Seismic Tools for Reservoir Management

Reservoir engineers, geophysicists, geologists and managers agree that

the 3D seismic technique can shed light on reservoir structure. But

there’s more to seismic than faults and layers: with the right handling,

seismic data can predict rock and fluid properties across the whole field.

Here’s a look at some of the powerful probes in the seismic

toolbox—inversion, AVO, 3D visualization and time-lapse surveys—with

guidelines for use and some success stories.

Tajjul Ariffin Oil and gas companies large and small are
Greg Solomon relying on 3D seismic data to better delin-
Salehudin Ujang eate fields and identify new reserves. Oper-
PETRONAS Carigali ating companies have quantified and docu-
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia mented the value a 3D survey can add to an
exploration or development project, com-
Michel Bée pared to a 2D survey.1 These testimonials
Steve Jenkins describe the key role seismic images play in
Caltex Pacific Indonesia revealing reservoir locations and structures
Rumbai, Indonesia and the importance of using the information
early in the life of a field to derive maximum
Chip Corbett benefit.
Houston, Texas, USA But some companies are asking more of
their 3D seismic surveys, demanding knowl-
Geoffrey Dorn edge beyond—in fact between—reflections,
Robert Withers and getting it. A new science of reservoir
ARCO geophysics is emerging to provide this addi-
Plano, Texas tional information to reservoir engineers.2 Inversion
At the heart of the matter are reservoir geo- Inversion is one of the foundations upon
Hüseyin Özdemir physicists, who rely on high-quality 3D sur- which reservoir geophysicists are building
Gatwick, England veys—available through advances in acqui- tools to make seismic information more use-
sition, processing and interpretation ful to engineers. Inversion is so named
Chris Pearse techniques—for complete volume coverage because it acts as the inverse of forward
Amoco Norway of the reservoir. High-resolution borehole modeling. Forward modeling takes an earth
Stavanger, Norway seismic surveys help fuse the surface seismic model of layers with densities and veloci-
with log and core data to allow log proper- ties, combines this with a seismic pulse, and
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to David ties such as lithology, porosity and fluid type turns out a realistic seismic trace—usually
Cefola, Oryx Energy Company, Dallas, Texas, USA; Bob to be mapped field-wide (for an update see called a synthetic. Inversion takes a real
Keys, Mobil Exploration & Producing Technical Center,
Dallas, Texas; Andy Maas and Tiga Teilmann, GeoQuest, “Borehole Seismic Data Sharpen the Reser- seismic trace, removes the seismic pulse,
Duri, Sumatra, Indonesia; Robert North, GeoQuest, voir Image,” page 18 ). With this more com- and delivers an earth model of acoustic
Anchorage, Alaska, USA; and Christopher Ross, PGS
Tensor, Houston, Texas.
plete understanding of the reservoir, produc- impedance (AI), or density times velocity, at
In this article RM (Reservoir Modeling) software is a mark tion engineers can optimize development the trace location (next page ). Seismic inver-
of Schlumberger. and recover additional reserves. This article
reviews case studies of four techniques that
show promise—inversion, amplitude varia-
tion with offset (AVO), 3D visualization and
4 time-lapse monitoring. Oilfield Review
 sion can be posed as a problem of obtaining
an earth model for which the synthetic best
fits the observed data.3 The simplest earth
models contain layers with densities and
compressional velocities, but more elabo-
rate inversions yield models with shear
velocities as well. Ideally, inversions com-
bine surface seismic, vertical seismic profile
(VSP), sonic and density log data.
The main use of inversion for reservoir
management comes through log-property
mapping: the seismically derived AI values
are tested for correlation with logs at the
well location—porosity, lithology, water sat-
uration, or any attribute that can be found to
correlate. Those log properties are then

Inversion 1. Jeffers PB, Juranek TA and Poffenberger MR: “3-D versus

Forward modeling 2-D Drilling Results: Is There Still a Question,” pre-
sented at the SEG 63rd Annual International Meeting

Earth model Input Seismic Estimated Earth model

nForward modeling and Exposition, Washington, DC, USA, September 26-
and inversion. 30, 1993, paper IM1.5.
of acoustic wavelet trace wavelet of acoustic
impedance Forward modeling Greenlee SM, Gaskins GM and Johnson MG: “3-D Seis-
impedance mic Benefits from Exploration Through Development:
800
begins with an
An Exxon Perspective,” The Leading Edge 13, no. 7 (July
earth model of
1994): 730-734.
acoustic impedance
Knecht SW and Helgeson S: “Case Study: How a Small
(AI) and ends with
Company Adopted 3D Seismic Technology,” Oil & Gas
Time, msec

a synthetic seismic Journal 90, no. 42 (October 19, 1992): 54, 56-57.
trace. Inversion
Reservoir

850 Nestvold EO: “The 3D Seismic Revolution: Cost Bene-

begins with a real fits and Their Implications,” presented at the SEG Sum-
seismic trace and mer Research Workshop on 3-D Seismology: Integrated
outputs an AI Comprehension of Large Data Volumes, Rancho
model. Mirage, California, USA, August 1-6, 1993.
Williams P: “Aces in the Hole,” Oil & Gas Investor
900 (October 1994): 94.
2.“The Emerging Science of Reservoir Geophysics,” Petro
Systems World (September/October 1994): 18-20.
3. Pan GS, Young CY and Castagna JP: “Net Pay Delin-
eation of Gas Sand Using Integrated Target-Oriented
Prestack Elastic Waveform Inversion,” presented at the
SEG 63rd Annual International Meeting and Exposition,
Winter 1995 Washington, DC, USA, September 26-30, 1993, paper
IM1.4.
 extrapolated throughout the inverted 3D
seismic volume using the lateral variation of
seismically derived AI to guide the process.
Adequately processed seismic data are a
must for inversion, but the optimum pro-
cessing required to prepare data for inver-
West Hod East Hod
sion is the subject of much debate, as is the
2/11-3 optimal inversion calculation itself. Numer-
ous processing chains have been
2/11-A2 developed.4 A workshop was held recently
to define the ultimate processing scheme,
but to the surprise of the participants, no
one method proved best.5 The trait that sets
inversion apart from the standard processing
y chain for structural interpretation is the need
rwa rk
0 m 1000 No a for preservation of true relative amplitudes.
n m
De Changes in trace amplitude from one loca-
0 ft 3281 tion to another may reveal porosity or other
formation property variations, but these
amplitude changes are subtle and may be
3°00'E 3°30'E nThe surface of the top chalk of the Hod obliterated by conventional processing.
Albuskjell field in the Norwegian sector of the North
Tor
Sea. Most of the 66.9 MM barrels of oil Inversion can be performed before or after
equivalent attributed to the field lie the seismic traces have been stacked—
Ekofisk within the East Hod anticline. Additional summed to create a single trace at a central
S. E. Tor
reserves have recently been proven location—but care must be taken to ensure
Gamma beyond the limit of structural closure, that stacking does not alter amplitudes. In
Edda north of East Hod, where seismic ampli-
tude, inversion and porosity mapping some cases, such as regions where seismic
Tommeliten Eldfisk
techniques indicated the presence of a reflection amplitudes vary with angle of inci-
high-porosity reservoir zone. dence at the reflector, stacking does not pre-
Valhall serve amplitudes, and inversion must be per-
Embla
formed prestack. Only examples of poststack
Mj Ølner
inversion results are presented in this article.
Argyll
No

East
Hod The simplest inversion scheme derives rel-
rw

West
UK

ay

Hod ative acoustic impedance changes for one

rk seismic trace by computing a cumulative
n ma sum of the amplitudes in the trace. The
De
Norway gradual trend of increasing AI with depth—
invisible to seismic waves—is taken from
density and cumulative sonic travel times,
and added to the relative AI results.6
Nor

N O R T H
UK
way

S E A Porosity Mapping in the Hod Field Chalks

Amoco Norway in Stavanger has drawn
ark
upon seismic inversion followed by porosity
nm mapping as an aid to managing the devel-
Area De Denmark
of detail opment of the Hod field, the southern-most
N

4. Berg E, Brevik I and Buller AT: “Experiences Gained
using a Seismic Inversion Method for Detailed Reser-
voir Studies,” in Buller et al (eds): North Sea Oil and
Gas Reservoirs—II. London, England: Graham & Trot-
man, Limited (1990): 129-138.
Brac J, Déquirez PY, Hervé F, Jacques C, Lailly P,
Richard V and van Nhieu DT: “Inversion With a priori
Information: An Approach to Integrated Stratigraphic
Interpretation,” in Sheriff RA (ed): Reservoir Geo-
physics. Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA: Society of Exploration
Geophysicists (1992): 251-258.
Oldenburg DW, Levy S and Stinson KJ: “Inversion of
Band-Limited Reflection Seismograms: Theory and
Practice,” Proceedings of the IEEE 74, no. 3 (March
1986): 487-497.
5. SEG Workshop on Comparison of Seismic Inversion
Methods on a Single Real Data Set, Los Angeles, Cali-
fornia, USA, October 28, 1994.
6. Schultz PS, Ronen S, Hattori M, Mantran P and Cor-
bett C: “Seismic-Guided Estimation of Log Properties,”
The Leading Edge 13, no. 7 (July 1994): 770-776.
Ashcroft WA and Ridgway MS: “Early Discordant Dia-
genesis in the Brent Group, Murchison Field, UK
North Sea, Detected in High Values of Seismic-
Derived Acoustic Impedance,” accepted for publica-
tion in Petroleum Geoscience.
7. Pearse CHJ and Özdemir H: “The Hod Field: Chalk
Reservoir Delineation from 3D Seismic Data Using
Amplitude Mapping and Seismic Inversion,” presented
at the Norwegian Petroleum Society Geophysical
Seminar, Kristiansand, Norway, March 7-9, 1994.
Campbell SJD and Gravdal N: “The Prediction of High
Porosity Chalks in the East Hod Field,” Petroleum Geo-
science 1 (1995): 57-69.
Landrø M, Buland A and D’Angelo R: “Target-Oriented
AVO Inversion of Data from Valhall and Hod Fields,”
The Leading Edge 14, no. 8 (August 1995): 855-861.
8. The spillpoint is the point of maximum filling by hydro-
carbon of a structural trap.
9. Acoustic impedance has the units of velocity times
density. Although the combination of English and met-
ric units seems peculiar, ft/sec x g/cm3 is a common
unit.

6 Oilfield Review
in the trend of chalk oil fields in the Norwe-
60 nA crossplot show-
gian sector of the North Sea ( previous ing correlation
between porosity
page).7 The two separate oil-filled anticlinal and acoustic
50
structures in the field—West and East impedance,
Hod—were discovered in 1974 and 1977, derived from sonic,
respectively. However, reservoir uncertain- density and poros-
40 ity logs from East
ties were not resolved by appraisal drilling, Hod wells.
and marginal economics delayed produc-

Porosity, %
tion until 1990. Total estimated original
reserves for the field are 66.9 million barrels 30

of oil equivalent (BOE), of which 94% are

attributed to East Hod. An unmanned pro-
duction platform is tied to the Valhall facili- 20
ties to the north.
The primary reservoir interval at East Hod
comprises allocthonous—reworked and 10
redeposited—chalks of the Tor formation.
The 2/11-A2 well encounters a prime chalk
reservoir section, with 90 m [295 ft] of Tor 0
formation showing porosities of up to 50% 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000

(below, right ). Although East Hod is associ- Acoustic impedance, ft/sec x g/cm3
ated with a pronounced anticlinal closure,
oil is trapped not only structurally, but also 2/11-A2 East Hod
stratigraphically. Moveable oil has been
Well Trace Sonic Density AI Synthetic Zero-phase
observed below the established spillpoint, Trace Wavelet
µsec/ft g/cm3 ft/sec x g/cm3
with reservoir distribution controlled by a -0.1 0.1 200 40 2 3 10,000 36,400 -0.1 0.1 -0.1 0.1
combination of depositional, structural and 2500
diagenetic factors.8 The complex interplay
between these factors results in a highly
2550
variable chalk reservoir.
The top chalk surface represents an ero-
sional unconformity that exposes a variety of 2600
Top
Two-way time, msec

chalk types from the Ekofisk, Tor and Hod chalk

formations to the overlying Paleocene shale
seal. Well data show that chalks contributing 2650
to the top chalk seismic event have porosities
ranging from 20 to 50%, with impedances
ranging from 30,000 ft/sec X g/cm3 to 10,000 2700
ft/sec X g/cm3 [9150 to 3050 m/sec X g/cm3]
( top ). 9 The high-quality reservoir rocks
2750
exhibit a decrease in acoustic impedance
compared to the relatively uniform acoustic
impedance of the overlying shale, while
2800
nonreservoir chalks show an increase .
Therefore the acoustic properties of the
chalk exert the primary influence on the 2850

10,000 20,000 30,000 36,000

Acoustic impedance, ft/sec x g/cm3

nThe 2/11-A2 East Hod well in a prime chalk reservoir section, with log and seismic data
compared to synthetics. Sonic slowness (track 2) and density data (track 3) are combined
to give acoustic impedance (track 4). This is combined with a seismic wavelet (track 6) to
yield a synthetic trace (track 5), which matches the recorded surface seismic data at the
well (track 1). The acoustic impedance decrease at the top chalk interface produces a
high-amplitude seismic peak, or swing to the right, in the polarity convention used here.

Winter 1995 7
2/11-3 East Hod
Well Trace Sonic
µsec/ft
-0.1 0.1 200
2500
2550
2600
Two-way time, msec
2650
2700
2750
2800
2850
10,000
Acoustic impedance, ft/sec x g/cm3
nLog and seismic data compared to synthetics in the key well 2/11-3. Tracks are as in
the figure on previous page, bottom. At the shale-top chalk interface, acoustic
impedance increases. The synthetic and data traces respond to this with a high-ampli-
tude trough—a swing to the left. This exploration well on the western flank of the East
Hod encountered water-wet nonreservoir chalks.
amplitude of seismic reflections, making it
possible to develop an effective method for
mapping the reservoir extent and quality
from inverted poststack seismic data.
Various 2D and 3D seismic inversion and
porosity mapping techniques have been
successfully applied in the area. Because of
the combination of the great range in chalk
impedance, and its predictable dependence
on porosity, the results of most inversion
techniques establish similar porosity trends,
with the differences to be found in small
10. Poggiagliolmi E and Allred RD: “Detailed Reservoir
Definition by Integration of Well and 3-D Seismic
Data Using Space Adaptive Wavelet Processing,”
The Leading Edge 13, no. 7 (July 1994): 749-754.
11. Broadband means the bandwidth, or range of
frequencies present in the wavelet, is wide. Zero-
phase means the shape of the wavelet is optimized
for interpretation of inversion results: trace peaks
indicate locations of AI changes—in contrast to
other kinds of wavelets, in which trace zeroes can
indicate AI changes.
8 Oilfield Review
Density AI Synthetic Zero-phase
g/cm3 ft/sec x g/cm3 Trace Wavelet
40 2 3 10,000 36,400 -0.1 0.1 -0.1 0.1
Top
chalk
20,000 30,000 36,000
details and absolute porosity values.
The first 3D porosity mapping at Hod field
was carried out using the Log-Property Map-
ping module of the RM Reservoir Modeling
system. Vertical well 2/11-3, with its excel-
lent tie to the surface seismic data, was used
as the key well to calibrate the inversion
(above ). The other wells also provided input
to the low-frequency AI model and calibra-
tion of AI to porosity.
This mapping supports the presence of a
zone of high porosity beyond the limit of the
12. Corbett C, Solomon GJ, Sonrexa K, Ujang S and
Ariffin T: “Application of Seismic-Guided Reservoir
Property Mapping to the Dulang West Field, Offshore
Peninsular Malaysia,” paper SPE 30568, presented at
the 70th SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhi-
bition, Dallas, Texas, USA, October 22-25, 1995.
13. Anderson B, Bryant I, Helbig K, Lüling M and Spies B:
“Oilfield Anisotropy: Its Origins and Electrical Char-
acteristics,” Oilfield Review 6, no. 4 (October 1994):
48-56.
Ayan C, Colley N, Cowan G, Ezekwe E, Goode B,
Halford F, Joseph J, Mongini A, Obondoko G, Pop J
and Wannell M: “Measuring Permeability Anisotropy:
The Latest Approach,” Oilfield Review 6, no. 4 (Octo-
ber 1994): 24-35.
East Hod structural closure (right ). Subse-
quent drilling in this area has confirmed the
inversion predictions of commercial poros-
ity, and a horizontal producing well is cur-
rently draining the area which now repre-
sents a proven extension of the Hod field.
An ever increasing functionality and qual-
ity of applications are available for this type
of reservoir characterization. An example of
a significant refinement to the process used
in the Hod field area is a scheme called
space-adaptive wavelet processing. 10
Applied as a precursor to inversion, this pro-
cess integrates information from many wells
to ensure that seismic data with a common,
broadband, zero-phase wavelet are input to
the inversion.11 The resulting improvement
in the resolution of the inversion and subse-
quent interpretation have allowed porosity
mapping from seismic to become a standard
part of the chalk reservoir management pro-
cess, and a primary means of identifying and
quantifying the potential for extensions to
the field or separate accumulations nearby.
Line
850
Line
800
2/11-3
N
18 38
Porosity, p.u.
nAverage porosity mapped from seismic
data at East Hod, generated by the Log-
Property Mapping application in the RM
Reservoir Modeling system. The plotted
porosity values correspond to the average
in a 32-msec time window of the seismic
data. This corresponds to an interval
about 40 to 55 m [131 to 180 ft] thick at
the top of the interpreted chalk section,
and includes the optimum Tor formation
reservoir. The white line indicates the lim-
its of structural closure.
Mapping Porosity in Malaysia 0 km 5
Dulang field
Once thought to be useful primarily in car-
bonate reservoirs because of a more recog- 0 miles 3.1
nizable porosity-acoustic impedance rela- 6G-1.4
tionship, inversion for porosity mapping has 6G-1.3 6G-1.6
also proven powerful in sand reservoirs.
6G-1.1B 6G-1.2
PETRONAS Carigali, the upstream operat-
ing arm of the Malaysian national oil com-
pany, has used seismic inversion to opti-
mize drilling locations in the Dulang West Myanmar
field in the Malay basin of the South China

Laos
Sea (right ).12 Thailand Western Unit Eastern
The Dulang field has an estimated 850 area area area
million barrels original oil in place (OOIP). Cambodia
nThe Dulang West field

am

A
In the first stage of development, more than

tn

SE
V ie
100 wells were drilled in the central area of operated by PETRONAS
GULF OF Carigali, the upstream

A
the faulted anticlinal structure, producing

IN
THAILAND operating arm of the
from an oil and gas column of up to 150 m

H
C Malaysian national oil
[492 ft] of stacked sandstones. The next Dulang H company.
stage of development focuses on the Dulang field UT
SO

Ma
West portion, in which plans call for 25

lay

ia
wells from a 32-slot platform.

ys
sia

ala
The four delineation wells indicate a

M
Singapore
reservoir too complex to understand from
well data alone. The main reservoirs are
Su

Borneo
m

fine-grained, discontinuous sands interbed-

N
at
ra

ded with shales and coals. The sand bodies

are preferentially oriented, suggesting per-
meability anisotropy on the scale of the
field.13 Porosity, permeability and their rela-
tionship to each other show great variabil- Java
ity—for example, permeability can vary
from 50 to several hundred millidarcies for a
median porosity of 25%. In the central area
developed earlier, close well spacing per- 20 6G 1.6
6G 1.2
mitted property mapping from logs. But in 6G 6G 1.4
110 6G 1.3
Dulang West, engineers have relied on 1.1B
15 105
inversion of the 3D seismic data to extend 6G 1.1B
Porosity, p.u.

GR, API units

information contained in the delineation

100
wells to map porosity across the field. 10
After the poststack seismic and log data 95
were tied at the right depths and inverted for
5 6G 1.6
acoustic impedance, log properties were 90
6G 1.4
tested for their correlation with the AI values 6G 1.2
6G 1.3 85
at the respective well locations using the 0
Log-Property Mapping module of the RM 18,000 20,000 22,000 18,000 20,000 22,000
Reservoir Modeling software (right ). Only Acoustic impedance, ft/sec x g/cm3
porosity was found to correlate significantly
with acoustic impedance, with a trend simi-
nCorrelation between average acoustic impedance (AI) and two log properties, poros-
ity and gamma ray. Porosity shows an inverse correlation—AI decreases as porosity
lar to that of the chalks of the East Hod field. increases, while gamma ray shows no significant correlation with AI.
Extending the log porosity values away from
the four wells using the seismic inversion
results as a guide produced a reservoir
porosity map.

Winter 1995 9
 6G 1.3

6G 1-7

13.69
Porosity, p.u.
20.00

potential sites to be quickly investigated for

reservoir quality and likely reserves.
a
10
The reservoir model built from the seismic
data included not only the traditional aspect
of reservoir structure, but also the total vol-
ume of porosity in each volume element of
the seismic cube. This model was scaled up
for input to a fluid-flow simulator. Perme-
ability was distributed throughout the model
by applying a porosity-permeability trans-
form to the seismically guided porosity map.

6G1-7

D1
Well

Appraisal

Development

Development
D2
6G 1.6
D2

D1

nWest Dulang seismically guided porosity map and proposed drilling locations (green
dots). Comparisons between predicted and actual drilling results are shown in the table
(below).

An integrated assessment of porosity and

structure allowed interpreters to propose
drilling locations (above ). Areas of higher
porosity in the south were deemed more
promising than lower-porosity areas in fault
blocks to the north. The Well Prognosis
module of the RM system allowed several
6G 1.4

6G 1.1B

The new model provided a better estimation

of production over a simulated seven-year
period than that obtained by other methods.
In addition, areas of high acoustic
impedance were interpreted to be shaly or
to have poor reservoir development,
enabling better placement of planned wells.
Recent appraisal drilling southeast of well
6G-1.3, testing oil potential downdip of gas
inferred from an especially low AI anomaly,
encountered 18 m [59 ft] of good quality,
18% porosity gross sand. Although the sand
was wet, agreement with the model was
good, with 18.8 m [62 ft] and 19% porosity
predicted. Two development wells, D1 and
D2, further demonstrate the predictive
power of the method (below ).

Thickness
Predicted

18.8 m

15.4 m

13.4 m
Actual

18 m

16.6 m

6.3 m
19%

19.8%

17.5%
Porosity
Predicted Actual

18%

20%

18%
a
AVO
In some environments, seismic reflection
amplitude variation with offset (AVO) can be
used as a reservoir management tool to indi-
cate hydrocarbon extent.14 The AVO tech-
nique relies on the observation—backed up
by physics—that pore fluid type imprints a
signature on the amplitude of a seismic
reflection. To see this signature, seismic data
must be viewed at different angles of reflec-
tion. Depending on the type of pore fluid in
the juxtaposed rock layers, the amplitude of
the reflection may increase, decrease, or
remain constant as the reflection angle at the
boundary increases (below ). The incident
angle of the seismic wave can be expressed
in terms of offset, or distance, between seis-
mic source and receiver—a congruent quan-
tity more easily measured than an angle at
some depth.
A common way to use AVO to character-
ize reservoirs is to identify a hydrocarbon
AVO signature—for example, the AVO
response of a gas reservoir—and comb the
3D seismic volume for other areas with sim-

Amplitude variation with offset (AVO)

S4 S3

Offset 1
S2

Common
S1

Midpoint
(CMP)
Offset 4
Offset 3
Offset 2
Offset 1

Offset 4
Offset 3
Offset 2

Amplitude increases
R1

nAmplitude variation with offset (AVO).

Some interfaces show AVO signatures, or
variation of reflection amplitude with
angle of incidence. In this case, the
amplitude increases with offset.
R2 R3

Shale

Gas sand

Oilfield Review
R4
ilar signatures. This can result in discoveries
of bypassed hydrocarbon as well as exten-
sion or delineation of existing reservoirs.
The practice assumes that lithology does not
have enough lateral variation to affect the
seismic amplitudes, so that all AVO effects UNITED STATES
are due to changes in pore fluid type. The
seismic data must be processed to preserve
relative amplitudes, and also must be ana-
lyzed before stacking.
Some lithologies show less obvious AVO
sensitivity to pore fluid change than others.
Carbonates and low-porosity sandstones
nThe BK field oper-

p i Ri ve r
tend to have less evident AVO signatures
ated by Oryx
than high-porosity sandstones, and special Alabama Energy Company
Louisiana
care must be taken in applying the technol-

Mississip
Mississippi off the Louisiana
ogy in these areas.15 Gulf Coast.
In an example from the mature BK field in Texas
the Gulf of Mexico, the successful incorpo-
ration of AVO analysis helped Oryx Energy
Company engineers identify extensions of
the reservoir that might have gone undrilled. 3D survey
area
The quality of the AVO results convinced ICO
management to free up money for drilling MEX
OF
LF
that had been allocated elsewhere. GU
The BK field lies off the flank of a shallow
salt and shale diapir in 5 m [16 ft] of water
near the Louisiana Gulf Coast (above right ). Before 3D Survey After 3D Survey
The reservoir, discovered in the late 1940s,
has produced 300 billion cubic feet (Bcf) of
gas. The map of the 5000-m [16,400-ft]
deep structure had been constructed primar-
ily with well control, and the new 78-km2
[30-square mile] survey, designed to provide
incremental structural and stratigraphic
information, changed the structural map sig- Line 1235
nificantly (right ). BK-16
AVO analysis was introduced to better
delineate the gas reservoir and reduce risk BK-15 Line 1215
in choosing drilling locations. The analysis
required a seismic cube for two different
families of offsets. Data processing followed
the same sequence as for the full 3D cube,
except the data were separated into a near-

14. Chiburis E, Franck C, Leaney S, McHugo S and Skid-

more C: “Hydrocarbon Detection with AVO,” Oil-
field Review 5, no. 1 (January 1993): 42-50.
Ross CP: “Improved Mature Field Development with
3D/AVO Technology,” First Break 13, no. 4 (April
1995): 139-145.
15. Lu HZ and Lines L: “AVO and Devonian Reef Explo-
ration: Difficulties and Possibilities,” The Leading
Edge 14, no. 8 (August 1995): 879-882. nStructural maps created before and after the 3D survey showing significant differ-
Ross CP and Kinman DL: “Nonbright-Spot AVO:
ences. Well BK-15 produces gas. BK-16 is a proposed well location in an undrilled updip
Two Examples,” Geophysics 60 (September-October fault block. (Adapted from Ross CP, reference 14, courtesy of Blackwell Science.)
1995): 1398-1408.
Hall DJ, Adamick JA, Skoyles D, DeWildt J and
Erickson J: “AVO as an Exploration Tool: Gulf of
Mexico Case Studies and Examples,” The Leading
Edge 14, no. 8 (August 1995): 863-869.
Peddy CP, Sengupta MK and Fasnacht T: “AVO Anal-
ysis in High-Impedance Sandstone Reservoirs,” The
Leading Edge 14, no. 8 (August 1995): 871-877.

Winter 1995 11
Near offsets Near-offset cube offset volume with offset ranges from zero
Offset 2 to 3800 m [12,468 ft] and a far-offset vol-
Offset 1 Near-offset
1 2 stack ume with offsets from 3800 to 5800 m
[19,024 ft] (left ).
Forward modeling using logs from pro-
ducing wells indicated the gas zones have
an AVO signature of amplitude increasing
with offset. Interpretation consisted of find-
ing other areas in which the near-offset vol-
ume has low amplitudes and the far-offset
volume has higher amplitudes.
CMP The technique is demonstrated on a pair of
seismic lines extracted from the 3D volume.
Far offsets Far-offset cube
Offset 4 The AVO signature on Line 1215 at the gas-
Offset 3 Far-offset producing well BK-15 is the standard to
3 4 stack which Line 1235 is compared to determine
the likelihood of hitting gas at the proposed
location BK-16. A color-coding system was
devised to discriminate increasing AVO
trends from decreasing ones (below left ).
Results of the analysis show the BK-16 loca-
tion to be similar to, and perhaps even more
promising than, the producer BK-15 (below ).
Initial production from the BK-16 well was
CMP 15.4 MMcf/D and 210 barrels of condensate
per day from 25 m [82 ft] of 20% porosity
nConstruction of near-offset and far-offset cubes. Offsets less than 3800 m [12,464 ft] sand. Sand quality is better than that found
are stacked to create a trace in the near-offset cube, and offsets from 3800 to 5800 m
[19,024 ft] are stacked to form a far-offset volume. in the BK-15 well, refuting speculation that
sand quality degrades to the northwest. And
following the BK-16 well, two additional
Line 1215 successful wells have been drilled within the
West BK-15 East region of AVO gas signature.
180 200 CDP number 250 300 350
3.2 nThe AVO signa-
ture at the gas pro-
ducer and at the
3.4 proposed well
location. Red indi-
Time, sec

cates amplitude
3.6 increasing with off-
set (near offsets
smaller amplitude Line 1235
3.8 than far offsets) at BK-16
the top of the reser-
voir and yellow
4.0 BK-15 Line 1215
indicates the same
Line 1235 response but for
the bottom of the
West BK-16 East reservoir. The
180 200 CDP number 250 300 350 desired AVO signa-
3.2 ture, as seen at the
BK-15 location, is a
red-over-yellow
3.4 sequence at 3.7
sec. The same sig-
Time, sec

nature is present at
3.6 BK-16, indicating
the likelihood of
finding gas there.
3.8 (Adapted from Ross
CP, reference 14,

4.0
courtesy of Black-
well Science.)
nReservoir quality map for the BK field
created from AVO analysis. Quality
increases from gold to orange. (Adapted
from Ross CP, reference 14, courtesy of Black-
well Science.)

12 Oilfield Review

Aberdeen
E A
H S
R T
Edinburgh N O
Pickerill
field
UNITED KINGDOM
London
N which was colored according to reflection
nLocation of the Pickerill field, operated
by ARCO, in the southern gas basin of the
North Sea.
Seeing is Believing
Sometimes just seeing the interpreted seis-
mic data from a new point of view can shed
light on reservoir complexities and help
engineers plan and manage development.
With the arrival of powerful graphics work-
stations, visualization has become a key ele-
ment in integrated reservoir characterization
studies. Workstation visualization allows
simultaneous display of data from various
sources and enhances the communication
of ideas and problems among technical per-
sonnel and management. Visualization itself
can at times reveal something about the
reservoir that was not previously suspected
or understood.
Examples from ARCO operations in the
Pickerill field in the southern North Sea gas
basin demonstrate the value of 3D visualiza-
tion as a tool to help in well planning
( above ). 16 Early drilling revealed some
obstacles to effective field development.
First, reservoir porosity varies between less
than 8% and greater than 20%, and the lat-
eral variation is quite rapid—the reservoir is
Winter 1995
Plan View highly faulted, and even small-throw faults
can create barriers to flow of gas, due to
diagenesis along the fault surfaces. Second,
Approximate
reservoir a discontinuous dolomite floats within the
Zechstein evaporites overlying the
boundary
1 km Rotliegend reservoir. Exploration drilling
met with overpressure problems when the
0.6 miles
wells penetrated the dolomite, while over-
pressure was not encountered when the
borehole avoided the dolomite. The over-
pressure represents a drilling hazard and a
potential cost to be avoided.
Visualization techniques used as part of a
reservoir characterization study helped
Well Projection tackle these problems. A highly detailed
reservoir fault interpretation was developed
by combining an attribute of the seismic
data—the reflection strength—with the
interpreted structure in a 3D display (left,
top ). By casting a light on the 3D surface,
strength, interpreters were able to pick faults
Top Reservoir
with a vertical component of displacement
as small as 3 meters [10 ft].
Planning safe well trajectories in areas
with dolomite sheets, locally known as Plat-
tendolomit, can be optimized with 3D visu-
Optimized Well Trajectory
alization. By simultaneously viewing the
surface of the top of the Rotliegend reservoir
Plattendolomit and of the Plattendolomit, proposed well
trajectories can be assessed for safety. A pro-
posed well that penetrates the Platten-
dolomit can be redirected to avoid overpres-
sure problems (left, middle and bottom ).
As part of the reservoir characterization
study, interpreters derived a correlation
Top Reservoir
16. Dorn G, Cole MJ and Tubman KM: “Visualization in
3-D Seismic Interpretation,” The Leading Edge 14,
no. 10 (October 1995): 1045-1049.
nTop: seismic reflection strength color
coded on the surface of the faulted reser-
voir. Middle: visualization of drilling tra-
jectories. Bottom: verifying the trajectory
of an alternative well path planned to
avoid the Plattendolomit. Dolomite “float-
ing” above the reservoir can be mapped
to assess the risk of well paths intersect-
ing this overpressure hazard.
13
between seismic reflection strength and
porosity determined from well logs, then
mapped the lateral variation in porosity on
the reservoir surface (below ). These displays
integrate the estimated porosity and struc-
tural information and present it in an easily
grasped, intuitive manner.
The results have been used to help guide
the location of development wells in the
Pickerill field. In four wells drilled within
the first year after completion of the study,
the actual porosity encountered—between
11% and 15%—was slightly higher than
that predicted, but well within the error of
the techniques used.
Reservoir Top Structure
Northern half
Southern half
6 19
Porosity, p.u.
14
Time-Lapse Seismic perature. The seismic surveys must also
If conditions are favorable, seismic surveys have acquisition and processing as similar
acquired at different times in the history of as possible to ensure that all observed differ-
the reservoir can show how fluid fronts have ences can be interpreted as changes related
moved.17 The knowledge of fluid distribu- to production. Accuracy and repeatability of
tion can help engineers identify unswept time-lapse seismic surveys may be signifi-
zones and plan infill or injection wells to cantly improved by using permanent sen-
optimize recovery. sors, either on land or on the seabottom.
To detect fluid changes, the differences in Time-lapse seismic, sometimes called 4D,
reflection amplitude or travel time of the has proved an important tool for reservoir
seismic waves must be discernible above management for Caltex Pacific Indonesia in
data noise levels. The rock properties that the Duri field of central Sumatra (next page,
influence seismic reflection response—den- top left ).18 The Duri field, with 5.3 billion bbl
sity and velocity—must show significant OOIP, was expected to produce only 8% of
variation with fluid content, pressure or tem- the OOIP under primary recovery. Optimized
steamflooding could bring ultimate recovery
to 60%—an incremental recovery of more
than 2 billion barrels of oil. Knowing where
nColor-coded the heat is being placed in the reservoir is
porosity on a 3D
image of the reser- critical to optimize the recovery. With these
voir surface. Visu- reserves at stake, Caltex turned to a seismic
alization helped monitoring pilot study to understand the
locate wells by complex flow patterns in shallow Duri reser-
avoiding faulting
and tapping high voir rocks, and to evaluate the method’s suit-
porosity. Actual ability for large-scale application.
porosity encoun- Laboratory tests on core samples indi-
tered was slightly cated the steamflooding would reduce seis-
higher than pre- mic velocities by up to 40%—a 15%
dicted.
decrease due to increased temperature, and
at the highest temperatures, an additional
25% reduction because of a water-to-steam
phase transition (below ).
2400
Kedua 600 psi
Compressional velocity, m/sec
Lower
Pertama 500 psi
Upper
2000
Pertama
430 psi
1600
1200
0 100 200 300 400
Temperature, °F
nLaboratory results showing effect of tem-
perature and pressure on seismic velocities
of core samples. Steamflooding can reduce
velocities by up to 40%—a 15% decrease
due to increased temperature, and at the
highest temperatures, another 25% from
the water-to-steam phase transition.
Oilfield Review
 Myanmar

La o s
Thailand

Cambodia

am

A
tn

SE
V ie
GULF OF

A
IN
THAILAND

H
C
H
UT
SO
Ma
lay

sia
y
sia

ala
Singapore M
Duri
field Borneo

N
Su
m
at

Duri field
ra

0 km 600 Area of
Java detail
0 miles 600
Receiver Observation well 0 m 100
Current
steamflood Shot Injector
nCaltex Pacific Indonesia’s Duri Producer
0 ft 328
field of central Sumatra. The 3D
seismic survey geometry called
for high-density sampling over
the pilot steamflood area.

Baseline 2-month lapse 5-month lapse 9-month lapse 13-month lapse 19-month lapse

nSeismic data from the baseline survey and five monitor surveys. As steamflooding proceeds, decreased velocities in treated layers
cause an apparent sag in reflectors. The top yellow line tracks the reflection at the top of the reservoir, and the bottom yellow line
tracks the reflection at the oil-water contact.

The seismic survey required a special
design, and all source and receiver parame-
ters were tested in the field prior to the base-
line survey to allow resolution of the shal-
low 500-ft [152-m] target depth and
optimum repeatability (top, right ).
The baseline survey was recorded one
month before steamflooding. Full acquisi-
tion and processing for the small 0.06-km2
[0.02-square mile] survey took about one
17. Albright J, Cassell B, Dangerfield J, Deflandre J-P,
week. The survey was repeated five times in Johnstad S and Withers R: “Seismic Surveillance for
the next twenty months (above ). Monitoring Reservoir Changes,” Oilfield Review 6,
no. 1 (January 1994): 4-14.
Zones affected by the introduction of
18. Bée MF, Jenkins SD, Lyle JH and Murhantoro E: “4-D
pressure, temperature and steam can be rec- Seismic: A Powerful New Technology for Monitoring
ognized in the monitor surveys. Seismic Steam Movements in Duri Field—Central Sumatra,”
velocities in zones surrounding the injector presented at the 23rd Annual Convention of the
Indonesian Petroleum Association, Jakarta, Indone-
were so much slower than before treatment sia, October 4-6, 1994.
that the layers appeared to thicken and sag
in the seismic images—an illusion created
by the increased travel time in those layers.

Winter 1995 15
Zones farther from the injector showed a After 2 months After 5 months After 9 months
velocity increase at early times, because of
the passage of the pressure front preceding
the arrival of the fluid.
The high-pressure and trailing high-tem-
perature fronts spread asymmetrically from
the central injector, indicating a high-per-
meability trend heading north and west
(right ). Temperature data from two observa-
tion wells and core-calibrated permeability
log data corroborate the presence of the
front and the permeability anisotropy sug-
12 msec 12 msec
gested by the seismic data.
The seismic data were further examined
for evidence of vertical sweep efficiency. Pull up Push down
Thermal effects were tracked in three differ-
ent layers by correlating the percentage After 13 months After 19 months After 19 months
velocity change in each layer with a devia-
tion from ambient temperature (next page ).
The top layer was interpreted to have the
lowest sweep efficiency, the middle layer to
have the highest, and the bottom layer in
between. Prior to steamflooding, an inde-
pendent reservoir quality analysis on core
from the formations showed the same hier-
archy: the top layer, with the most clay con-
tent, was estimated to be the worst zone, the
middle layer the best and the bottom layer
in between.
Encouraged by the feasibility demonstrated 10% 55%
Oil saturation
in the pilot study, Caltex has begun to imple-
ment the technology on a large scale in the nPlan view of front movement at the time of each monitor survey. Travel time to the
Duri field. The next phase, with the base sur- treated zone is compared between the baseline survey and each subsequent survey
vey already shot in April 1995 and the first (first five blocks of figure). A decrease in velocity is seen as a pull down—the reflector
monitor survey planned in early 1996, cov- appears pulled down—while an increase in velocity pulls the reflector up. The asym-
metrical spread indicates a high-permeability trend to the north and west. The oil satu-
ers 35 injector patterns instead of one. ration distribution that would result after 19 months of steamflooding was simulated,
and shows good agreement with the location of the steam front imaged at that time
(last block of figure).

16 Oilfield Review
Upper Pertama Growing Fields
Seismic surveys can provide a wealth of
information beyond the structural framework
for which they are best known. However, this
is not yet a routine operation, and has to be
carried out with care, using seismic and well
log data together, and a technique appropri-
ate to the problem. Porosity and lithology can
be mapped from inversion results, and fluid
132° F 100° F
composition can be predicted using AVO
analysis. Visualization is key when structure
is complex, and time-lapse monitoring is
appropriate when reservoir rock properties
are sensitive to fluid changes.
Surveys need to be acquired, processed
and interpreted quickly to make significant
contributions to the study. Some of the new
Lower Pertama
techniques are expensive, and they must be
justified. The additional information creates
no value unless it changes the way a field is
developed or managed. Typically, however,
only a small fractional increase in hydrocar-
bon productivity is required to justify a seis-
mic project in reservoir applications.
As fields mature, operators place greater
emphasis on improving the profitability of
237° F 167° F
existing assets through increased production
and improved efficiency. With this trend,
reservoir geophysics will become more
widely used to extend field life and maxi-
mize recovery. The field of reservoir geo-
physics is developing to address the integra-
tion of data of many scales and of different
physical properties. More advances will be
Kedua (deep)
made by trying the techniques in untested
areas and pushing the limits. —LS

nThermal effects tracked in three differ-

ent layers to assess sweep efficiency. The
top layer, Upper Pertama, was interpreted
to have the lowest sweep efficiency, and
the middle layer, Lower Pertama, to have
the highest. Sweep efficiency of the deep-
104° F 112° F est formation, the Kedua, is between the
other two. Reservoir quality analysis on
core from the formations showed the
same hierarchy.

Ambient Steam
Temperature
100° F 375° F

Winter 1995 17