Manuscript A - CFD of Exhaust Gas PDF

AUTOMOBILE EXHAUST PIPE:
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMIC

OF EXHAUST GAS FLOW
i
ABSTRACT
This book present the analysis of fluid flow of exhaust gas using computational
fluid dynamics (CFD) software called NUMECA CFD. The temperature, pressure, and
velocity distributions of automobile exhaust gas in exhaust pipes with 1) 45 degree bend,
2) 90 degree bend, 3) 180 degree bend, and 4) straight pipe were analyzed at engine
revolution of 2000 and 4000 revolution per minute (RPM). The computational aided
design (CAD) of the automobile exhaust pipe models were produced using
SOLIDWORKS 2010 software. From the work, it was found that that there was a
positive correlation between the exhaust pipe bend with the exhaust gas temperature;
the higher the bending angle, the more the decrement of the exhaust gas temperature.
Besides, there was an insignificant correlation between the exhaust pipe bend with the
exhaust gas pressure. However, there was a negative correlation between the exhaust
pipe bending with the gas velocity, i.e. the larger the pipe bend degree, the lower the
exhaust gas velocity. Apart from that, higher engine revolution also generated higher
exhaust gas velocity in general.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENT
CONTENT PAGE
CHAPTER 1: THESIS INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Research Objectives 4
1.3 Significance 5
1.4 Scope And Limitations 5
1.5 Thesis Structure 5
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction To Automobile Exhaust System 6
2.1.1 Exhaust Manifold 9
2.1.2 Exhaust Pipe 12
2.1.3 Catalytic Converter 13
2.1.4 Muffler 17
2.1.5 Tail Pipe 20
2.2 Simulation 21
2.2.1 SOLIDWORKS 2009 24
2.3 Introduction To Computational Fluid Dynamics 23
2.3.1 Methodology 25
2.3.2 The Governing Equation Of Computational Fluid Dynamics 27
2.3.3 K-Epsilon Models 28
iii
2.3.4 Transport Equation For The Standard K- Epsilon Model 29
2.3.5 Benefits Of Computational Fluid Dynamics 30
2.3.6 Limitations 32
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Methodology Introduction 34
3.2 General Work Flow 34
3.3 Materials 36
3.4 CFD Simulations Approaches Using NUMECA CFD 38
3.5 Parameters For Boundary Conditions 49
3.6 Parameters For Initial Solutions 51
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction 52
4.2 Analysis Parameters And Analysis Plane 53
4.3 Temperature Distribution Analysis 54
4.4 Pressure Distribution Analysis 60
4.5 Velocity Distribution Analysis 67
4.6 Validation With Experimental Results 72
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion 75
5.2 Recommendations 75
iv
REFERENCES 77
APPENDIX
Appendix 1: Cad Drawing For Reference Exhaust Pipe With 45 Degree 80

Bending

Bending
Bending
Appendix 3: Cad Drawing For Reference Exhaust Pipe With Straight Pipe 83
v
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE DESCRIPTIONS OF TABLE PAGE
3.1 Mesh refinement parameters 42
3.2 Table 3.2: The viscous layer parameters 44
3.3 Table 3.3: Physical configurations - General properties 47
3.4 Numerical parameters 47
3.5 Computational controls 48
3.6 Boundary conditions for 2000RPM 50
3.7 Boundary Conditions for 4000RPM 50
3.8 Initial solutions for 2000 RPM 51
3.9 Initial solutions for 4000 RPM 52
vi
LIST OF FIGURE
FIGURE DESCRIPTIONS OF FIGURE PAGE
2.1 Illustration of an automobile exhaust system 7
2.2 A typical exhaust manifold 9
2.3 Exhaust manifold and gasket on an in-line engine 10
2.4 Effect of the exhaust manifold diameter on the engine 11

efficiency and mean effective pressure
2.5 Cylinder pressures for different exhaust manifold diameters 11
2.6 Effect of the length of the exhaust pipe on the engine 13

efficiency and mean effective pressure
2.7 Pellet-type catalytic converter 14
2.8 Monolithic-type catalytic converter 15
2.9 Oxidation catalyst changed HC and CO to CO2 16
2.10 Three-way catalytic converter operation 16
2.11 Baffled muffler design 18
2.12 An internal view of a muffler with baffled chambers 18
2.13 Mufflers with perforated pipes 19
2.14 Internal view of a perforated pipe 19
2.15 The SOLIDWORKS 2009 environment 23
2.16 Grid of an exhaust pipe CFD simulation 26
2.17 Result of exhaust pipe simulation being represented 27

graphically in colour
3.1 The work flow represented in flow chart form 35
3.2 Exhaust pipe sample used for the research 36
vii
3.3 Four different models for the simulations 37
3.4 CFD pre processor approaches general flow chart 38
3.5 The pre-processor environment 39
3.6 The model before the STL parts are merged 40
3.7 The model after the STL parts are merged 40
3.8 Basic mesh outlining the geometry 42
3.9 A zoom-in image of the inlet section after adapting to 43

geometry
3.10 CFD processor approaches in general flow chart 45
3.11 The solver environment 46
3.12 Sample of a convergence history 48
3.13 The flow chart for post processor 49
4.1 Symmetry boundary (shown by the dark line) which analysis 54

is done and the positions of analysis
4.2 Comparison of static temperature distribution for the exhaust 54

gas in a 45 degree pipe at 2000RPM and 4000RPM
4.3 Graph of temperature distribution for 45 degree pipe 55
4.4 Comparison of static temperature distribution for 90 degree 55

pipe at 2000RPM and 4000RPM
4.5 Graph of temperature distribution for 90 degree pipe 56
4.6 Graph of temperature distribution for180 degree pipe 57
4.7 Comparison of static temperature distribution for 180 degree 58

pipe at 2000RPM and 4000RPM
4.8 Graph of temperature distribution for straight pipe 58
4.9 Temperature distribution for different pipe bending (2000 59

RPM)
viii
4.10 Temperature distribution for different pipe bending (4000 60
RPM)
4.11 Comparison of pressure distribution for 45 degree pipe at 61

2000RPM and 4000RPM
4.12 Graph of pressure distribution for 45 degree pipe 61

2000RPM and 4000RPM
4.14 Graphs of pressure distribution for 90 degree pipe 63

2000RPM and 4000RPM
4.16 Pressure distribution for 180 degree pipe 64
4.17 Comparison of pressure distribution for straight pipe at 64

2000RPM and 4000RPM
4.18 Graph of pressure distribution for straight pipe 65
4.19 Pressure distribution for different pipe bending (2000 RPM) 66
4.20 Pressure distribution for different pipe bending (4000 RPM) 66
4.21 Comparison of velocity distribution for 45 degree pipe at 67

2000RPM and 4000RPM
4.22 Graph of velocity distribution for 45 degree pipe 67

2000RPM and 4000RPM

2000RPM and 4000RPM
ix
4.27 Comparison of velocity distribution for straight pipe at 70

2000RPM and 4000RPM
4.28 Graph of velocity distribution for straight pipe 71
4.29 Velocity distribution for different pipe bending (2000 RPM) 71
4.30 Velocity distribution for different pipe bending (4000 RPM) 72
4.31 Result validation between simulation and experiment results 73

for temperature at 4000RPM
4.32 Result validation between simulation and experiment results 73

for pressure at 4000RPM
x
CHAPTER 1: THESIS INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
An automobile exhaust system consists of a tube of different shape and length
with components of different functionalities attached along different parts of the metal
tube. The main components of an exhaust system include an exhaust manifold, exhaust
pipe, catalytic convertor, muffler and tail pipe. [1]
The main objective of an exhaust system is to evacuate exhaust gases from the
combustion chamber to the atmosphere effectively and quickly. The efficiency and
speed of the flow of the evacuation of exhaust gas has a great impact on the
performance of the engine [2]. If the exhaustion is not smooth and fast, the
accumulation of the exhaust gas in the combustion chamber and along the exhaust pope
will create engine back pressure, which is a resistance to the positive flow for the
exhaust stream. Such resistance will deter the performance of the combustion in the
engine. The engine exhaust systems determine the engine operational behavior in
steady and transient modes, the engine performance and the engine emissions regarding
exhaust gas and sound.
For proper design of an exhaust pipe, the following parameters are to be
optimized: diameter and length of the pipes; material, thickness and insulation of
exhaust pipe system, geometry of the pipe such as bend and junction; and position of
the necessary elements of the exhaust system such as turbocharger, catalytic converter,
muffler and so on. [3] The parameters of an exhaust pipe vary according to the car
design and engine requirements.
1
Computational fluid dynamic (CFD), the simulation of fluid flow and heat
transfer processes, is one of the revolutionary emerging numerical techniques. As
computing power grows exponentially fast and cheaper; the application of CFD for
engineering design is becoming more common in the industries. [4]
There were many papers regarding the study of exhaust pipe and its flows.
Helmut Doleisch et al [5] demonstrated how a diesel exhaust system can be simulated
using a CFD software. They used SIMVis as their CFD platform for the study. They
have shown how different features of CFD visualization approach are used to
effectively bring forward the exploration and analysis of a diesel exhaust system and
thus, solving complex application questions and provides new insight into the data,
which would not have been possible with standard experimental approach. Besides, R.
S. BENSON et al [6] simulated intake and exhaust systems for a single cylinder four-
stroke cycle spark ignition engine using runge-kutta iteration method as the CFD code
Ugur Kesgin [7] performed a study on the design of the exhaust system of a
stationary natural gas engine obtained the effect of the design on the engine
performance. His investigations provide precise information for proper sizing of the
inlet and exhaust pipe systems as well as the inlet and exhaust valves which are
summarized:
1. The diameter of the exhaust manifold is to be equal at least to the cylinder bore
to achieve an ideal constant pressure turbo charging.
2. Elongation of the exhaust pipes offers an improvement potential of the engine
efficiency. Elongation of the pipes from 62mm up to 1.5m brings an efficiency
2
increase of 0.38% points. However, elongation of the exhaust pipes has a few
disadvantages like increasing the engine size and, thus, constructional
complexity, which are a tradeoff between engine efficiency and compact engine
size.
3. A diffuser shaped T junction in the exhaust pipe system shows a clear
improvement potential for the engine efficiency. The estimation for the increase
of the engine is around 0.3%.
I.P. Kandylas and A.M. Stamatelos [8] studied the heat transfer in exhaust
system using computational approach and found out that there are several key
parameters that must be optimized in order to optimize the heat transfer in an
exhaust system. One of the key parameters concluded is the downpipe design and
geometry which include the pipe diameter and pipe shape
Despite many studies on exhaust pipe and its flow are done, there are little
available study on the effect of exhaust pipe shape on the exhaust gas temperature,
pressure, and velocity distribution along the pipe. Therefore in this study,
computational fluid dynamics software called NUMECA FINE HEXA was used to
simulate the exhaust gas flow in exhaust pipe of different bending (45 degree, 90
degree, 180 degree, and straight pipe). Various visualizations of the exhaust gas
temperature, pressure, and velocity distributions were obtained and discussed.
3
1.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The main objectives of this research project are:
1. To simulate the exhaust gas flow a exhaust pipe using computational fluid
dynamics
2. To study the relationship of automobile exhaust pipe shape (bending) on the
exhaust gas temperature, pressure, and velocity distributions.
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE
By understanding how the exhaust gas fluid characteristics such as velocity,
pressure distribution and temperature distribution respond to different bending
design of the exhaust pipe, it provides an important and significant insight for the
automobile engineers and designers to design exhaust pipe which are more effective
and efficient. Optimum exhaust result can be achieved with minimum materials
used. An optimum exhaust is crucial for the performance of the engine.
1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS
There are many exhaust pipe designs and dimensions available.. Apart from that,
due to capacity constraint, only the pipe part is taken into simulations. This means
exhaust system components such as the mufflers are excluded in this study. Besides,
the study of the exhaust gas characteristics focuses on only the temperature.velocity,
and pressure distribution. It is recommended that this study to be furthered in the
4
future by studying the other fluid parameters such as the density distribution along
the pipes. It is also recommended that this study to be extended to include the
exhaust system components to provide a more detailed view of the simulation.
1.5 THESIS STRUCTURE
Chapter one of the theses provides an overview and introduction to the topic of
research. Chapter two contains literature review on past research and study as well
as the necessary mathematical model used in the computational dynamics analysis
later. This is followed by chapter three, which is the methodology. This chapter
consists of a detailed step by step elaboration of how the research is done. The result
obtained is discussed and reviewed in chapter four which the last chapter consist of
conclusion and recommendations for the future works.
5
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter provides an extensive review of the literature and research related
to study of exhaust gas flow using computational fluid dynamics on a automotive
exhaust pipe. This chapter is divided into sections that consist of (a) introduction to
automobile exhaust system and its components (b) Computer Simulation and
SOLIDWORKS 2009 (c) Computational Fluid Dynamics, (d) Governing equation for
computational fluid dynamics; (e) transport equation for standard k-epsilon model.
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMOBILE EXHAUST SYSTEM
The automobile exhaust system has two main roles:
1) To discharge the exhaust gases produced in the internal combustion chamber
into the atmosphere
2) Secondly to reduce noise created due to the expulsion of these gases. [9]
The major components used in a typical automobile exhaust system are manifold,
resonator, catalytic converter, exhaust pipe, muffler or silencer and exhaust pipes. All of
these components are especially designed for providing suitable and effective exhaust
flow, silencing, and emission levels. Figure 1 represents the overall illustration of an
exhaust system. [10]
6
Figure 2.1: Illustration of an automobile exhaust system [11]
The overview below provides general functional descriptions of each component
in the system. An exhaust system’s backbone is the exhaust Pipe: the part of the exhaust
system that keeps everything in place. This is also the part where the gases travel from
the chamber to the tail pipe.
Waste gases are produced by the combustion processes in the car engine. The
exhaust manifold is a bank of pipes that collect the gases from the engines cylinders and
direct them to the exhaust pipe. This exhaust gases will be guided and channelled by the
exhaust manifold from the combustion chamber to the exhaust pipe. The exhaust
manifold structure is normally made of cast iron and is built with smooth curves so
gases can move freely as well as minimize turbulent flow. The gas from the exhaust
manifold will first flow through the catalytic converter: This is the part of the system
that converts the harmful gases into ones that will not do as much harm to the
atmosphere. Its catalysts when combined with heat from the exhaust gases can cause a
reaction with other chemicals without being affected. Common metals inside catalytic
7
converters are aluminium oxide, platinum, and palladium. The metals convert the
harmful gases into carbon dioxide and water, which are considerably less harmful to the
atmosphere. [12]
The converted exhaust gas will then flow through the resonator, a device sometimes
known as the mini-muffler. This part of the exhaust system reduces the noise that
cannot be eliminated by the muffler. Depending on the automobile's design, the
resonator can be found either before or after the muffler. The muffler’s main function is
to eliminate the noise from the engine. There two types of mufflers which differ in term
of materials and process of muffling the noise:
 Muffler with baffled chambers - The noise loses its energy while inside the
muffler when it hits the baffles.
 Mufflers with perforated pipes - The perforated pipes contain metal, fibreglass,
and other materials that absorb sound
Lastly, the gases will be released into the atmosphere via the tail Pipe. The tail pipe
can have a single outlet or dual outlet design, as well as various dimensions depending
on the designs. [12]
Several key design parameters play a critical role in the optimization of performance
for an exhaust system. These parameters consist of: diameter and length of the pipes;
material, thickness and insulation of exhaust pipe system; geometry of pipe and pipe
connections (junctions); and position of the necessary elements of the exhaust system
such as catalytic converter, muffler etc. The engine intake and exhaust systems
8
determine the engine operational behaviour in steady and transient modes as well as the
engine performance and the engine emissions regarding exhaust gas and sound. [7]
2.1.1 EXHAUST MANIFOLD
The exhaust manifold is a pipe that conducts the exhaust gases from the
combustion chambers to the exhaust pipe. Many exhaust manifolds are made from cast
iron or nodular iron. Some are made from stainless steel or heavy-gauge steel. The
exhaust manifold contains an exhaust port for each exhaust port in the cylinder head,
and a flat machined surface on this manifold fits against a matching surface on the
exhaust port area in the cylinder head. [11]
Figure 1.2: A typical exhaust manifold [13]
Some exhaust manifolds have a gasket between the manifold and the cylinder
head, as can be seen in the diagram below:
9
Figure 2.2: Exhaust manifold and gasket on an in-line engine [11]
According to research done by Ugur Kesgin [7], In order to achieve an ideal
constant pressure turbo charging, the diameter of the exhaust manifold is to be equal at
least to the cylinder bore. Figure 4 shows that the indicated thermal efficiency and also
the indicated mean effective pressure increase with rising pipe diameter. Considering
that the base engine has an exhaust pipe diameter of approximately 132mm, which is
equal to around 0.7 times the cylinder bore, sizing the pipe with a diameter equal to the
cylinder bore (here 190mm) brings an increase of approximately 0.7% point in the
engine efficiency. An exhaust pipe with a larger diameter than the cylinder bore, in
other words a greater value than 1.0 for the ratio of exhaust pipe diameter to cylinder
bore, brings a negligible increase in the engine efficiency but also results in an increase
of engine size. Therefore, the ratio of 1.0 for the engine can be considered as an optimal
value.
10
Figure 2.3: Effect of the exhaust manifold diameter on the engine efficiency and mean
effective pressure [7]
Figure 5 shows the pressure-time history within the cylinder during the exhaust
process for various exhaust manifold diameters. It can be seen from this figure that the
pressure level decreases as the exhaust manifold diameter increases, and thus, the piston
spends less effort to push the exhaust gases out of the cylinder. This brings an increase
in the engine efficiency.
Figure 2.4: Cylinder pressures for different exhaust manifold diameters [7]
11
2.1.2 EXHAUST PIPE
The exhaust pipe is connected from the exhaust manifold to the catalytic
converter. On in-line engines the exhaust pipe is a single pipe, but on V-type engines
the exhaust pipe is connected to each manifold flange, and these two pipes are
connected into a single pipe under the rear of the engine. This single "Y" pipe is then
attached to the catalytic converter. [11, 12]
Exhaust pipes may be made from stainless steel or zinc-plated steel, and some
exhaust pipes are double-walled. In some exhaust systems, an intermediate pipe is
connected between the exhaust pipe and the catalytic converter. Some have a heavy
tapered steel or steel composition sealing washer positioned between the exhaust pipe
flange and the exhaust manifold flange. Other exhaust pipes have a tapered end that fits
against a ball-shaped surface on the exhaust manifold flange. [11, 12]
According to Ugur Kesgin [7], the engine efficiency increases with elongation
of the exhaust pipes, as shown in figure 4. The elongation of the exhaust pipes results in
an increase of the wave running time between the cylinders, and thus, the interactions
between cylinders decrease. This means a profit on the mean effective pressure as well
the engine efficiency. For example, if one increases the exhaust pipe length from 62mm
to 1.5m, an increase of the efficiency of 0.38% points is obtained. Exhaust pipes longer
than 1.5m lead to no further improvement of the efficiency. Elongation of the exhaust
pipes also has a few disadvantages such as increasing the engine size and, thus,
constructional complexity, which is a trade-off between engine efficiency and compact
12
engine size. Also, the maintenance work of the engine is to be considered as another
design criterion.
Figure 2.5: Effect of the length of the exhaust pipe on the engine efficiency and mean
effective pressure [7]
2.1.3 CATALYTIC CONVERTER
Catalytic Converters are the devices used for converting toxic and harmful
hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides into harmless compounds.
Converters transform hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide and water
while separate nitrogen oxide into nitrogen and oxygen respectively. [10] This
monolithic reactor is the most common and widely used catalytic reactor today, with an
estimated 600 million units in use in automobiles alone. [6] Catalytic converter is
positioned underneath the passenger seat in most of the vehicles.
The monolith reactor is a large number of small, long channels of diameter 0.5–
2 mm and length 5–20 cm in parallel through which the reacting fluid flows. The
catalyst (containing the precious metals such as Pt, Pd and/or Rh) is deposited on the
13
walls of the monolith channels as a porous wash coat. Due to the small channel
dimensions, the flow is laminar in most cases with Reynolds numbers in the range 100–
1000. [6]
Catalytic converters may be pellet-type or monolithic-type. A pellet-type
converter contains a bed made from hundreds of small beads, and the exhaust gas
passes over this bed as shown in figure 7. In a monolithic-type converter, the exhaust
gas passes through a honeycomb ceramic block as shown in figure 8. The converter
beads, or ceramic block, are coated with a thin coating of platinum, palladium, or
rhodium, and mounted in a stainless steel container. An oxidation catalyst changes HC
and CO to CO2 and water vapor (H20). [11]
Figure 2.6: Pellet-type catalytic converter [10]
14
Figure 2.7: Monolithic-type catalytic converter [10]
Catalytic Converters can be broadly categorized on the basis of chemical
reactions taking place inside the engine as:
 Two-way catalytic converter. In this type of converter, process of oxidation of
carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons takes place simultaneously. The chemical
reaction is shown in see figure 9.
 Three-way catalytic converter. Under this a three way process the reduction of
nitrogen oxides, oxidation of unburnt carcinogenic hydrocarbons and oxidation
of hydrocarbons takes place inside the engine.
[10, 11]
15
Figure 2.8: Oxidation catalyst changed HC and CO to CO2 [10]
Figure 2.9: Three-way catalytic converter operation [10]
16
2.1.4 MUFFLER
The exhaust gases produced by an automobile engine have a pressure of around
400 to 550 kilo Pascal and with a velocity of up to 160 kilometres per hour. This results
in a high intensity pressure sound wave propagates along the exhaust pipe and radiates
from the exhaust pipe termination which must be reduced sufficiently to minimize
sound pollution to the surrounding. [14, 15]
The pulse repeats at the firing frequency of the engine which is defined by f=
(engine rpm x number of cylinders)/120 for a four stroke engine. The frequency content
of exhaust noise is dominated by a pulse at the firing frequency and it also has a
broadband component to its spectrum which extends to higher frequencies. Majority of
the pulse energy is within in the frequency range of 0-600 Hz. The muffling of the
sound wave is achieved by expanding the high pressured gases into a silencer muffler
where the intermittent and violent discharges of gas are broken up and emerge from the
tail pipe as a continuous and relatively uninterrupted stream. [14, 15]
Mufflers reflect waves by introducing a sudden change in cross sectional area in
the pipe. Some expansion chamber muffler systems are also packed with sound
absorbing material which helps to improve the high frequency attenuation. In all
muffler designs the tailpipe length can have an important effect. The tailpipe itself acts
as a resonant cavity that couples with the muffler cavity. The attenuation characteristics
of a muffler are changed if the design tailpipe is not used. Also, the effect of exhaust
gas flow speed has a detrimental effect on the muffler performance. The muffler
17
attenuation cab be reduced from 35 dB to 6-10dB when the flow speed is increased
from zero to 250 kilometre per hour. [15]
There are two typical muffler designs. The first design is known muffler with
baffled chambers as shown in Figure 2. It has no direction connection between the inlet
and the outlet so back pressure is generated that can effect engine performance. This
design is more commonly recommended by muffler manufacturers. Figure 3 shows a
internal view of a baffled muffler. [15]
Figure 2.10: Baffled muffler design [15]
Figure 2.12: An internal view of a muffler with baffled chambers [15]
18
On the other hand, we have mufflers with perforated pipes design as shown by
figure 3. It has a continuous pipe with perforated holes to reduce the sound wave. It is
frequently chosen because of its low cost and because it causes a lower back pressure.
[15]
Figure 2.13: Mufflers with perforated pipes [15]
Figure 2.14: Internal view of a perforated pipe [16]
19
From an acoustic perspective, the muffler shown in Figure 2.13 has multiple
cavities that are connected to the exhaust pipe by the holes illustrated on the central tube.
When there is flow through the exhaust pipe a vortical flow can be created in each hole
connecting the pipe to the cavity and this can have a significant effect on the
connectivity between the two, reducing the insertion loss of the muffler. In Figure 2.12
the design differs in as much that there is no direct path for the exhaust gases to flow
through the muffler, the flow speed is reduced and this reduces the vortex shedding that
can cause problems in the design shown in Figure 2.13.
H.-D. Kim et al [17] in their study shows that the turbulent flow in the muffler
creates a series of shock wave and eight different models of the silencer systems are
explored to investigate the effects of the silencer configuration that has on the weak
shock wave propagation phenomena. The incident plane shock wave is assumed at the
inlet of the silencer and its Mach number is changed between 1.01 and 1.30.
2.1.5 TAIL PIPE
The tail pipe basically carries the flow of exhaust from the muffler to the rear of
the vehicle. Tail pipes have many different bends to fit around the chassis and driveline
components. In general, all exhaust systems components must be positioned away from
the chassis and driveline to prevent rattling. The tail pipe usually extends under the rear
bumper, and the end of this pipe is cut at an angle to deflect the exhaust downward. [18]
20
2.2 SIMULATION
Simulation is the imitation of some real processes or state of affairs. Simulation
generally entails the key characteristics and behaviour of a selected physical or abstract
system. [19] Simulation is applied in many contexts, such as modelling a natural system
and modelling a human system to gain in depth study of their functioning. Other
applications include simulation technology for performance analysis, safety engineering,
testing and etc.
2.2.1 SOLIDWORKS 2009
The SOLIDWORKS computer aided design (CAD) software is mechanical
design software that takes advantage of the familiar Microsoft Windows graphical user
interface (GUI). SOLIDWORKS is a para solid- based solid modeller, and it utilizes a
parametric feature-based approach to create models and assemblies. [20, 21]
Parameters are the constraints which values determine the shape and geometry
of the model. Parameters can be either numerical parameter, such as lengths and
circular diameters, or geometric parameters, such as tangent, parallel, concentric,
vertical, horizontal and so on. Numeric parameters can be associated with each other
through the use of relations, which allow them to capture design intents. [20, 21]
Design intent is how we want the parts to respond to changes and updates. For
instance, we want a hole at the top of a beverage can to stay at the top surface,
regardless of the height of the can. SOLIDWORKS allows us to specify that the hole is
21
a feature on top of the can, and will then honour our design intent – no matter what is
the height we assign the can later on. [20, 21]
Features are the building blocks of the part. They are the shape and operations
that construct the part. Shape- based features normally begin with a 2D or 3D sketch of
shapes such as boxes, holes and etc. This shape is the extruded or cur to add or remove
material from the part. Operation-based features are not sketch-based; this includes
fillets, chamfers, shells and others. [20, 21]
Modelling using SOLIDWORKS usually starts with a 2D sketch. The sketch
consists of points, lines, arcs, conics and splines. Dimensions are added to the sketch to
define the size and location of the geometry. Relations are used to define attributes such
as tangent, parallelism and perpendicularity. The parametric nature of the software
means the dimensions and relations drive the geometry and not the other way around.
[20, 21]
In an assembly, the analogues to sketch relations are mate. Just as sketch
relations define conditions such as tangency, parallelism and concentricity with respect
to the sketch geometry, assembly mates define equivalent relations with respect to the
individual parts and components, allowing the ease of construction of the model. [20, 21]
22
Figure 2.15: The SOLIDWORKS 2009 user interface
2.3 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is concerned with numerical solution of
differential equations governing transport of mass, momentum, and energy in moving
fluids. CFD activity emerged and gained prominence with availability of computers in
the early 1960s. Today, CFD finds extensive usage in basic and applied research, in
design of engineering equipment, and in calculation of environmental and geophysical
phenomena. Since the early 1970s, commercial software packages (or computer codes)
became available, making CFD an important component of engineering practice in
industrial, defense, and environmental organizations. [22]
For a long time, design (as it relates to sizing, economic operation, and safety)
of engineering equipment such as heat exchangers, furnaces, cooling towers, internal
combustion engines, gas turbine engines, hydraulic pumps and turbines, aircraft bodies,
23
sea-going vessels, and rockets depended on painstakingly generated empirical
information. The same was the case with numerous industrial processes such as casting,
welding, alloying, mixing, drying, air-conditioning, spraying, environmental
discharging of pollutants, and so on. The empirical information is typically displayed in
the form of correlations or tables and nomograms among the main influencing variables.
Such information is extensively availed by designers and consultants from handbooks.
[22]
The main difficulty with empirical information is that it is applicable only to the
limited range of scales of fluid velocity, temperature, time, or length for which it is
generated. Thus, to take advantage of economies of scale, for example, when engineers
were called upon to design a higher capacity power plant, boiler furnaces, condensers,
and turbines of ever higher dimensions had to be designed for which new empirical
information had to be generated all over again. The generation of this new information
was by no means an easy task. This was because the information applicable to bigger
scales had to be, after all, generated via laboratory-scale models. This requires the
establishment of scaling laws to ensure geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarities
between models and the full-scale equipment. This activity required considerable
experience as well as ingenuity, for it is not an easy matter to simultaneously maintain
the three aforementioned similarities.
The activity had to, therefore, be supported by flow-visualization studies and by
simple (typically, one-dimensional) analytical solutions to equations governing the
phenomenon under consideration. Ultimately, experience permitted judicious
compromises. Being very expensive to generate, such information is often of a
24
proprietary kind. In more recent times, of course, scaling difficulties are encountered in
the opposite direction. This is because electronic equipment is considerably
miniaturised and, in materials processing, for example, the more relevant phenomena
occur at micro scales. Similarly, small-scale processes occur in biocells. . [22]
The advancement of CFD development has lagged behind other computer aided
design (CAD) methods due to the complexity of the underlying equation. Large super
computers that were needed to perform the simulation were well out of the budget of a
lot of companies. However, with the recent advances in low cost, high power
computing and development in numerical methods, CFD is certainly becoming more
significantly important. [4]
2.3.1 METHODOLOGY
All CFD packages in the market, although differs in term of algorithms and
engine, consist of the same package modules:
I. Pre-processor
II. Solver
III. Post- processor
The most crucial part of an accurate CFD analysis is the pre-processing of the
case. A pre processing is not merely setting up the geometry and toggle buttons in the
graphic user interface. In this stage, we are concern with the physics of the problem.
Prior to starting the simulation, we need to determine the models of fluid flow, such as
25
turbulent/laminar flow, compressible/incompressible flow, transient/stationary flow,
iteration equation model and etc. A simple mistake done at the pre processing stage will
cause a tremendous inaccuracy of the result at the post processing stage later. [4, 23]
After the necessary parameters are determined and entered in the pre- processor,
one can proceed to the solver, in which the programme’s main function is to create the
mesh. Firstly, the volume of interest (the model to be simulated) us divided into large
number of small cells. This process is the most crucial part stage of a CFD simulation,
which typical takes up to 80% of the total effort. The number and distribution of grid
cells have tremendous influence on the accuracy of the solution and the speed of
processing. Figure 13 shows a sample of a CFD grid generation. With the aid of fluid
physical property information and the boundary conditions (inlet and outlet conditions,
flow rates, pressure etc) the conversation equations are solved yielding typically three
components of the velocity, pressure and temperature for each cell in the grid. The
mathematical iteration is repeated until it is said to be converged. [4, 23]
Figure 2.16: Grid of an exhaust pipe CFD simulation [24]

26
Once the iteration converged, the simulation can be performed in the “post-
processor”. Graphical representation of the data is the most effective way to get an
overall impression of the result. The use of colour is used to enhance the illustration. A
sample is shown in figure.
Figure 2.17: Result of exhaust pipe simulation being represented graphically in colour
[24]
2.3.2 THE GOVERNING EQUATION OF COMPUTATIONAL FLUID
DYNAMICS
The fundamental of almost all CFD problems are the Navier-Stokes equations,
which define any single-phase fluid flow. These equations can be simplified by
removing terms describing viscosity to yield the Euler equations. Further simplification,
by removing terms describing vorticity yields the full potential equations. Lastly these
equations can be linearised to yield the linearised potential equations. [4, 23]
27
There are three basic principles which we can form our basic governing principles
of fluid dynamics:
I. Continuity - conservation of mass
II. Newton's Second Law - conservation of momentum
III. First Law of Thermodynamics - conservation of energy
[4, 23]
2.3.3 K-EPSILON MODELS
The K-epsilon model is one of the most common turbulence models. It is a two
equation model, meaning it includes two extra transport equations to represent the
turbulent properties of the flow. This allows a two equation model to account for history
effects like convection and diffusion of turbulent energy. The first transported variable
is turbulent kinetic energy, k. The second transported variable in this case is the
turbulent dissipation, epsilon (ε). It is the variable that determines the scale of the
turbulence, whereas the first variable, k, determines the energy in the turbulence. [22,
25]
The standard k-epsilon model is a semi-empirical model based on model
transport equations for the turbulence kinetic energy and its dissipation rate. It is the
simplest complete models of turbulence with two-equation models in which the solution
of two separate transport equations allows the turbulent velocity and length scales to be
independently determined. The model transport equation for K is derived from the exact
28
equation, while the model transport equation for epsilon was obtained using physical
reasoning and bears little resemblance to its mathematically exact counterpart. [22, 25]
In its derivation, it was assumed that the flow is fully turbulent, and the effects
of the molecular viscosity are neglected. The standard k-epsilon model therefore, is only
valid for fully turbulent flow model. [22, 25]
2.3.4 TRANSPORT EQUATION FOR THE STANDARD K-EPSILON MODEL
The turbulence kinetic energy, K and the rate of dissipation, ε, are derived from
these transport equations:
… (Eq 2.1)
…(Eq 2.2)
Where,
Pk = Generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to the mean velocity gradients
Pb = Generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to buoyancy
YM = Contribution of the fluctuating dilatation in compressible turbulence to the
overall dissipation rate
C1ε, C2ε, C3ε = Constants
σk = Turbulent Prandtl number for K
29
σ ε = Turbulent Prandtl number for ε
Sk , S ε = User defined source terms
The model constants C1ε, C2ε, C3ε , σk , σε have the following default values:
C1ε = 1.44
C2ε = 1.92
C3ε = 0.09
σk = 1.00
σ ε = 1.30
There default values are determined experimentally with air and water for
fundamental turbulent shear flows consisting homogeneous shear flows and decaying
isotropic grid turbulence. These values are found to be accurate for fairly wide range of
wall bounded and free shear flows. [26]
2.3.5 BENEFITS OF COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS
A key advantage of CFD is that it is a very potent, non-intrusive, virtual
modeling technique with powerful visualisation capabilities and engineers can evaluate
the performance of a wide range of IAQ/HVAC system configurations on the computer
without the time, expense, and disruption required to make actual changes physically.
30
The followings are the reasons why CFD is being widely used in engineering
design and application:
I. CFD predicts performance before modifying or installing the systems:
Without modifying and/or installing actual systems or prototype, CFD can
predict what design change is most crucial to enhance performance.
II. CFD provides exact and detailed information about engineering design
parameters:
The advances in engineering technology require broader and more detailed
information about the flow within an occupied zone, and the CFD technique
meets this goal better than the conventional methods, which are the theoretical
or experimental methods.
III. CFD saves cost and time:
CFD costs much less than experiments because physical modifications are not
necessary. (Note that the cost and time for physical changes/modifications.
IV. CFD is reliable:
Most importantly, numerical schemes and methods that CFD is based on are improving
rapidly so that reliability on the results produced by CFD is getting very high. Increased
reliability makes CFD a dependable tool in any design and analysis purpose.
[4, 19, 22]
31
2.3.6 LIMITATIONS
The techniques employed have some limitations in term of accuracy. These
limitations are generally caused by two factors: the grid and the mathematical model. [4]
The grid has two crucial roles in a CFD simulation. Firstly, the grid generation
has to represent the geometry of the model accurately. Most CFD packages use the
“body – fitting coordinate” that allows the grid to conform exactly to the shape of the
model. This method works fine for simple geometry such as the wall of a room.
However, it can be difficult to represent accurately a complex structure with fine details.
In addition, the level of details the grid represents also makes a difference in term of
accuracy. Clearly, the finer the details, the greater of computing power is needed, and
thus time and energy. [4]
The second function of the grid is to pick up details of the flow, such as
recirculation regions (which cause the flow distribution problem) would not be seen by
calculations. In general, the more cells used in a grid, the more accurate the solution
will be, with the compromise and expense of greater computing power. In many cases
the fine details of the flow which are important are much smaller than the size of the
geometry interest, and thus an enormous number of cells would be required to represent
the whole volume. A poor grid will give poor answers and in many cases, no answer at
all! [4, 22]
Lastly, the solution from the CFD is only as reliable and as accurate as the
mathematical model they are based on. If the physics is poorly understood, then the
simulations will be useless. Almost all CFD solutions contain an element of numerically
32
induced flow and checking the grid independence of the solution is worthwhile to
prevent this.
33
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 METHODOLOGY INTRODUCTION
This chapter elaborates the procedures of the method used to carry out this
research. All steps taken are explained in a step by step manner. The flow chart of the
project which is a holistic representative of the methodology is shown in figure 3.2. The
materials used are stated in section 3.3. Section 3.4 discusses about the simulation
procedures while section 3.5 enlists the boundary conditions for the simulations. Lastly
section 3.6 enlists the parameters for initial solution.
3.2 GENERAL WORK FLOW
The flow chart in figure 3.1 illustrates a general view of the work flow
throughout the whole study.
Start
34
Feasibility study, literature review and development

of conceptual design
Figure 3.1: The work flow represented in flow chart form
3.3 MATERIALS
35
The materials used in this research include:
1. A Mitsubishi Orion engine 4G18 engine
2. An sample exhaust pipe
3. A CAD solution- SolidWorks 2009
4. A CFD solution- NUMECA CFD
The engine and exhaust pipe are used to gather experimental values by my partner,
Muhd Yamin. This study will focus on while the simulations were conducted by me
works of the gas flow. The initial solutions which are inlet pressure, inlet
temperature, and outlet pressure are taken from the experiment.
Figure 3.2: Exhaust pipe sample used for the research
The overall dimension of the exhaust pipe model was referred to a stardard cast
iron exhaust pipe for a multipurpose vehicle in the mechanical lab Universiti Putra
Malaysia. There were 4 different exhaust pipe models used in this study. The original
pipe bending was 90 degree. By retaining the same pipe length, exhaust pipes bend of
45 degree, 180 degree, and straight pipe were produced. The CAD models of the
exhaust pipes are shown in figure 3.3
36
Figure 3.3: Four different models for the simulations
100% ideal engine combustion is assumed in this study. Equation 3.1 shows the
overall reaction of the combustion. Thus, real carbon dioxide is selected as the working
fluid.
Gasoline + O2  H2O + CO2 … (Eq 3.1)
Besides, the measured velocity of the exhaust gas is assumed to be the resultant
velocity at the flow direction, which is the Z-velocity. Therefore, x-velocity and Y-
velocity are zero in all cases.
The CFD software used in this study was the renowned NUMECA CFD
package, consisting:
Pre-processor : FINE HEXPRESSTM

Processor : FINE HEXATM
Post-processor : CF VIEWTM
3.4 CFD SIMULATIONS APPROACHES USING NUMECA CFD
37
As most of the research activities are done virtually in the NUMECA CFD
environment, it’s essential to understand the approaches to using this CFD software. An
in depth understanding of the approaches ensures the simulation to be performed
correctly and accurately. As shown by figure 3.3, step 1 to step 7 are processes in the
pre-processor environment: FINE HEXPRESSTM. The main objectives for these steps
are to setup the boundary conditions and then create the mesh.
Start Hexpress TM
Import domain
Set boundary conditions
Create initial mesh
Mesh adaption
Mesh optimisation
Insert viscous layer
Figure 3.4: CFD pre processor approaches general flow chart
First of all, a NUMECA Hexpress session is started and the pre-processor
environment is activated as seen in figure 3.4.
38
Figure 3.5: The pre-processor environment
The triangular file (.stl) of the exhaust pipe model is then imported. In this
example, the model with 45 degree bending is used. Once the triangular file is imported,
the solid parts are highlighted on the left panel (using shift+left mouse click) and
merged into one uniform solid part using STL manipulation. This is a critical step to
ensure the mesh is created correctly later. The inlet surface and outlet surface are
renamed as “INLET” and “OUTLET” respectively. Figure 3.5 and 3.6 show the
differences of the model before and after the solid parts are merged.
Then, a domain file is created by selecting the <create domain> function in STL
Manipulation panel. The domain file has an extension of “.dom”. Once this step is
created, the domain file is then saved and imported in the pre-processor.
39
Figure 3.6: The model before the STL parts are merged
Figure 3.7: The model after the STL parts are merged
The following step is to create the boundary condition. The definition of the
boundary is to distinguish the characteristic and role of the different parts. This can be
40
done by selecting <boundary conditions> in the Grid sub-menu. The previously merged
solid part is defined as a <SOL> part while the inlet and output surfaces are defined as
<INL> and <OUT> respectively.
Once the boundary conditions are defined, the Mesh Wizard is launched. There
are 5 main steps in the meshing process, which can be seen at the left side bar:
1. Initial mesh
2. Adapting to geometry
3. Snap to geometry
4. Optimize
5. Viscous layers
The parameters of each meshing process can be changed by right mouse click at
any of the boxes. First of all, the <Initial mesh> box is ticked and the <step> button is
clicked. A basic mesh outlining the geometry is created, as illustrated by figure 3.7.
41
Figure 3.8: Basic mesh outlining the geometry
Next, <adapt to geometry> is right mouse clicked and the mesh refinement
parameters are adjusted. The values are shown in table 3.1. The values are applied to all
the other models for standardisation purpose. Once the values are modified, the <step>
button is clicked.
Table3.1: Mesh refinement parameters
PARAMETERS VALUE
Global parameter: Maximum number of refinements 3
Surface adaptation: Adaption criteria Target cell sizes

X-axis: 0.0
Y- axis: 0.0
Z-axis: 0.0
42
The mesh will follow the geometry as much as possible and all cells that
intersect the surfaces are deleted. This step enables the mesh to capture by projecting
the mesh on the surface the geometry. Figure 3.8 shows a zoom-in image of the inlet
section.
Figure 3.9: A zoom-in image of the inlet section after adapting to geometry
Next, the <Snap to geometry> is ticked. Then, the <step> button is clicked and
the meshing process is continued. All the corners and curves have been correctly
captured. Buffering meshes have been inserted to regularise the mesh. The step created
high quality mesh. Figure 3.8 shows the zoom-in image of the inlet section. There is a
significant difference comparing to the mesh in figure 3.7.
43
The <Optimize> and <viscous layer> are run with the default values. The
optimization step improves the quality of the mesh by reducing the distorted cells and
eliminates the concave cells. The orthogonality of the cells improved. The viscous layer
function inserts layers of viscous layer which imitate a real life fluid flow. The viscous
layer parameters are shown in table 3.2:
Table 3.2: The viscous layer parameters
PARAMETERS VALUE
Number of layers 10
Fixed stretching ratio 1.2
Fixed first layer thickness 0.0005 m
Once the viscous layers are created, the project file is saved. The mesh file has
an extension of <.igg>.
Step 8 to step 14 of the simulation are shown in figure 3.9. These are the steps in
the processor environment. The objectives of these steps are to enter the necessary
parameters such as physical configuration, numerical parameters and computational
control parameters and once the inputs are completed, the iteration can be started.
44
Start FINEHEXATM
Agglomeration Preview
Set physical configuration
Set numerical parameters
Set computational control
Start computation
Check convergence
Yes No
Iteration
converged
Recheck physical configuration,

Proceed to Post processor
numerical parameters and
computational control
Figure 3.10: CFD processor approaches in general flow chart
First of all, a fine Hexa session is started. A new project is created as the pre-
requisite to import the mesh. The new project file has an extension of <.iec>. Then,
the .iec file is selected and imported. Figure 3.11 shows the screen after the mesh is
loaded.
45
Figure 3.11: The solver environment
There are 6 categories of project parameters that that need to be inputted before
the solver is started, namely:
1. Physical configuration
2. Optional models
3. Boundary conditions
4. Initial conditions
5. Numerical parameters
6. Computational control
Real carbon dioxide from the fluid database is selected as the fluid type. The
physical configurations of general properties are shown in table 3.3. There are 2
46
parameters of selection, which are time configuration and block properties. On the other
hand, the physical configurations for the flow model are shown in table 3.2.
Table 3.3: Physical configurations - General properties
PARAMETER INPUT
Time configuration Steady
Block properties Fluid Block
Since there is no solid model, rotating machinery, and optional models existing
in this simulation, thus these settings are omitted and skipped to the boundary
conditions parameters.
The boundary conditions define the basic conditions at the inlet, outlet, and fluid
solid for the exhaust flow. There are several methods available to set up the inlet
parameters, and <static pressure extrapolated> input method is selected because of the
availability of relevant data.
<Static pressure imposed> method is selected to input the outlet parameter. The
parameters for boundary conditions and initial conditions are elaborated in section 3.5
and 3.6. The standard input for the numerical parameters is shown in table 3.4 while the
parameters used for computational controls are shown in table 3.5.
Table 3.4: Numerical parameters
PARAMETER INPUT/ UNIT
Number of grid(s) 4 of 6
Agglomeration multi grid function Activated
47
Table 3.5: Computational controls
PROPERTIES INPUT/ UNIT
Flow configuration Internal flow
Number of iterations 1000
Convergence criteria -3.5
Save solution every 100 iterations
Once the parameters are set, the run file is saved and the solver is started. A full
double precision mode is selected for the computation in order to obtain higher
accuracy. A convergence history is shown in figure 3.11.
Figure 3.12: Sample of a convergence history
48
Once the computation is completed, the simulation results can be viewed in the
post-processor, CF View. Step 8 to step 12 of the simulation are shown in figure 3. 12.
Start
CFViewTM
Plot quantity to be
displayed
Select displace method
Obtain simulation results
End
Figure 3.12: The flow chart for post processor
3.5 PARAMETERS FOR BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The parameters for boundary conditions are obtained by experiments and as well
as through literature reviews. There are three categories of boundary conditions, namely
for the inlets, outlets, and solid block. The inlet velocity is to be defined using Cartesian
axis, which are the X-axis, Y-axis, and the Z-axis. The inlet and outlet of the exhaust
pipe are modeled on the X-Y axis, which means the fluid flows along the X axis.
Therefore, the inlet X-velocity and inlet Y-velocity are assumed to be zero. The value
49
for the heat transfer coefficient is the standard coefficient value between cast iron and
air.
The boundary conditions for 2000 round per minute (RPM) engine revolution
are shown in Table 3.5 while the boundary conditions for 4000 round per minute engine
revolution are shown in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6: Boundary conditions for 2000RPM
Inlet: X- velocity 0
Inlet: Y- velocity 0
Inlet: Z- velocity 63.36 m/s
Inlet: Static Temperature 526 K
Outlet: Static pressure 101 606Pa
Solid: Heat transfer coefficient 8W/m2K
Solid: Reference temperature 293 K
Table 3.7: Boundary Conditions for 4000RPM
Inlet: X- velocity 0
Inlet: Y- velocity 0
Inlet: Z- velocity 96.28 m/s
Inlet: Static Temperature 526 K
Outlet: Static pressure 101580 Pa
50
Solid: Heat transfer coefficient 8W/m2K
Solid: Reference temperature 293 K
3.6 PARAMETERS FOR INITIAL SOLUTIONS
Since a finite flow domain is specified, physical conditions are required on the
boundaries of the flow domain. The simulation generally starts from an initial solution
and uses an iterative method to reach a final flow field solution. The velocity of the
exhaust gas is calculated using the pitot formula (Yamin, 2010)
Table 3.8: Initial solutions 2000 RPM
Coordinate system Cartesian
Pressure 101860 Pa
Temperature 526 K
X- velocity 0
Y- velocity 0
Z- velocity 63.36 m/s
51
Table 3.9: Initial solutions 4000 RPM
Coordinate system Cartesian
Pressure 102 593 Pa
Temperature 526 K
X- velocity 0
Y- velocity 0
Z- velocity 96.28m/s
52
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Exhaust pipes each with different bending angle were simulated for exhaust
conditions for engine output at 2000 revolutions per minute and 4000 rounds per minute
(RPM). The bending angles selected for the research are (1) 45degree, (2)90 degree, (3)
180degree, and (4) Straight pipe. The analysis for temperature distribution, pressure
distribution, and velocity distribution are discussed in details in chapter 4.2, 4.3, and 4.4
respectively. Chapter 4.5 discusses the validation with experimental results and the
reasons for the deviation in result.
4.2 ANALYSIS PARAMETERS AND ANALYSIS PLANE
The temperature, total pressure, and velocity distributions were analysed based on
the section of the exhaust pipe as shown in figure 4.1. All the analysis is done based on
the symmetry boundary which is the centre plane of the exhaust pipe. The analysis
plane is consistent with the experiment measurement plane, in which the values
measured from the centre point of the exhaust pipe. 4 reference points were selected for
the purpose of analysis. There four points are:
1. Point A (Inlet)
2. Point B (55cm from the pre-muffler)
3. Point C (10cm after the bend)
4. Point D (25cm from the outlet)
The positions of these points are shown in figure 4.1.
53
a
c
d
Figure 4.1: Symmetry boundary (shown by the dark line) which analysis is done and the
positions of analysis
4.3 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION ANALYSIS
(a) 2000RPM (b) 4000RPM
Figure 4.2: Comparison of static temperature distribution for the exhaust gas in a 45
degree pipe at 2000RPM and 4000RPM
Figure 4.2 illustrates the colour contour of the temperature distributions for
exhaust gas in a 45 degree pipe at (a) 2000RPM and (b) 4000RPM. Both the colour
contours show that the temperature decreased gradually as it flowed from the inlet
towards the outlet.
54
Figure4.3: Graph of temperature distribution for 45 degree pipe
The temperature gradients are plotted using local values from point a, b, c, and d
and it is illustrated by figure 4.3. It can be seen that both the exhaust gas flows had the
same inlet temperature but the temperature for gas exhausted at 2000RPM drops with a
steeper gradient from point B onwards, which starts from the pre-muffler.
It also can be seen from figure 4.3 that the temperature decreases for both cases
were not significant. The temperature for the 2000 RPM simulation dropped about 7.36%
from 530K to 491K while the temperature for the 4000 RPM simulation dropped only
about 3.77% from 530K to 510K.
(a) 2000RPM (b) 4000RPM
Figure 4.3: Comparison of static temperature distribution for 90 degree pipe at 2000RPM and
4000RPM
55
contours show that the temperature decreases gradually as it flows from the inlet
towards the outlet.
The graphs for the temperature distributions are shown in figure 4.4. It can be
interpreted from the graphs that both the simulations have similar temperature gradient.
The biggest temperature difference between the simulations was only 10K, at point “d”.
It can also be seen that the temperature drop from the 2000RPM simulation is
consistently lower than the 4000RPM apart from at point c. The temperature for
2000RPM simulation dropped 9.43% from 530K to 480K while the temperature for the
4000RPM simulation dropped for 7.55% from 530K to 490K. Besides, it is worth
noting that the temperature gradient for the 2000RPM simulation was smoother and
more predictable compared to the 4000RPM’s one.
Figure4.4: Graph of temperature distribution for 90 degree pipe
56
contours show that the temperature decreases gradually as it flows from the inlet
towards the outlet.
(a) 2000RPM (b) 4000RPM
Figure 4.5: Comparison of static temperature distribution for 180 degree pipe at 2000RPM and
4000RPM
Figure4.6: Graph of temperature distribution for180 degree pipe
The graphs for the temperature distributions are shown in figure 4.6. The
exhaust gas temperature for 2000RPM dropped for 10.19%, from 530K to 476K while
the exhaust gas temperature for 4000RPM dropped for 6.23% from 530K to 497K. It
57
can be seen that the gas temperature of the 2000RPM dropped more significantly from
point “b” to point “c”, which is before and after the pipe bending.
exhaust gas in a straight pipe at (a) 2000RPM and (b) 4000RPM. Both the colour
contours show that the temperature decreases as it flows from the inlet towards the
outlet. However, as shown by figure 4.8, the temperature decrease for the exhaust gas in
a straight pipe is the least as compared to the three other pipe shapes discussed above.
(a) 2000RPM (b) 4000RPM
Figure 4.7: Comparison of static temperature distribution for straight pipe at 2000RPM and
4000RPM
Figure4.8: Graph of temperature distribution for straight pipe
58
The exhaust gas for the 2000RPM simulation and 4000RPM dropped for only
2.64% and 3.77% respectively from 530K to 516K and 510K. The minimal temperature
decreases could be due to the absence of bending in the exhaust pipe itself. As deduced
from figure 4.7, the exhaust gas can flow smoothly directly from the inlet to the outlet.
Thus, the exhaust gas had less turbulence and exhibited the smooth flow of a laminar
flow. A laminar flow generally has higher velocity under given the same boundary
conditions, and this is shown by figure 4.26.
Figure 4.9 and 4.10 show the correlation of the exhaust pipe bending and the
exhaust gas temperature distribution. At 2000RPM, the effect of pipe bending on the
temperature distribution was clear. The higher the bending degree, the more the exhaust
gas temperature drops. This is due to the higher degree of bending of the exhaust pipe
create turbulence in the flow (flow is less smooth); this increases the contact between
the gas and the pipe surface, which increases the rate of conduction and heat transfer.
Figure4.9: Temperature distribution for different pipe bending (2000 RPM)
59
At 4000RPM, however, the correlation became less apparent. This is because at
a higher RPM, the exhaust gas is at a higher energy state. Therefore, the exhaust gas is
at a higher turbulence state; this causes the effect of the pipe bending towards the
temperature distribution to be less significant.
Figure4.10: Temperature distribution for different pipe bending (4000 RPM)
4.4 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION ANALYSIS
contours show that the pressure decreases as it flows from the inlet towards the outlet.
60
(a) 2000RPM (b) 4000RPM
Figure 4.11: Comparison of pressure distribution for 45 degree pipe at 2000RPM and
4000RPM
The graphs of the pressure distribution are shown by figure 4.12. The pressure
for the exhaust gas for both 2000RPM and 4000RPM simulations are above the
atmospheric pressure. Furthermore, it can be seen that the exhaust pressure at 4000RPM
is consistently higher than 2000RPM.
Figure 4.12: Graph of pressure distribution for 45 degree pipe
From point “a” to point “b”, both the simulations showed a notable drop in its
pressure. This is due to the presence of the pre-muffler in between the locations.
Pressure is inversely proportional to the surface area of the working fluid. In this case,
the exhaust gas pressure dropped in the pre-muffler because the pre-muffler surface area
61
is larger than the exhaust pipe surface area where the exhaust gas entered the pre-
muffler. As the exhaust gas exited the pre-muffler and entered the exhaust pipe again,
the exhaust gas pressure increased, as shown by the positive pressure distribution
gradient from point “b” to point “d”.
(a) 2000RPM (b) 4000RPM
4000RPM
62
Figure 4.14: Graphs of pressure distribution for 90 degree pipe
for the exhaust gas for both 2000RPM and 4000RPM simulations are above the
atmospheric pressure. Similar to figure 4.12, the exhaust pressure at 4000RPM is
consistently higher than 2000RPM.
(a) 2000RPM (b) 4000RPM
4000RPM
63
Figure 4.16: Pressure distribution for 180 degree pipe
(a) 2000RPM (b) 4000RPM
Figure 4.17: Comparison of pressure distribution for straight pipe at 2000RPM and
4000RPM
for the exhaust gas for both 2000RPM and 4000RPM simulations were above the
atmospheric pressure. The straight pipe simulations, both 2000RPM and 4000RPM had
64
a similar pressure distribution. This infers the engine revolution has a dispensable
effect on the pressure distribution for a straight pipe.
Figure 4.18: Graph of pressure distribution for straight pipe
exhaust gas pressure distribution. At both engine revolution of 2000RPM and 4000RPM,
there is no significant pressure changes before and after the exhaust gas flowed through
the different type of the exhaust pipes. In fact, there were notable temperature drop
before and after the exhaust gas flowed through the pre-muffler from point “a” to point
“b”. Thus, there effect of sudden change of surface area (in this case, from the exhaust
pipe to the pre-muffler) on the exhaust gas pressure is greater compared to the effect of
pipe bending on the pressure.
65
Figure 4.19: Pressure distribution for different pipe bending (2000 RPM)
Figure 4.20: Pressure distribution for different pipe bending (4000 RPM)
66
4.5 VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION ANALYSIS
(a) 2000RPM (b) 4000RPM
Figure 4.21: Comparison of velocity distribution for 45 degree pipe at 2000RPM and
4000RPM
Figure 4.21 illustrates the colour contour of the velocity distributions for exhaust
gas in a 45 degree pipe at (a) 2000RPM and (b) 4000RPM. Both the colour contours
show that the pressure decreases as it flows from the inlet towards the outlet.
Figure 4.22: Graph of velocity distribution for 45 degree pipe
The graphs of the velocity distribution are shown by figure 4.22. The exhaust
gas velocity at engine revolution of 4000RPM is significantly higher than 2000RPM.
This shows that the engine revolution has a positive correlation with the velocity of the
67
exhaust gas. Apart from that, both the graphs have steeper gradient from point “b” to
point “c”, which means the 45 degree bend on the exhaust pipe has an impact reducing
the gas velocity.
(a) 2000RPM (b) 4000RPM
4000RPM
The velocity distributions are plotted in figure 4.24. Similar to figure 4.22, the
exhaust gas velocity at engine revolution of 4000RPM is significantly higher than
2000RPM’s. On average, the exhaust gas velocity for engine revolution of 4000RPM is
approximately 60% higher than the velocity for 2000RPM.
68
(a) 2000RPM (b) 4000RPM
4000RPM
The velocity distributions are plotted in figure 4.26. Similar to figure 4.22 and
figure 2.24, the exhaust gas velocity at engine revolution of 4000RPM is significantly
higher than 2000RPM’s. On average, the exhaust gas velocity for engine revolution of
4000RPM is approximately 46% higher than the velocity for 2000RPM.
69
gas in a straight pipe at (a) 2000RPM and (b) 4000RPM. It can be seen that the rate of
change in velocity distributions is lesser compared to the three other cases discussed
above.
(a) 2000RPM (b) 4000RPM
Figure 4.27: Comparison of velocity distribution for straight pipe at 2000RPM and
4000RPM
The velocity distributions are plotted in figure 4.28. Similar to figure 4.22,
figure 2.24, and figure 4.26, the exhaust gas velocity at engine revolution of 4000RPM
is higher than 2000RPM’s. On average, the exhaust gas velocity for engine revolution
70
of 4000RPM is approximately 27% higher than the velocity for 2000RPM. However,
the exhaust gas velocity for 2000RPM was distributed with a positive gradient, i.e. the
velocity increases. Nonetheless, its temperature only increased for 4.6 m/s, which is
negligible.
Figure 4.28: Graph of velocity distribution for straight pipe
exhaust gas velocity distribution. Both the comparison at 2000RPM and 4000RPM
showed the similar correlation, i.e. the larger the degree of bending, the lower the
exhaust gas velocity is. This can be proven by the position of the graphs in the charts.
71
Figure 4.29: Velocity distribution for different pipe bending (2000 RPM)
Figure 4.30: Velocity distribution for different pipe bending (4000 RPM)
4.6 VAILDATION WITH EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
An experiment to test the effect of exhaust pipe bending on the exhaust gas
temperature and pressure was carried out by my group member; Mr. Muhd Yamin
(2010). The exhaust pipes were fabricated to scale according to the SOLIDWORKS
drawing and a Mitsubishi Orion engine 4G18 engine was used run the experiments.
However, due to unforeseen circumstances, the 180 degree exhaust pipe was replaced
with a 135 degree pipe instead. Therefore, the validation with experiment results only
takes account into the results for the 45 degree, 80 degree, and straight pipe models.
4 openings were drilled at point “a”, “b”, “c”, and “d” as shown in figure 4.1 to
measure the gas temperature and gas pressure. A pitot tube was used to measure the gas
pressure while a thermocouple was used to measure the gas temperature. The devices
were inserted into one opening at a time to obtain the reading, with the other openings
sealed.
72
Figure 4.31 and figure 4.32 shows the validation for the temperature and
pressure for 90 degree pipe at 4000RPM. The experimental result of the temperature
was close to the simulated temperature result although not identical. However, there
was more obvious discrepancy in the pressure results validation.
Figure 4.31: Result validation between simulation and experiment results for
temperature at 4000RPM
Figure 4.32: Result validation between simulation and experiment results for pressure at
4000RPM
The discrepancy between the two sets of results could be due to the following
reasons:
73
a. The simulations were done with a virtual model under ideal environment and
the air flow was assumed to be steady. However, for the experiment, the
engine output fluctuated and the exhaust was not steady and turbulent. This
also made the pressure readings unpredictable. Thus, the pressure results
between experiment and simulation varied.
b. The experiments were conducted in an open air environment. The heat
dissipation of the engine instead of being powered by the internal heat
exchanger which malfunctioned, a huge standing fan was opted to cool the
engine. However, the ventilation from the fan also increased the convection
of the exhaust pipe. Therefore, the experimental temperature was lower than
the simulation results.
c. The muffler was not included into the simulations while it was included in
the experiment. The presence of muffler would affect the pressure and
temperature distribution, as there was an abrupt change in surface area from
the exhaust pipe to the muffler.
74
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 CONCLUSION
The results show that there is a positive correlation between the exhaust pipe
bend with the exhaust gas temperature. The higher the bending degree, the more the
exhaust gas temperature drops. However, the effect of this correlation is more obvious
for exhaust gas from lower engine speed at 2000RPM compared to engine speed at
4000RPM.
On the other hand, the results show that there is an insignificant correlation
between the exhaust pipe bend with the exhaust gas pressure. Simulated at both engine
speed at 2000RPM and 4000RPM, no notable pressure changes was observed before
and after the exhaust gas flowed through the exhaust pipe bends. However, it is
observed that the presence of the pre-muffler which represents a change in the surface
area has greater effect on the exhaust gas pressure.
Lastly, the results show that there is a negative correlation between the exhaust
pipe bending with the gas velocity, i.e. the larger the pipe bend degree, the lower the
exhaust gas velocity. Apart from that, higher engine revolution also generates higher
exhaust gas velocity.
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
There are several recommendations for the future work in order to improve the research:
75
i. Include the other components of an exhaust system, namely the manifold,
catalytic convertor, and muffler in the simulation. This is able to provide a
more holistic understanding of the fluid characteristics in the system.
ii. Expand the range of engine revolution in the research. The current research
focused on 2000RPM and 4000RPM. The simulation can be extended to
4000RPM and above.
iii. To run the simulations using the exact exhaust gas properties. The current
research assumed the working fluid to be real carbon dioxide, but in real life,
the exhaust gas is a complicated composition of different compounds.
76
REFERENCES
[1] Exhaust system. (n.d). Retrieved 3th August.2009 from Wikipedia:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_system
[2] Exhaust system. (n.d). Retrieved 3th August.2009 from http://www.honda-

tech.com/showthread.php?t=2077910
[3] Ugur Kesgin (2004). Study on the design of inlet and exhaust system of a stationary
internal combustion engine. Energy Conversion and Management, Page 2258-2287.
Retrieved from www.sciencedirect.com
[4] Fawcett N.S.J. (1991). Computational fluid dynamics, DPHIL BSx, BHR Group Ltd,
Cranfield, Bedford, UK
[5] Helmut Doleisch, Michael Mayer, Martin Gasser, Roland Wanker, Helwig Hauser
(2004). Case Study: Visual Analysis of Complex, Time-Dependent Simulation Results
of a Diesel Exhaust System. EUROGRAPHICS - The Eurographics Association.
[6] Karthik Ramanathan, David H. West, Vemuri Balakotaiah. (2004). Optimal design
of catalytic converters for minimizing cold-start emissions. Catalysis Today. Page 357
– 373. Retrieved from www.sciencedirect.com
[7] K. David Huang, Khong Vu Quang , Kuo-Tung Tseng. (2008). Study of recycling
exhaust gas energy of hybrid pneumatic power system with CFD. Energy Conversion
and Management 50 (2009). Page 1271–1278. Retrieved from www.sciencedirect.com
[8] I.P. Kandylas, A.M. Stamatelos. (1998). Engine exhaust system design based on
heat transfer computation. Energy Conversion and Management 40 (1999). Page 1057-
1072. Retrieved from www.sciencedirect.com
[9] Exhaust system. (n.d). Retrived 23th August.2009 from

http://www.indiacar.com/infobank/exhaustsystem.htm
[10] Exhaust system. (n.d). Retrived 23th August.2009 from http://www.automotive-

online.com/auto-exhaust-system/
77
[11] Alvin Teo. (n.d). Exhaust Flow in an Automobile. Retrived 17th August.2009 from
http://www.quickhonda.net/exhaust.htm
[12] Exhaust system. (n.d). Retrived 26th August.2009 from

http://www.howtodothings.com/automotive/how-exhaust-systems-work
[13] Exhaust manifold image retrieved 26th August.2009 from

(http://www.jupitercar.com/themes/images/categories/exhaustmanifold.jpg)
[14] Muffler design (n.d). Retrieved 2nd.September.2009 from

http://blog.autospeed.com/2008/03/04/muffler-design/
[15] Exhaust Muffler Design Principles. Retrieved 2nd.September.2009 from

http://www.aussiefrogs.com/forum/uploaded/5308/1155795969.pdf
[16] Muffler cut out image retrieved 26th August.2009 from http://www.performance
curve.com/ebay/magnaflow/images/mufflercutout.jpg
[17] H.-D. Kima, Y.-H. Kweona, T. Setoguchib. (2003). A study of the weak shock
wave propagating through an engine exhaust silencer system. Journal of Sound and
Vibration 275 (2004). Page 893–915. Retrieved from www.sciencedirect.com
[18] J. Galindo, J.M. Lujan, J.R. Serrano, V. Dolz , S. Guilain b. (2004). Design of an
exhaust manifold to improve transient performance of a high-speed turbocharged diesel
engine. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 28 (2004). Page 863–875. Retrieved
from www.sciencedirect.com
[19] Shukri Fahmi Bin Shukor. (2009). Analysis of ventilation flow rate in confined
space training ground in national institute of occupational safety and health Bandar
Baru Bangi. Kuala Lumpur. Faculty of engineering final year thesis. Universiti Putra
Malaysia.
[20] Retrived 3th August.2009 from www.solidworks.com
[21] Solidworks essentials training manual. (1995-2008). Concord, Massachusetts USA:

Sassault systems solidworks corperation
78
[22] Anil W. Date. (2005). Introduction to Computational Fluid Dynamics. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
[23] Numeca FINE Hexa tutorial. (2009). Supported by NUMIT sdn bhd.
[24] Wolfgang Bauer. (2006). Virtual Prototyping of Exhaust Systems [power point
slides converted into PDF]. Retrieved from www.ansys.com
[25] Wee Seng Keong. (2009). The design and performance analysis of urban wind
turbine (vertical axis wind turbine) for high rise building applications. Faculty of
Engineering final year thesis. Universiti Malaya Malysia
[26] Lim Wee Yeat. (2008). Aerodynamic simulation of car wing performance. Faculty
of engineering final year thesis. Universiti of Malaya.
[27] Muhammad Yamin Abd Manan. (2010). Experimental analysis of exhaust gas in
an automobile exhaust pipe of different pipe bending degree. Faculty of engineering
final year thesis. Universiti of Putra Malaysia.
79
APPENDIX
APPENDIX 1: CAD DRAWING FOR REFERENCE EXHAUST PIPE WITH 45
DEGREE BENDING
80
DEGREE BENDING
81
DEGREE BENDING
82
APPENDIX 3: CAD DRAWING FOR REFERENCE EXHAUST PIPE WITH
STRAIGHT PIPE
83

Manuscript A - CFD of Exhaust Gas PDF

Încărcat de

Informații document

Descriere originală:

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Manuscript A - CFD of Exhaust Gas PDF

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

AUTOMOBILE EXHAUST PIPE:

COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMIC

exhaust gas velocity in general.

CHAPTER 1: THESIS INTRODUCTION

1.2 Research Objectives 4

1.4 Scope And Limitations 5

1.5 Thesis Structure 5

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction To Automobile Exhaust System 6

2.1.1 Exhaust Manifold 9

2.1.2 Exhaust Pipe 12

2.1.3 Catalytic Converter 13

2.1.5 Tail Pipe 20

2.2.1 SOLIDWORKS 2009 24

2.3 Introduction To Computational Fluid Dynamics 23

2.3.2 The Governing Equation Of Computational Fluid Dynamics 27

2.3.3 K-Epsilon Models 28

2.3.5 Benefits Of Computational Fluid Dynamics 30

3.1 Methodology Introduction 34

3.2 General Work Flow 34

3.4 CFD Simulations Approaches Using NUMECA CFD 38

3.5 Parameters For Boundary Conditions 49

3.6 Parameters For Initial Solutions 51

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.2 Analysis Parameters And Analysis Plane 53

4.3 Temperature Distribution Analysis 54

4.4 Pressure Distribution Analysis 60

4.5 Velocity Distribution Analysis 67

4.6 Validation With Experimental Results 72

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Appendix 1: Cad Drawing For Reference Exhaust Pipe With 45 Degree 80

Appendix 2: Cad Drawing For Reference Exhaust Pipe With 90 Degree 81

TABLE DESCRIPTIONS OF TABLE PAGE

3.1 Mesh refinement parameters 42

3.2 Table 3.2: The viscous layer parameters 44

3.3 Table 3.3: Physical configurations - General properties 47

3.4 Numerical parameters 47

3.5 Computational controls 48

3.6 Boundary conditions for 2000RPM 50

3.7 Boundary Conditions for 4000RPM 50

3.8 Initial solutions for 2000 RPM 51

3.9 Initial solutions for 4000 RPM 52

FIGURE DESCRIPTIONS OF FIGURE PAGE

2.1 Illustration of an automobile exhaust system 7

2.2 A typical exhaust manifold 9

2.3 Exhaust manifold and gasket on an in-line engine 10

2.4 Effect of the exhaust manifold diameter on the engine 11

2.5 Cylinder pressures for different exhaust manifold diameters 11

2.6 Effect of the length of the exhaust pipe on the engine 13

2.7 Pellet-type catalytic converter 14

2.8 Monolithic-type catalytic converter 15

2.9 Oxidation catalyst changed HC and CO to CO2 16

2.10 Three-way catalytic converter operation 16

2.11 Baffled muffler design 18

2.12 An internal view of a muffler with baffled chambers 18

2.13 Mufflers with perforated pipes 19

2.14 Internal view of a perforated pipe 19

2.15 The SOLIDWORKS 2009 environment 23

2.16 Grid of an exhaust pipe CFD simulation 26

2.17 Result of exhaust pipe simulation being represented 27

3.2 Exhaust pipe sample used for the research 36

3.4 CFD pre processor approaches general flow chart 38