all the methods that can be used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid.
5. Fill in the gaps.
A porous material like _________ can be used to separate ______ particles from
___________. After separation the liquid is called ________ while the particles are called
____________.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
Read about the industrial applications of distillation and fractional distillation.
WEEKEND ACTIVITY:
Mix sand and water together in a container. Allow it to stand for some minutes. What
method would you use to separate the sand from the water?
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WEEK 10
TOPIC: STANDARD SEPARATION TECHNIQUES FOR MIXTURE
CONTENT:
1. SEPARATING A SOLUBLE SOLID FROM A LIQUID,
2. SEPARATING A MIXTURE OF TWO OR MORE LIQUIDS,
3. SEPARATING FUNNEL
4. CHROMATOGRAPHY
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Difference between evaporation and distillation
DISTILLATION EVAPORATION
Mainly obtaining the Mainly for obtaining
solvent salt from solution.
It involves boiling and It involves boiling only.
condensation
(b) Fractional Distillation
Fractional Distillation is a process used to separate or mixture of miscible liquids by a
repeated evaporation and condensation making use of fractionating column (as shown in the
diagram below)
Mixture of two or more miscible liquids are separated into, its component parts. The liquids
distil according to their boiling points starting with the liquid with the lowest boiling point.
The apparatus used is the same as in distillation except for the presence of a fractionating
column between the flask and the condenser.
Note: For efficient fractional distillation, the difference in the boiling points between
successive fractions must be more than 100c.
EVALUATION:
1. Explain briefly, the process of distillation.
2. Explain briefly, the process of fractional distillation.
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PERIOD 3.SEPARATING IMMISCIBLE LIQUIDS (USING SEPARATING FUNNEL METHOD)
This a method used to separate a mixture of immiscible liquids e.g. a mixture of petrol and
water. When the two liquids are added together they do not mix, instead they separate into
two distinct layers, a lower denser layer and an upper less dense layer in the funnel as below.
EVALUATION:
Draw a labeled diagram to show how you would separate a mixture of kerosene and water.
PERIOD 4: CHROMATOGRAPHY
Separating complex mixtures by chromatography: This is a method of separation of the
components of mixtures of solutes from a solution (mixture) using a solvent (liquid) moving
over a porous, adsorbent medium e.g. filter paper or gel. This method can be mixtures f
soluble substances. There are different types of chromatographic methods. Paper
chromatography (ascending paper chromatography), column chromatography, thin layer
chromatography and gas chromatography.
ASCENDING PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
As shown in the above diagram, the apparatus include: a glass jar with lid, filter paper, clips,
solvent (water or ethanol). The solution containing the mixture of solutes to be separated is
spotted unto the strips of paper near one end.
The paper is then suspended in a closed air- tight jar with the spotted end (but not the spot)
dipping into the solvent. As the solvent ascends the paper the different solutes in the mixture
gets dissolved and also more along the paper strip at different speeds and hence become
separated. The paper strip is removed from the jar when the solvent has moved about three-
quarters way up the strip. It is dried and if necessary sprayed with appropriate chemical
reagents to locate the positions of the various along the strip. Each solute can then be
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identified by the distance it has traveled. This is done by comparing its distance with those of
known standard substances.
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEST:
1. Separating funnel is used to separate one of the following mixtures. (a) Ethanol and water
(b) Iodine and salt (c) petrol and water (d) sand and water
2. Fractional distillation of petroleum depends on differences in (a) Molar mass (b) densities
(c) freezing points (d) boiling point
3. Fractional distillation is used to separate (a) an insoluble substance from a soluble volatile
substance (b)substances which are absorbed differently and which differ in their solubility in
a solvent(c) Liquids with differing boiling points (d) Gas, Liquid or solid impurities from a
mixture
4. A mixture of sand, ammonium chloride and sodium chloride is best separated by.
(a) Sublimation followed by addition of water and filtration (b) Sublimation followed by
addition of water and evaporation (c) addition of water followed by crystallization and
sublimation.
5. Separating funnel is used for separating a mixture of (a) Liquids with different boiling
points (b) sediments of liquid. (c) Liquids with different colours. (d) liquids that are
immiscible
ESSAY QUESTIONS:
Name the most suitable physical method for each of the following. (a) Containing groundnut
oil from a mixture of the oil and water. (b) Obtaining pure water from sea water.
Draw the laboratory set up most suitable for each of the following. (a) Separating of a
mixture of palm oil and water (b) Separate of pure liquid from an impure liquid.
State one industrial application of each of the following methods of separation explaining
clearly the procedure. (a) crystallization (b) filtration (c) fractional distillation (d) evaporation
With the aid of a labelled diagram only show how pure sample of ethanol (alcohol) can be
obtained from a mixture of ethanol and water.
Why is sodium chloride solution regarded as a mixture? (b) Draw a labelled diagram to show
how pure sodium chloride can be obtained from its solution.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
Read about recrystallization from page 5 of comprehensive certificate chemistry; write out
the procedures.
WEEKEND ACTIVITY:
Get some impure water in a container and try to purify it by using Alum. How will you
separate the pure liquid after the precipitating process?
FLOATATION:
Floatation method is based on the wide difference in the densities of the components of the
mixture. The method is used for the separation of a mixture of two solids in which one
component is light and the other is heavy. On the addition of a liquid in which neither is
soluble, one component sinks, while the other floats. e.g. a mixture of coarse sand and
wooden cork.
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PROCEDURE: Place the mixture in a beaker and add plenty of water. The sand particles sink,
while the wooden corks float.
FROTH FLOTATION (FROSTATION)
This method is specifically used to separate an ore of a metal from earthy impurities.
PROCEDURE: The ore is crushed into powder and then mixed with water containing
detergent, in order to cause frothing (foaming).
Air is then blown into the mixture so that the earthy impurities sink while the ore floats and
mixes with the foam. The ore is finally recovered from the foam
PURE AND IMPURE SUBTANCES: The following are the criteria for purity of chemical
substances.
DENSITY: The density of a pure substance is definite and constant, while that of an impure
substance higher than expected.
MELTING POINT: The melting point of a pure solid is sharp and definite. The presence of an
impurity lowers the melting point of a substance, and spread its melting point over a wide
range of temperature.
FREEZING POINT: The freezing point of a pure liquid is sharp and definite; the presence of an
impurity lowers the freezing point.
BOILING POINT: The boiling point of a pure liquid is sharp and definite. An impurity raises the
boiling point of a pure liquid.
PERIOD 4: TEST FOR PURITY
After separation of substances from mixtures, it is important to know if they are pure. A pure
solid should melt at a constant temperature. A pure liquid should boil at a constant
temperature. A pure dye should give only one spot on a chromatogram. The melting points
or boiling points of pure substances are fixed. These temperatures change if impurities are
present. To assess the purity of a substance its melting point (if it is a solid) or its melting
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point ( if it is liquid) is determined (if the value obtained agrees with that given in a book of
data, then the substance is pure).
The apparatus below can be used to find the melting point of a solid.
The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which it changes to liquid. The melting
point tube is very thin- a capillary tube- and the substance under test must be finely
powdered so that it can be packed into the capillary tube (melting point tube). The beaker
containing the oil is heated slowly and the oil stirred vigorously. If the solid is pure it will all
melt at a constant temperature. i.e. it will have a sharp melting point.
NOTE: If impurities are present the mixture will melt slowly over a range of temperatures
below the melting point of the pure solid.
EVALUATION:
1.How will you know that a given liquid is not pure?
DETERMINATION OF THE BOILING POINT OF LIQUIDS
(a) Flammable liquids (b) In flammable liquids
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapour pressure equals
atmospheric pressure.
The apparatus shown above can be used to find the boiling points of liquids.
A pure sample of liquid will boil at a fixed temperature and the reading on the thermometer
will remain constant. If the light is not pure it will boil over a range of temperature above the
boiling point of the pure liquid.
Impurities lower the melting point of a substance and raise its boiling point.
EVALUATION:
1.List five pieces of apparatus that are common to the determination of melting and boiling
points of a chemical substance.
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. The chromatographic separation of ink is based on the ability of the component to.
A: react with each other
B: react with the solvent
C: dissolve in each other in the column
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D: move at different speeds in the column
2. The criteria to verify the purity of a solid substance are. I boiling point II melting point III
density IV refractive index
A: I, II B: II, III C: I, II, III D: I, II, III, IV
3. A pure dye will A: have a constant boiling point B: have many spots on a chromatogram
C:separate from camphor by evaporation method
4. A flammable liquid A: can be heated directly with flame when it is in a container.
5. The best method to separate a mixture of black ink is
A: floatation B: frostation C: ascending paper chromatography D: evaporation
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. (a) Define the term’ chromatography’. (b) Name the different types of chromatography
(c) Describe with the aid of a diagram how you would separate a mixture of inks.
2. (a) List three physical properties that are common criteria for purity of substances. (b) List
five pieces of apparatus that are common to the determination of melting and boiling points
of a chemical substances
3. (a) State the importance of the measurement of melting and boiling points. (b) Explain
briefly why salt is always sprinkled can the icy roads in countries where the temperature falls
below 273k.
4. Explain the following term briefly (i) floatation (ii) frostation
5. Draw a labelled diagram only to illustrate the determination of the boiling point of a
flammable liquid.
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