Nepalese Society and Politics

NOTE BY MR.
BIGYAN SHARMA – MMC, DHARAN
Unit – I
Origin of Nepal
 Nepal is a Himalayan country in South Asia bounded by the Tibetan region of China on the north
part and India on east, south and west.
 There has not been enough investigation about the origin of the name Nepal, state system and
its prehistory due to the different causes.
 Some references to Nepal have been found in the famous Hindu epic “The Mahabharata”,
Purans, Buddhist scriptures, various chronicles, Thyasaphus, ancient coins, Foreigners accounts
and archaeological findings etc.
 This land was known as the Satyawoti in the Satya Yuga, Tapovan (land of meditaion) in Treta
Yuga, Muktisopan in Dwapar Yuga, and Nepal at present.
 According to Nepali historian Dhanabajra Bajracharya the name of Nepal was given by the
Gopala Dynasty who was the first ruling dynasty of Nepal.
 The first incription which mentioned the name Nepal was inscribed by the Samundra Gupta in
Elahabad in India.
 The famous Chinese traveler Huyan-Tsang in his travel account mentioned the word Nepal as
Nepolo. In the Nepalese Inscription the name Nepal was used for the first by Lichchhavi king
Basanta Deva In 512 AD at tistung.
 Nepal was the selected land for the Rishi Muni(learned Men) in mythological period.
 There is not any reliable pre-historical and historical sources to know the knowledge about the
origin of the Nepal and state system.
 In the absense of any archaeological findings, analysis about the origin of Nepal and the state
system can be done with the help of language, foreigners travel accounts and chronicles.
 How was the name Nepal and state originated ?
 According to Myth
 Manjushree as the Bodhisatwa came from China and manage drain away water of the big lake
Nagdaha and established town “Manjupatan” and Dharmakar became the king of this land.
 According to chronicles
 Hhistorian believes that Gopala were successors of “Ne” Munee and gopalas were known as
Neep.. Ne-Neep-Nepal
 In kirat language Nepal is known as Neyothapa here Neyatha means cattle and pa means people
 In limbu language Plain area is known as Nepal
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NOTE BY MR.BIGYAN SHARMA – MMC, DHARAN
Sovereignty
Meaning of Sovereignty
 Sovereignty is the ultimate power of the particular state.
 The term sovereignty is derived from the Latin word “superanus” which means supreme.
 Thus the etymological meaning of sovereignty is the supreme power of any independent
country.
 In every independent country there is an absolute and ultimate authority from which there is no
appeal.
 The sovereignty or supreme authority is supreme both in internal and external matters.
Internally, no individual or group of individuals has the legal right to act contrary to the decision
of sovereign power. In externally, the sovereign state is supreme. It is its own master.
Definitions of Sovereignty
 Duguit, Sovereignty is the ‘commanding power of the state: it is the will of nation organized in in
the state: it is the right to give unconditional orders to all individuals in the territory of the state.”
 Pollock, “Sovereignty is that power which is neither temporary nor delegated nor subject to
particular rules which it cannot alter.”
 Thus, sovereignty is the supreme power of the state and it is the quality of the state power in
internal matters and in external matters.
Characteristics of Sovereignty
 Absoluteness: - Sovereignty is the absolute power of the country. It is not relative to any
matters. The sovereign power is said to be absolute and unlimited. Internally the sovereign
power has absolute power over the individual and group of individuals within the state.
Externally, the sovereign authority is considered supreme. It is absolutely independent of any
compulsion or interference on the part their states.
 Permanence: - Sovereignty is permanent as the state itself. So long as the state lasts sovereignty
last. State and sovereignty are inseparable. The death or dispossation of the head of the state
does not mean the break of sovereignty. It shifts immediately to the next person. It is only the
change of leadership not a break in the continuety of the state.
 Indivisibility: - According to Gettell if sovereignty is not absolute, no state exists, if sovereignty is

divided more than one state exists. Thus sovereignty is indivisible concept.
 Universality: - The sovereign power is supreme over all persons, associations and things within
the state. It is the subject to the law of individual state.
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Nepal as Sovereign state: Origin and Development
Origin of Nepal as Sovereign country
 According to Gopala Raj chronicles Nepal state was originated as the kingdom under the Gopala
dynasty around 9th century BC.
 Gopalas were the founder of the Nepal state.
 Gopalas were successors of Ne muni and they were called “Neep”. The term Nepal is product of
Neep+ Aala.
 Initially the sovereignty was vested in the Gopal kings.
 After the Gopala dynasty the sovereignty of nepal was transferred to the Mahispal dynasty
 After the Mahishpala the Nepalese was exercised by the kirata dynasty
 After Mahispal the sovereignty of nepal was exercised by the Lichchhavi dynasty.
 In the Medieval period the sovereignty of Nepal was divided there were the existences of small
provinces. Kathmandu valley itself was divided into three state kantipur, patan and bhaktapur
 In this medieval period there were 52/52 states with the territory of Nepal
 Nepalese history of the present-day polity begins with Prithvi Narayan Shah, who ruled the
Kingdom of Gorkha during the mid-eighteenth century.
 At that time Gorkha was a petty Himalayan state that interacted politically in the League of
Twenty-Four Kingdoms situated in the Gandaki watershed of the central Himalayas.
 At the turn of the nineteenth century the Gorkha rulers referred to their territorial domain in
terms of a possessions (muluk).
 After the conquest of the Kathmandu Valley by P.N. Shah in 1768 AD the sovereignty of Nepal
was exercised by shah dynasty.
 King of Gorkha exercised his ritual authority was a quite different territorial unit from the
possessions over which the king exercised proprietary authority.
 The demarcation of a defined border (1816); opened the door of exercise of real sovereignty in
Nepal. This demarcation gave the recognition of sovereign country.
 At the conclusion of the 1814-1816 Gorkha-Company War, the East India Company demanded
the border dividing the territories be a fixed line demarcated by stone pillars.
 Till the 2065 BS, the sovereign power of the Nepal state was under the king.
 According to constitution of 2072 BS sovereignty is vested in Nepali people .
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Geographical Location of Nepal
 Nepal is a small Himalayan country which is situated in south Asian region.
 It is the landlocked country situated between China and India.
 Nepal is surrounded by Tibet an autonomous Area of China on the north side and by India on
the east, south and western part.
 Nepal is located between 80˚ 4ˈ east to 88 ˚ 12 ˈ east longitude and 26˚ 22ˈnorth to 30˚ 27ˈnort
latitude.
 It occupies the 0.03 percent land of the World and 0.3 percent land of the Asia continent.
 Nepal is 22 times smaller than India and 65 times smaller than china.
 It occupies the 147181 sq.km are area of the world.
 East-west average length of Nepal is 885 km.
 Average north-south extension is 193 km.
 Maximum width of Nepal is 242 km (western part)
 Minimum width of Nepal is 141 km in eastern part.
Ecological situation of Nepal
Division of Ecological regions
 Nepal is divided into three ecological region on the basis of similar climate and geographical
conditions.
 Every region has separate life style and separate population density.
 Every ecological region has different cultures and products.
 Every region are not equally developed.
Mountain Region
 It is situated in northern part of the country.
 It occupies the 15% territory of the total area of Nepal.
 It lies between 2400m to 8848m from the sea level.
 It has 885 km length from east to west and it is spread from 24 km to 48 km south-north.
 It is also divided into three sub-region.
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 Main Mountain region: It is situated avobe 5000m from the sea level. Main mountain ranges
such as Mahalangur, Kumvakarna, Ganesh, Annapurna, Dhaulagiri etc. fall under this region.
 Inner Mountain: It is located between 2400m to 5000m from the sea level. Humal, Mugu, Dolpa,
thakkhola, Manang etc fall under this region and sherpa, Bhote etc are the main inhabitants of
this region.
 Marginal Mountain:- It is spread from 30 km to 45 km from the main mountain.
 In this mountain region specially Buddhism is followed by most of people.
 It has low fertility rate.
 It has 6.73 percent of the total population.
 Animal husbandry is the main occupation in this region.
 Herbs and tourism is also main source of income in this region.
Hilly Region
 It is situated between 600m to 2400m from the sea level.
 It covers 68% territory of the total area of Nepal.
 It has 43 percent of the total population of Nepal.
 It is also divided into chure range, Mahabharat Range and Mid land.
 In hilly region Tamang, Rai, magar, Brahmin, chhetri, Gurung etc. are main hibitants
 In this region Main spoken language is Nepali.
 Agricultural occupation is the main occupation in this region.
 Religious diversity can be found in this region.
 Different fertile valley such as Kathmandu, Pokhara, Arun valley etc. are situated in this region.
Terai Region
 Lower plain area of Nepal is called Terai.
 It ranged from 60m to 600m from sea level.
 It occupies 17% area of total area of Nepal.
 region begins at the Indian border and includes the southernmost part of the flat, intensively
farmed Plain area is called the Outer Terai.
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 Nepali is taught in schools and often spoken in government offices, however the local
population mostly uses Maithili, Bhojpuri and Tharu languages.
 Economy of Terai is based on agriculture and industries.
 Social structure of Terai is totally based on the caste structure.
Political History of Ancient Nepal
Ancient period expands between 900 BC to 880 AD. Political history of ancient Nepal can be divided into
four dynasty which are as follows:
a. Gopala Dynasty
b. Mahishpala Dynasty
c. Kirata Dynasty
d. Lichchhavi Dynasty
Gopala Dynasty (900 to 700BC)
 Gopala dynasty is the First ruling dynasty of Nepal who ruled Nepal From 900 to 700BC.
 It is believe that the Gopala- pastoral nomadic cowherd group, came to kathmandu valley
through the north state of India, Garhwal.
 According to Gopala Raj Chrronicles the first King of this dynasty was the Bhumi Gupta.
 There were 8 Gopala kings and the last gopal king was Yakshya Gupta.
 The main occupation of people during this period was animal husbandry.
 The chief contribution of this dynasty is linked with the name of our country.
 Religiously Gopala were the followers of Lord Krishna.
 Gopala ruled Nepal from near Modern Matatirtha.
Mahishpala Dynasty (700 to 625BC)
 The Mahishpala dynasty was the second ruling dynasty of Nepal.
 Bara singh was the first king of Mahishpala Dynasty and other kings were Jaya singh and Bhuwan
Singh and they were from the Ahir dynasty.
 According to historian the Mahishpala dynasty is not of importance . They were buffalo herders.
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Kirata Dynasty (625 to 100AD)
 Kirati came to Nepal and ruled over here.
 The term kirata has been mentioned in the well known Hindu political and religious epic of
Mahabharata as a hill tribe with remarkable skills and better technique of warfare.
 Thje kirata race has different branches such as Rai, Limbu, Yakha, etc. Out of them Limbu
established the Limbuwan in eastern part of Nepal.
 Yalambar was chief of Elung clan who had first established the Kirati kingdom in Nepal.
 Yalambar had attacked the last king of Mahishpala dynasty and established his regime.
 There were 29 kings of kirata dynasty who ruled over Nepal.
 Yalambar, Balamba, Hriti, Humati, Jitedasti, Suyarma, Sthunko, Gasti etc were the major kings of
this dynasty.
 During the rule of sthunko, Ashoka came on a pilgrimage to lumbini to mark the birthplace of
lord Buddha.
 King Ashoka got the inscription engraved on rock and set up a stone pillar which is known as
Ashoka pillar at present in Lumbini.
 He also visited Kathmandu valley and his duaghter Chaarumati had got married to the Devapala
because the daughter chaarumnati expressed desire to settle in Nepal. After the name of her
husband chaarumati founded the town in Nepal called Devapatan near Pashupati.
 The kirata first established the democratic type of political system but latter converted into
Monarchial form.
Condition of Nepal under Kirata
 During the Kirata rule Nepal made progress in the field of art and architecture, trade and
commerce etc.
 The Kiratas were good warriors as well as good administrator so the country was ruled well.
 Laws were severe and Men and women were treated equally.
 During the Kirata rule, Nepal made progress in trade and commerce. The main items of export
were wool, woolen product and herbs.
 It is known from the Arthashastra of Kautallya that Nepal woolen blankets were sold in a big
quantity in the market of Pataliputra( patana).
 Caste and class system also developed during the kirata rule.
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 Nepal has the trade relation with the China, Tibet and India.
 Kirata economy was based on the agriculture, animal husbandry, trade and cottage industry.
 The Kirata were very tolerant toward all religion because the people of Hindu, Buddhist and
others lived together in unity.
 Kirata developed a number of town such as Matatirtha, Shankhamul, Thankot,, Khopung

(Bhadgaun), Khopasi, sanga(Teku) etc. it means urbanization process was started with the kirata
rule in Nepal.
Lichchhavi Dynasty
 The last king of Kirata dynasty was defeated by the powerful dynasty Lichchhavi and Lichchhavi
ruled over here.
 Lichchhvi were from the Baisali of India. Being defeated by Ajatshatru a powerful king of
Magadh migrated to Himalayan country Nepal.
 There is no consensus about the first king of Lichchhavi some historian believes that the first
Lichchhavi king was the Jaya Deva – I.
 According to Pashupati inscription Jaya Deva was the great emperor ruler of Lichchhavi dynasty.
 According to the inscription by Jaya Dev II, the first Lichchavi king was the supushpa.
 The capital of his kingdom Pushpa pur(Pataliputra) and he came to Kathmandu to rule here.
 The lichchhavis ruled this cointry smoothly and continously till the 7th century AD.
 Mana Dev, shiva Dev-I, Amshu Varma Narendra Dev were the influential kings of Lichchavi
dynasty.
 The Lichchhavi were tolerant towards religion and brought with them Aryan tradition.
Some Major kings of Lichchavi Dynasty
Mana Deva: - Mana Deva was the son of king Dharma Deva and queen Rajyawoti.
 Among the Lichchhavi Kings, he was most widely known character but scholar differ in their
opinions about the period of Man Deva, but it is known from the stone inscription installed by
him at changu Narayan that his rule started from 464 A.D. and continued up to 505 AD.
 During the period of Mana deva the kingdom was extended up to the Himalays on the north,
Gandaki in the west, koshi in the East and Terai in the south.
 King Mana Deva was a devout of Hindu but patronized Buddhism. His grandfather Virsha deva
was a devout of Buddhism and he laid down foundation of Swayambhu stupa, the most
important Buddhist monument of Nepal.
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 Mana Deva Built a famous royal plalce Mangriha from where the administration of the country
was conducted.
 He issued the coin Mananka.
 He was also known as the wise adminstrator.
 After Mana Dev Mahi Deva and Basanta Deva became the kings of Nepal . A few generation
after Basanta Deva Shiva Deva I became Kings.
Shiva Deva I : - Shiva Deva I became the king of Nepal in 588 AD. From the beginning of his rule he had
placed Amshuvarma in-charge-of the entire administration. King Shiva Deva gave him his daughter in
marriage and made him prime minister.
 During the period of Shiva Deva, a huge palace kailash kut Bhawan was built in Devapatan and
adminstration of shiva Deva was conducted from here.
 He was devotional and virtuous king that gave up his nominal title in 606 AD. After his Death
Amshuvarma declared himself as the king of Nepal.
Amshuvarma: - Amshuvarma was experienced in administration because he was involved in politics

during the period of Shiva Deva I .
 Period of King Amshuvarma is known as the golden age of Lichchavi period.
 Amshuvarma Belongs to Thakuri Linage. Impressed by his worthiless, heroic qualities and
administrative ability, Shiva Deva I gave his daughter and made him the chief Minister.
 The king remained as ceremonial ruler only and the entire authority was in the hand of
Amshuvarma.
 He became the king after the death of Shiva Deva I in around 606 AD.
 The coins bearing his name were minted.
 He adopted the title of Maharajadhiraj of Nepal.
 He was concerned about the economic condition of the people, so he adopted different
measures for the betterment of the people’s condition.
 for example, appropriate arrangements were made regarding to the provision of pension after
retirement fro civil service.
 Amshuvarma was himself a very learned man and a great lover of art and writings. He has
written a book shavda vidya (grammar)
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 Amshuvarma did not continue his lineage kingship. He declared Udaya Deva the son Shiva Deva I
as the prince and heir to throne.
 He decentralized administration from central to local level and the administrative power was
given to the head of Local village. Division were gram, Tala, and Dranga.
 He was in favour of Natural Law
 Many taxes were dismissed during his regency.
 He used to consult the religious text during the judgment.
 He developed friendly relationship with neighboring countries.
 He carried out a lot of reforms regarding economic development, extension of trade,

agricultural development, animal husbandry, issue of coin, social works, international relations
etc.
 His daughter Bhrikuti, got married with the king of Tibet Tsrong- Tseng- Gampo.
Narendra Deva: - Narrendra Deva, grandson of Shiva Deva I and son of Udaya Deva became the king of
Nepal with the help of Tibetan king Tsrong-Tseng Gampo.
 King Narendra Deva was a very brave man. He always wished to see people’s happiness and
prosperity.
Condition of Nepal under Lichchhavi
 The Lichchhavi period is known as the golden period in the history of Nepal. The Lichchhavi were
very successful to raise the standard of country. They were first to create the concept nation
and Nationality. Various cultural traits, faith on modified form of religious sentiments, system of
social behaviour and high influence on the spirit of religion and social life were introduced by
Lichchhavi rulers.
Administrative system of Lichchhavi
 The lichchhavis had already shown their administrative ability by establishing democratic form
of government in Vaishali. In order to carry on the administration well, they set up a councils of
ministers headed by chief minister who was known as the Mahasamanta. The legislative,
executive and judiciary power was in the hand of King. The main objective of administrative
reforms was the welfare of the common people.
 The country was divided into different Provinces, Districts and Villages. Local bodies like grama,
and Drung were established to settle the local disputes. There were different paanchalis within
grahm and Drung and the head of Paanchali was called Pradhan. There were different
administrative posts like Mahasarbandandanayak (Chief justice), Mahabaladakshya(army chief),
etc.
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Foreign Policy
 Lichchhavis maintained the good relations with India, China and Tibet. The traders of India and
China used to communicate via Nepal. Amshuvarma gave his daughter to Tsrong Tsang Gampo
to establish the diplomatic relation with Tibet. This Influenced to the politics, religion, society,
art, and cultures of two countries Nepal and Tibet.
Religion
 Though originally, Lichchhavis were followers of Hinduism and worshipper of Lord Shiva, the
Lichchhavi kings equally patronized Buddhhism. Construction of Hindu temple, and Buddhist
Gumbas were side by side. People of country were very religiously tolerant and the society
reflected high degree of unity.
Development of Art and architecture
 The Lichchhavis were well known for their interest in art and architecture. In fact the concept of
construction of temples began with them. King Mana Deva built the Mangriha, Amshuvarma
built the Kailashkut Bhawan, King Narensra Deva built the Bhadradibas temple and Vrisha Deva
laid down the foundation of swayambhu stupa
 All these temples and work of arts reflected the glory of the Nepalese people. The conceptions
of making inscription was strated with the Lichchhavis. The images of Tribickram Narayan of
Lazimpat, the images of Dhumra Barahi of Dhumbarahi, and the Nepalese skill in metal works
and other crafts speak of the excellence of the Nepalese art in the Lichchhavi period.
Economic Condition
 In this period trade and commerce made progress in Nepal. The profession of people was trade,
commerce and agriculture, and animal husbandry. The coins, the cottage industry products, the
Nepalese art and architecture, and the development of trade and commerce shows the sound
economic condition of the country. Tax was the main source of national income.
Judicial system
 In Lichchhavi period laws were based on the religious scriptures and the rulers took the help of
learned men in making law. The post of Mahasarbadandanayak was created to work in Judicial
sector. Punishment were made accordance with the intensity of offence. The thieves, robbers,
murderers, and rebels were severely punished.
Social condition
 Lichchhavis were progressive and society was well organized. Co-operative organizations were
established by the name of Guthi to sort out the misunderstanding among the people and
undertaken certain welfare activities. The people saw the unity in diversity where the people of
different castes and religions lived together
 The caste system was roughly practiced and the Brahmins got a high position in society. There
was the joint family system and women were respected in society. There was the social
harmony and developed the sense of nationality in people.
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Language and Literature
 The stone inscriptions of Lichchhavi period prove that the people used Sanskrit language. Some
of the Lichchhavi kings were scholar themselves and held the men of learning in high esteem.
Amshuvarma’s grammar and Jaya Deva’s Sanskrit verses show that they also made literary
contribution.
 In that period some books on astrology, Medicine, and religion were written. Education was not
widespread, and people were much interested in dance and music and most of which were took
place in occasion of festival.
 Thus, the Lichchhavi period was well known for all-round development and progress. The sound
economic system, the social unity, the development of art and architecture, and development of
religion make the Lichchhavi time as the best period of Nepali history.
Medieval Political History of Nepal - 880 AD to 1768 AD

The Malla Dynasty
 The present territory of Nepal was divided into several kingdoms during the Medieval period.
Kathmandu Valley also divided into Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur by the end of 15th century.
The malla kings came to power after they defeated the Lichchhavi king.
 Ari Malla was the first king of malla dynasty and other well known kings were Jayasthiti Malla,
Yakshya Malla, Pratap Malla, Jayapraksah malla, Mahendra Malla, etc were well known for their
reforms introduced in Nepal. The Malla developed a culture that has no parallel in the later times
because during their rule art, religion, philosophy, architecture, were properly developed.
Major kings of Medieval Period
 Jayasthiti Malla: - He was the brave, perfect, strong and powerful king. He was farsighted man, a
skilled politician, a great reformer, a lover of the arts, and a skillful administrator. During his rule,
he made great reforms of all kinds such as social, economic, religious, and political and brought
about a great revolution in the life of people.
 Socially he stratified Nepali society according to the Varna system into various castes groups and
sub-groups based on the ancient Hindu philosophy. The basis of caste system was maintained
according to the hierarchy and occupation.
 During his rule Newari and Sanskrit language were developed equally. Poems were written
Sanskrit language.
 He was the fond of Music, dance and painting.
 Criminal were punished on the basis of nature and intensiveness of crime.
 Economically he divided the land on the basis of its productivity into Abal, Doyam, Shim, Chahar.
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 He started measuring instrument such as mana paathi, dharni, etc.
 He divided all land of Nepal into four kinds on the ropani system of measurement. The first graded
land measured 95 haat, the second graded land measured 109 haat, third graded land measured
112 haat and forth graded land 125 haat in one ropani.
 The land measurement officials were called Kshetrakars and the house-survey officials were
called Takshyakars.
 Many formulas were developed to fix the price of house. Houses on the main road of the town,
in the lane, and in the suburbs were valued as first, second and third grade house respectively.
 A house with a perimeter of 95 haat on the road and house with a perimeter of 101 haat in the
lane were equally valued.
 He enacted laws defining the position and functions of the people of different castes and
professions.
 The Newar also divided into four castes following the line of Hindu caste system. Especially the
classes were made according to the professions of individuals in Newar community.
 He built many shrines and temples. Near the Pashupati he built a temple and set up the image of
Rama with the Lava and Kusha. He also set up images of Kumbheshwor amd Unmatta Bhairab in
Patan.
 During the period of Jayasthiti Malla, Sanskrit and Newari both Language fluorished. Poems were
written in Sanskrit Language. The story of Ramayan was dramatized and the play Bhairabanands
used to play on the stage.
 On the occasion of the funeral procession and burning rites of any members of royal family, the
practice of singing Dipakrag was introduced by Jayasthiti Malla.
Yakshya Malla (1428 to 1482AD)
Yakshya Malla Ascended the throne after his father Jyoti Malla. Since the time of his father he was in-
charge of the administration of Bhadgaun.
 He extended the territory of Nepal up to Benagal in the east, Gorkha in the west, Bhot in the north
and Ganges in the south but the territory of India Conquered by him was lost soon.
 He was the lover of religion. He appointed the Brahmins of Maharastra as the priest of Pashupati
temple. Since then these brahmins continue to be priest at Pashupati even to this day.
 The temple of Dattatreya was rebuilt by the Yakshya Malla. He was devotee of both Vishnu and
Shiva. He had equal respect to the Buddhism.
 After the death of Yakshya Malla the Kingdom was divided into several kingdoms and Kathmandu
valley was also divided into three kingdom which are as follows:
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The Kingdom of Bhadgaun
 Raya Malla was the firs King of Bhaktapur after the division of Kingdom. After the Raya Malla,
Bhuwan Malla, Pran Malla, Vishwa Malla, Trilokya Malla, Jagajyoti Malla Narendra Malla, Jagat
Prakash malla, Jitamitra Malla, Bhupatindra Malla and ranjit Malla became the Kings of Bhadgaun.
Among several Kings some important Kings are as follows:
 Jagajyoti Malla: - After the Trailokya Malla Jagajyoti mall became the King of Bhadgaun. He was
interested in astrology and Sanskrit literature. Hes wrote dramas such as Hara Gauri Bibaha,
Kunja Bihari etc. He wrote Sngeet chandra, Sangeet saar sangraha.
 He introduced the system of celebrating Jaatra of Adi Bhairab on the first Baishakh
 Jitamitra Malla: - He became the king Jagat prakash malla and ruled from 1673 to 1696 AD. He
wrote two dramas , Jaimini Bharatam and Ashwamedha Natakam in sanskrit.
 He was the wise man. Hence the title of sumati (Wise) added to his name
 To assist the development of agriculture he constructed a public canal.
 Bhupatindra Malla: - Bhupatindra Malla was a famous king of Bhadgaun. He ascended the throne
of Bhadgaun in 1696 AD.
 He was very fond of building temples and Palaces. The fifty-five-window palace of Bhaktapur is a
single example of artistic examples.
 Inside this palace images of narasigha and Hanuman were installed.
 The golden gate of Bhaktapur palace and highest temple Nyatapol were also famous art and
architecture of his time.
 Ranajit Mall: - He was the last Malla king of Bhadgaun. He was the fond of collecting rare and
precious things.
The Kingdom of Patan
Siddhi Narasingha Malla (1620-1661AD)
 After the Hariharsinga malla his son Siddhi Narasigha Mall Became the king of patan.
 He was a poet, a dramatist, and a lover of the arts and writing and well versed in Sanskrit.
 He built many temples, water-spouts, tanks, and Monastries in Lalitpur, of which 21 spired temple
of Radhakrishna still stands as a marvel of architectural design.
 It presents a unique example of Nepalese art. Walls are carved with the chief event of Ramayan
and the Mahabharata.
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 He constructed the temple of Taleju Bhawani. He used to pass his days and nights in religious
observance and hard penance like keeping himself at the centre of five fire(Panchagni)in summer
and lying on cold stone in the open court yard of his palace in winter.
 During his period the trade of patan was flourished. Traders from foreign country used to frequent
to this place.
 He established friendly relation the Ram Shah of Gorkha.
 He abdicated in favor of his son and abandoned all worldly affairs and became an ascetic. Then
he passed his remaining days of his life in kashi.
Shri Nivas Malla (1661-1684AD)
 After the abdication of his father(Siddhi Narasingha Malla), Shri Nivas Malla adopted the throne
of patan.
 He made alliance with the King Jagat Prakash Malla of Bhadgaun. Both of them jointly attacked
kathmandu and captured some of its fortresses. Pratap Malla of Kathmanu then made treaty with
Shri Nivas .
 Like his father he was religious and fond of art and architecture. He reconstructed the ‘Degutale’
temple of palace and the temple of Matsyendra Nath. The Bhim mandir of patan was built in his
time.
Yoga Narendra Malla (1684-1705AD)
 He became the king of pata at the age of eighteen.
 He made alliance with Kathmandu and Makwanpur and invaded Bhadgaun many times.
 According to chronicles he was greatly shocked at the premature death of his son.
Vishnu Malla (1729-1745AD)
 During his rule, a great famine occurred. As a remedy to this, he performed purascharan and
Nagasadhana several times.
 Being a childless, he nominated Rajya prakash Malla, a brother of Jaya prakash Malla of
Kathmandu, for his successor.
Tej Nara singh Malla (1765-1768)
 Tej Nara Singh had ruled only for a few days in patan when Prithivi Narayan Shah occupied the
Kathmandu Valley in 1768 AD.
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The Kingdom of Kathmandu
 Ratna Malla: - He was the first king of Kathmandu kingdom. He ruled kathamndu from 1482 to
1520 AD.
 During the time of Ratna malla the muslims were permitted for the firs time to come to Nepal and
settle down for the purpose of trade.
 Ratna Malla set up the images of Astha Matrikaalong with that of Dantakali
 During his rule the copper mine of Chitlang was exploited and cupper currency were introduced.
 He also erected the image of Tulaja Bhawani
Mahendra Malla: - After the Narensra Malla he became the king of kathmandu kingdom. He was the very
popular king and it is said that he did not eat before the people ate their meals
Pratap Malla: - King pratap malla became the king of Kathmandu kingdome in 1641 AD. He was a brave,
learned, religious and good administrator.
 He was very fond of constructing temples for gods and goddesses. As a protection against deases
and evil spirits he set up the image of Hanuman and built the Hanuman dhoka. In front of that
gate he built a beautiful temple of Krishna.
 Pratap malla built the temple of Kal bhairab, Guheswari theple, Rani Pokahari, Bajrayogini temple,
Budhanilakantha temple and others.
 During the period of pratap malla a treaty with Tibet was implemented. The treaty laid the
following provisions:
 Nepalses 32 business centres were to be operated in Tibet.
 Nepali councilor would be in the Tibet for the promotion of Nepalese trade.
 Nepalese coins would be circulated and accepted in Tibet.
 If Nepalese traders died without their offspring, their property would be returned to the
government of Nepal by Tibet.
 Jaya Prakash Malla : - Jaya prakash Malla was the last king of Kathmndu Kingdom. He ruled
Kathmandu from 1736 to 1768 AD.
 He was brave, religious, and self- willed. He was a man of strict nature and hot temperament. He
passed the whole period of his kingship in a series of fights and struggle.
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Condition Of Nepal (Kathmandu Valley) Under the Malla
Political Condition
 Malla dynasty was based on the divine theory of Kingship. The kingship was hereditary.
 Malla did not think that it is necessary to take the opinion of the common people in political
affairs. Although they took a kin interest in the works of public welfare and upgraded the social
and economic life of people.
 There was a feudal type of administration where samanta and pradhans became the ruler.
 There were different kingdoms in the valley.
 Though the Malla Kings of there kingdoms had descended from the same ancestry, there was no
unity among them.
 The Malla period is characterized by power politics. When the king was minor or inefficient, the
chiefs and nobles took the power in their own hands tried to become all in all.
Social Condition
 Society was influenced by Hindu caste system during the Mallla period.
 The Civil code framed by Jayasthiti Malla divided the society into different caste and sub-caste
groups.
 Though the valley was inhabited by both Hindu and Buddhists in the Malla period , it did not affect
the peace and harmony of the society.
 Though the Malla Kings were Hindu they did not interfere with the religious life of others and they
were religiously tolerant to others.
 Though the Malla had come from other side , they slowly adopted the manners and customs of
the Newars and gradually merged in their society.
 In course of time, the ruling Mallas of the valley became virtually Newars, with the result that the
Newari and Mallla culture became the synonyms.
 The inhabitants of valley were very much fond of festivals, which remained unhampered by the
instability and disturbed political environment.
 People took the pleasure in religious ceremony and dances like Mahakali dance, kartik dance,
Lakhe Jaatra etc were popular at that time. Different jaatra such as Kankeswori jaatra, Indra
jaatra, Gai jaatra, Bisket Jaatra, Bhoto Jaatra etc were introduced by Malla dynasty.
 They took part in their recreation and observed the religious festivals , spending money quite
liberally in these things.
 It was a patriarchal society and all power and authority was transferred from the male line.
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 There was also the custom of Sati Pratha.
 Mugal type of dress was popular in rural family. The dress was like Jaama which was called
Angarakha. The main dress of common women was cholo, fariya and patuka and dress of male
was daura, suruwal , patuka etc.
 There was joint family system in Malla period and the head of joint family was known as Thakali.
 Individual of four generation were found in the same family.
 Women were not given as much respect and importance as those of men. Only sons were
inherited the paternal property.
Religious condition
 The environment of malla period was quite religious. King Jayasthti Malla reorganized the
declining old caste system of the Hinduism and solidified the foundation of Hindu religion.
 Buddhism was also spreading due to the regular inflow of the Buddhist monks and teachers from
Tibet as well as India.
 From the time of Ratna Malla Muslims were allowed to settle in Nepal.
 It is believed that the Malla also allowed to few Christian to live in Nepal.
 Malla ruler showed the religious tolerance and provide an environment to flourished Buddhism
In society.
 Even the people showed the religious tolerance and there existed no ill feelings on religious
ground. Rater surprisingly, they all tried to show the religious unity. Buddhist used to go to the
Hindu temple and Hindu used to go the Monasteries.
 Thus the followers of both religions lived in peace and harmony, cooperating with each other and
respecting each others religions.
Economic Condition
 There was sound economic condition of the country.
 Agriculture was the main occupation of people. The agricultural productions were paddy, Maize,
sugarcane, fruits, vegetables etc.
 The paddy was farming on an extensive level in the fields around the Bagmati, Vishnumati,
Manahara, and others rivers.
 There was the managed irrigation system. The kings helped farmer by digging canals to irrigate
their field. The canal made by the kings were called Rajkulo and regulation were also made to get
water from those canals. Wells and ponds are also constructed.
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 From the time of Jayasthiti Malla Lands were divided into four classes according to ability of
productivity.
 The Malla period is also Marked by the development of trade, commerce and cottage industries.
To boost the trade the large trade depots were established in different places.
 Weight and measures were fixed and controlled by the government, which not only facilitated
trade but also prevented merchant from cheating the common people.
 Trade was also facilitated by the circulation of coins of different denominations eg Daam (one
fourth of a paisa) Paisa, suki (twenty five paisa) and Mohar (fifty paisa). Daam and paisa were
copper coins and suki and Mohar were silver coins.
 Customs and land revenue were the main source of public income.
 There were no big industries in those days, people grew cotton in required quantity and wove
cloth of different varieties.
 They also made beautiful pots and utensils out of metal like copper and brass.
 Other notable cottage industries were the making of gold and silver ornaments and the images of
the stone, metal etc.
 The cottage industries were the good source of national income.
 The trade treaty with India and Tibet had also a great on the economy of Kathmandu Valley. There
was the good deal of export and import trade with these countries.
 Paper, Onion, soya-bean, pots and images of made of brass, copper etc were exported to Tibet
and Herbs, salt, Yak tail, gold and silver etc were imported from the Tibet.
 Similarly Nepal exported herbs, wood, metal works, woolen clothes, rugs, blankets, paper etc to
India and Spices, salt, silk clothes, etc were imported from India.
 All three kingdoms of Kathmandu valley had placed their councilors in Tibet.
 Thus, the economic condition of Kathmandu valley in the Malla period was much better than
previous dynasties.
Art and architecture
 Malla period showed it’s glory and greatness through the art and architecture.
 The artists and sculptors had exhibited excellent skill in windows, pillars of temples, and palaces.
Among the excellent art made in Malla period are those of Dakshinkali at Pharping, Ugrachandi
and Bhairab at Bhaktapur, Bhagawati at Planchowk, Naryanthan at Hadigaun, etc.
 Nepalese artists were equally export in metal work during the Malla period. They showed art in
making images and figures in copper, brass, silver and gold.
 The golden door of Taleju and Bhaktapur Darbhar are the rare example of excellent metal work.
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 Most of temple built during the Malla period were in Pagoda style.
 The coins of Malla period were also made artistically. On the coins of those days we find the
picture of worship-pitcher, sun and moon, snake, and other religious symbols etc on the both side
of the coins.
 The pictures were mostly religiously.
Literature
 Most of the Malla kings were fond of litreatur. The books written in the Malla period show that
literature was in the highly developed stage.
 Some books which are handed to us from Malla period are Pratap Malla’s poems, Bhupatindra
and Ranajit Malla’s songs and plays like Kansabadh and Krishna Charitra, Prakash Mall’s hymns
like Gitanjali, and Jitamitra Malla’s Drama like Ashwamedha and Jaimini Bharat etc.
Causes of the downfall of the Malla rule.
 For nearly eight hundred years the Malla Kings ruled Nepal with great royal splendour and the
end of their rule may be ascribed to various causes. The main causes of downfall of the Malla rule
are as follows:
The Division of Kathmandu Valley into three kingdoms
 Some historian are of opinion that the most important cause of the downfall of the Malla rule was
the policy of Yakshya Malla in separating Kingdom of Nepal valley into several states and dividing
them among his sons. His sons established the separate kingdoms in Kathmandu Valley and
became weak. So, it was very easy to P.N. Shah to conquer them one by one.
Internal Struggle of Mallas
 Another cause of downfall of the Malla rule was the internal conflict among the malla Kings of
Kathmandu valley and other Mallason the eve of P.N. shah’s invasion . The chief Malla kingdoms
of that time were Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhadgaun. But the kings of three kingdoms were always
fighting one another. This made them very weak and they were defeated easily with the Gorkha
State.
Weak economy
 Another cause of the downfall of Malla rule was their deteriorating economic condition. At first
the economic condition of Kathmandu valley was very sound. But later kingdoms were engaged
in internal quarrels their economy became the weak. In such context P.N. Shah occupied the
neighboring provinces and made an economic blockade to the valley from all side.
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The temperament of Jaya prakash Malla
 Before the invasion of P.N. Shah the condition of Kathmandu Valley was going to worst condition.
King Jaya Prakash Malla was the high temper. He was always in conflict with his brother and
nobles. So there was no peace in the kingdom. He did not have good relation with neighboring
kingdims Bhadgaun and Patan. In the mean time P. N. Shah blocked the kathamandu valley.
 But Jaya Prakash Malla could not do anything and he was defeatd by the hand gorkha troops.
Ranjit Malla’s suicide policy
 King Ranjit Malla of Bhadgaun was also responsible to some extent for the downfall of Malla
regime. Being offended with Kathmandu , he encouraged his son to develop friendship with P.N.
Shah. This relationship provided an opportunity to PN Shah to study the political situation of
Kathmandu valley and build his further strategy of war.
 Moreover, when PN Shah invaded Kathamandu later on , Ranjit Malla did not give any help to Jaya
Prakash Malla. As a resulto such suicide policy the Jaya Prakash Malla helped to the downfall of
the Malla regime.
The Tyranny of Six pradhans
 During the ruling period of Tej Narasingha Malla the situation of Patan was in the state of worse.
During his rule the six pradhans were all in all. They were de facto rulers of the state and made
kings whatever they liked.
 Later when they saw the growing power of PN Shah around the Kathmandu valley, they invited
him to the throne of patan hoping to become the masters of all the three kingdoms with his help.
 PN Shah sent his brother Dala Mardan Shah as his representative to sit on the throne of Patan.
Thus, they invited their enemy which became the cause of downfall of the Mally regime in Nepal.
Lack of trained army
 Though the Malla kings were fighting with each other, they did not develop the warfare skills of
troops. Moreover they distrusted their general and used Foreign troops against their enemy.
Similarly the Malla kings were short sighted and had no thought of the future. Again, if bychance
they defeated enemy once, they satisfied with pride and never thought of that they have to fight
again.
Statesmanship and war fare skill of PN shah
 PN Shah was the brave, tactful administrator and the man of strong determinations and
farsighted.
 Though defeated in battles some times, he never lost courage and commanded personally till
the victory of his troops.
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 He knew what to do and how to do it. Due to these qualities and warfare skill of PN shah the Malla
regime was downfall.
Political History of Modern Nepal

Modern Period
 Before 1768 AD (1825 BS) Nepal was divided into several small states and principalities such as
Baise-chaaubise state.
 There were 50 -52 states within the country till by the end of medieval period .
 There was strong need to unite all these states into a Nation.
 The credit goes to the Shah Kings of Gorkha, specially, PN Shah for unification of Kingdom Of
Nepal.
 Pritivi Narayan Shah was born as the son of Narbhupal shah and queen Kaushyallywoti in 27 paush
1779 BS in Gorkha.
 PN Shah became the king of Gorkha state in 1799 BS at the age of 20
Role of PN Shah in the unification of Nepal
 PN Shah was a great king of the shah dynasty.
 He defeated all who came in his way.
 Prithivi Narayan Shah conquered Nuwakot and take the first step toward the conquest of
Kathmandu Valley. His army captured the weapons from the foreign army who come to support
the Malla kings.
 His unification of Nepal was need of time because the sovereignty of the country was divided into
different group, socio-economic condition was becoming weak day by day, Foreigner countries
were interested to the occupy this country etc.
 His unification of Nepal is significant not only nationalistic point of view but also internationally.
 Prithivi Narayan Shah first of all attacked Nuwakot in 1880 but he failled.
 So he made an ambitious plan to enhance the military strength of Gorkha army. He increased the
number of troops by giving military training to all male citizen.
 Prithivi Narayan Shah attacked Nuwakot for the second time on 15 Asauj 1801 amd conquered
Nuwakot which was the first step to the unification of Nepal and Kathmandu valley
 He marched his steps with his troops for the conquest of Kritipur in 1814 BS and at first he
captured the Pharping, pande gaunsunagaun, khokana and other places then he attacked Kritipur.
After the dreadful fight of five hours on the bank of Balkhu stream, he was defeated by the joint
forces of Jayaprakash Malla and Kritipur.
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 The brave Kalu pande lost his life in this battle.
 He attacked and conquered Makawanpur in 1819 BS .
 However PN Shah did not remain idle after the defeat of kritipur. He attacked Kritipur in 1821 BS.
And Captured in 1822 BS. After the conquered of Kritipur his steps marched to the conquest of
Kathmandu valley.
Conquest of Valley
 On the 25th september 1768, when the people wer celebrating the Indrajaatra, the Gorkhali
attacked Kantipur from three side: Bhimsenthan, Naradevi and Tundikhel. It was simply
impossible for Jayaprakash Malla to defense this sudden and unexpected attack. Still he fought
for sometime and then fled and hid in the temple of Taleju and from there To patan and took
shelter under the King Tej Narasingha Malla.
 Prithivi Narayan Shah sat on the throne of Kathmandu the same night.
 When jaya prakash malla had been in Patan for only few month, the pradhans of patan made the
relations with PN Shah. Coming to know this the kings of both Patan and Kathmandu fled to
Bhadgaun to take shelter under King Ranajit Mall and patan came under the PN Shah
 Prithivi Narayan Shah attacked Bhadgaun on Kartik 1826. Jaya Prakash was wounde in the fight
and finding himself in a helpless situation, King ranajit Malla surrendered. In this way all three
kingdoms of the valley came under the Prithivi Narayan shah and the Malla regime came to an
end.
 PN Shah did not rest even after the conquest of Kathmandu valley, he prepared for the conquest
of 24 petty states of Ghandaki region.
 He first attacked Kaski and conquered it . When Gorkhali were engaged in the campaign against
Nuwakot of east no 4, Kaski declared independence, But when the Gorkhali conquered Dhor,
Bhirkot and others with the help of Tanahun, they again captured Kaski.
 On seeng their old enemy Gorkha conquering the neighbouring states one by one the kings of
Lamjung and Parbat, with the help of some 24 states attacked the gorkhalis.
 This time Gorkhali suffered a heavy defeat and their leader kaji Kahar singh was killed. So PN Shah
abandoned his hope of conquering the 24 small states and turned his attention toward the East.
 Ram Krishna Kunwar and Abhiman singh Basnet was the leader of campaign of the conquest of
east.
 It was the campaign of victory and PN Shah crowned with success in the east. They reached up to
the bank of the Arun river without any serious opposition and rule of Gorkha was established over
Morang, Chaudandi and Kirat. After that they cptured Illam and planned to attack Sikkim. But
Prithivi Narayan Shah died at Dev ghat on the first day of Magh 1831 BS.
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 His economic Policy was sound. He was infavour of patronizing indigenous industries. He was of
view that who know how to weave the clothes in the country should be encouraged so that wealth
may not drain out.
 Most of the time of PN Shah passed in fights and warfare and he could not give much attention
to administrative affairs.
 From the speech he made time to time we can say that he was an able administrator, and wise
and farsighted statesman.
 He always desired to see his people happy and prosperous. He used to say “the government
becomes strong when people are strong.”
 As he wanted to develop national trade he banned the import of all foreign clothes and goods.
 His policy was to foster national arts and crafts, encourage exports, discourage imports, dig mines,
develop national industry, and similar others to develop the country.
 During his rule the nine storied palace of Basantapur, the bridge over the Rudramati river etc were
constructed.
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The successors of PN Shah

Pratap Singh Shah(1831 to 1834 BS)
 After the death of PN Shah his son Pratap Singh Shah became the king of Nepal.
 His policy was remaining in peace with neighbouring countries but his policy could not be
maintained.
 His contribution in the unification of Nepal is not of so importance.
 He improved the system of land tenure and fixed the payment of land revenue at on sixth of the
gross production.
 He erected the Lingo (wooden Pillar) at Hanuman dhoka.
 He died in 1834 BS at the age of 29
Rana Bhadur Shah
 After the death of Pratap Singh shah his son of two years Rana Bahadur Shah became the eking
of Nepal. So, the administration of country was conducted by his mother Rajendra Laxmi. Later
Bahadur shah returned to Nepal from Bettiah and began to carry on the adminstration as the
regent of King Rana Bahadur shah. Queen mother Rajendra Laxmi and Bahadur shah jointly ruled
the country.
 Bahadur Shah managed the state affairs so skillfully that the authority of state began to grow day
by day.
 He thought to unify the 22 and 24 small states. But the relationship between queen mother and
Bahadur shah ruptured. She suspected towards him that Bahadur shah might take revenge on her
son for the wrong done to him by her husband. So one day he was suddenly arrested by the
mother queen.
 But he was again released and carry administration as before. He did his best the remove the
queen mother’s suspicion on him.
 Knowing about the power struggle between brother in law and sister in law, 24 petty states had
started creating troubles.
 At this time Bahadur shah organized a large force and challenged them. But due to the conflict
again he went to bettiah.
 In the absence of Bahadur shah they were enough to attack Gorkha troops. So, In order to
suppress them queen mother sent her troops under the command of Amar Singh Thapa.
 They conquered the Some chaubise petty states and these states were annexed to the kingdom
of Nepal.
 Similarly the troops headed by Abhiman singh Basnet defeated the troops of Palpa
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 At this time the king of parbat marched towards lamjung with the force but the Nepali defeated
and occupied the different places.
 Rajendra Laxmi died in in 1843 (1786 Ad)
 Rajendra Laxmi was the heroic women of Nepal. During her regency she did much to expand the
territory of Nepal.
 After the death of Queen mother Rajendra Laxmi, Bahadur shah once again came back to Nepal
and wanted to live in peace and harmony with people.
 However he was determined to put down and occupy the hostile baise and chaubise states .
Among them palpa was very powerful and so he made with friendship with sen King of palpa by
marrying his daughter and promised to give him some conquered land in return.
 After the establishment of friendship with palpa, he set the campaign under the command of
Damodar pande and Amar Singh Thapa. The troops easily occupied the chaubise states and
extended the territorries of Nepal up to the Mahakali in the west.
War with Tibet
 During the period of Rana Bahadur Shah Nepal government proposed making a new with Tibet
but Tibet rejected such proposal.
 The Tibet blamed on the Nepalese and increases antagonism all the more. Then the Nepal
government sent a peace mission to Tibet with the of making good friendship but it returned
without any diplomatic success.
 Then a force sent to Tibet under the command of Damodar Pande. There was the fight between
Tibetans and Nepalese in 1846 BS. The Nepalese troops marched from kuti and sorrounded the
Tibetan troops.
 Hearing the news of Nepali attack on Tibet, the chinese emperor sent a strong force to Lhasa. But
he came to know all the facts, he was pacified but he decided not to leave Lhasa a settlement was
reached between Tibet and Nepal.
Treaty with Tibet
Nepalese and Tibetan team agreed to make a treaty. Treaty has following points:
 The Tibetan government was to bear whole war expenses incurred by the Nepalese government.
 If, however, the Tibetan government agreed to pay a lump sum of five million rupees, they would
be exempted from the payment of the war expense and conquered territories would also be
restored.
 But the Tibetan government promised to pay 5o thousand rupees per year to the government of
Nepal.
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Anglo-Nepal War
Preparation of War
 Lord Hasting declared war against Nepal on 1st November 1814 AD with the charge of killing the
British soldiers and infiltrating the neighboring territories.
 Though Amarsingh Thapa and other nobles and chiefs were aginst war, the Nepalese troops
prepared war. Bhimsen Thapa supported the idea of war.
 To fight against Nepal, British east India company collected a large number of troops, well
equipped with guns and cannon and divided the army into five units.
 General Ochterlony proceeded from the west with six thousand troops.
 General Gillespie advanced through the Dehradun with four thousand troops.
 General wood pushed with four thousand troops from Gorakhpur.
 General Moreley moved on with eight thousand troops from Makawanpur.
 Major Leightern advanced with two thousand troops from the purnea inciting sikkim against
Nepal.
 All these forces were heavely armed with guns and cannon and attacked Nepal from east, west
and the south.
The Battle of Khalanga
 The troops headed by Gillespie attacked the Fortress of Khalanga, situated Nalapani from the side
of Dehradun.
 From the Nepal’s side there was the Bhalabhadra was in defense of fortress, six hundred people
including women and children.
 The British began to storm and batter for fortress but brave Nepalese were not subdued.
 Lieutenant Ellis was killed in this battle and ultimately British were defeated. Then general
Gillespie himself took command. But the British were again defeated.
 The Nepalese have only one cannon and General Gillespie fell the victim to a shell fired by the
cannon. This was the great shock to the British troops.
 The British force under Colonel Mowe attacked the fortress again and there was dreadful fight.
The great Nepalese showered stones and block of woods on the enemy from inside and those
who tried break became the victim of sharp Khukuris.
 Seeing that it was impossible to drive out the Nepalese by merely shelling the fortress outside,
they adopted another strategy.
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 They discover the source of water supply to the fortress, blocked it and thus cut off the supply of
water.
 After that step, Nepalese came out with Khukuri in their hands and joined the forces sent to the
defense of their and proceeded to Jit Gadh.
 After this British captured the fortress of enemy.
 Inspiring by the dauntless courage and indomitable spirit of the Nepalese, the British set of a
monument in honour of Balabhadra and his people with an inscription “it is a present in honour
of our brave enemy Balabhadra and his brave Gorkhali friends”
The Battle of Malaun
 General Ochterlony was a cleverest of all the British commanders deputed invade Nepal. He was
closely watching and studying the situation of Nepal. He advance to the Malaun fortress capturing
the few posts of way, Amarsingh Thapa himself was defending the fortress of Malaun. But the
Nepalese took the offensive and attacked the British forces before they reached fortress.
 There was a terrific fight and General Ochterlony requested Hastings to send him more troops.
But Amarsingh Thapa baffled every attempt of the British. Being unable to defeat Amarsingh
Thapa and captured Malaun even after making several attempts for the six months, he wrote a
letter if he would come to over his side, he would be rewarded with great honour and positions.
 Amarsingh took it as an insult, so he tore it up and threw away.
 The courage and skill that he showed in this battle speak volumes for his bravery.
The Battle of Deu Thal
 Deo thal was a fortress which fall on the left of Malaun.
 Bhakti Thap with five hundreds people was the leader of this fortress.
 After the defeat in the battle of Malaun, Ochterlony planned to attack.
 The Nepalese had taken the strong defensive position.
 When Malaun was surrounded on all sides by Troops of Ochterlony, Bhakti Thapa had gone there
with some of his men to help Amarsingh Thapa. Then Ochterlony capptured the fortress of Deo
Thal after the terrific fight and British made a strong fortress of their own to very close to it.
 Seeing this Amarsingha sent Bhakti Thapa with troops to drive the British out of Deo Thal.
 Bhakti Thapa was then seventy years old and grieved by the death of his son. Still he was ready to
fight. There was the dreadful battle. The Nepalese troops, with sword and Khukuri is their hands,
rushed forward to capture the guns and cannons. But unfortunately hit by bullet, Bhakti Thapa
was killed and the troops fled to Amarsingh Thapa at Malaun.
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Renewal of War
 On seeing unwillingness of the Nepalese to leave the terai, Lord Hastings sent twenty thousand
troops under the command of Ochterlony to invade Nepal.
 Nepalese troops under the command of Colonel Rana Bikram Singha advanced from Kathmandu.
He sent some of his troops under Bir Keshar and Bakhat singha.
 Here Nepal was defeated. On the other hand Ochterlony was finding very difficult to proceed by
the Way of Makawanpur and his courage and strength was getting exhausted by his fights against
the Nepalese troops. So, both side agreed to make peace and a treaty was concluded at Sugauli
by the agreement of both parties.
Sugauli Treaty
 Chandra Shekhar Upadhya and General Ochterlony had signed on the treaty of Sugauli Treaty.
 All the territories up to the were to remain under the sovereignty of British.
 The territories conquered by the British up to Butwal were to be restored to the Nepalese.
 The border of Nepal was to extend up to the Mechi in the east and Mahakali in the west.
 The British residency was to be established in Kathmandu.
 The Nepalese and British were remain friends.
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Rajendra Bikram Shah(1873-1904BS)

 King Girwan Yuddha Bikram Shah died in 1816 and Rajendra Bikram Shah became the king under
the regency of Queen Lalit Tripura Sunndari. She was the youngest wife Rana Bahadur shah,
 Bhimsen Thapa helped to the queen in her administration.
 She was the virtuous woman and during her regency Temple of Tripureshwor Mahadeva, the rest
house on the bank of Bagmati river, Dharahara, and many other works were constructed and
credit especiallly goes to the primeminster Bhimsen Thapa.
 Bhimsen Thapa was the eldest son of Kaji Amar singh Thapa. He at the age of 11 began to serve
Rana Bhadur shah. He appointed subeadar.
 He became the first prime minister of Nepal.
 He made many reforms in the Nepal and some of the reforms made by him are as follows:
 He did his best to abolished slavery in Nepal but little success.
 He made parks and public gardens with beautiful flowers.
 He fixed the market rate of foodgrains and made uniformity in Maana- Pathee.
 He declared it illegal to take more interest from the debtors than what was already fixed.
 He reformed the postal service and facilitated the communication within the country.
 For the development of trade and industry he passed laws and adopted measures to make new
town in different parts of the country.
 He established different law courts in different parts of the country to provide justice.
 He established many depots for the sale of timber from the jungle of Terai.
 He made great reforms in civil administration. He made the land survey in the country, divided
the country into several districts, and appointed new officials for their administration etc.
Bhimsen Thapa was thus one of the architect of the sovereign and beautiful Nepal. But In spite of
being true to salt, true to trust, and true to king and country, he had to meet tragic end.
Kot Massacre and Rise of Rana
 Two queens of Rajendra Bikram shah wanted to make their sons as a king of Nepal. Surendra
Bikram shah was the son of Samrajya Laxmi and Ranendra Bikram Shah was the son of youngest
queen Rajya laxmi Devi. Samrajya laxmi died in 1898 BS.
 Gagan Sing was killed. Queen Rajya Laxmi devi was mad with the rage and sorrow when she come
to know about the musrder of one of her nearest Gagan Singh.
 She swore to take revenge on the criminal and issued order to find out the culprit. She ordered
all the chiefs and nobles to assemble the court yard of the palace. On second Aswin 1903 Bs the
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prime minister, the commander in chief, the generals, and all other chiefs and nobles were
assembled in the court yard of palace.
 Junga Bahadur was the clever to go to there with troops, who were stationed out side the court
and instructed to move at his call.
 The court yard was full of commanders, army chiefs, nobles and others. The queen began to roar
and shouted out that not a man would be allowed to go out until the murderer of Gagan Singh
was found. On the suspicion she ordered Bir Kishor to be killed.
 On seeing the troops of Junga Bahadur, queen became suspicious abut JB Rana explained cleverly
that he had brought the troops for her saftey. After the different activities the troops of Junga
Bhahadur attacked on the assemble and killed almost all participants and began to flow the
stream of blood. Those who remained, fled for their lives.
 The queen saw all this from the window was very much afraid of Junga Bahadur and convinced
herself that it was junga Bahadur who was fully responsible to the death of Gagan Singh. But she
remain in silent. She thought that it is wise to take him to her side for her own safety and
fulfillment of her design. So she made him prime minister and commander-in-chief of Army.
Bhandarkhal Parva
 Queen was in hope that Junga Bahadur after being appointed to authority, would help her to fulfill
her objectives. But he was no in favour of depriving Surendra of being his right, and placing her
son, Ranendra, in his position. Rather he began to consolidate his position and increase his power.
The queen was dissatisfied with his conduct and openly ordered him to kill surendra.
 Queen wrote a letter to Junga Bahadur to carry out her order at once but Junga Bahadur wrote in
reply that he could never be expected to do such an injustice work and warned her that in his
capacity as prime minister he might be obliged to imprison and punish the queen herself
according to the law for making attempt on the lives of prince.
 Such hard reply of Junga Bahadur added fuel to the flames and queen began to make plans to
murder to him. Inviting Junga Bahadur to a feast at Bhandarkhal, the palace garden, nearest
individuals of queen planned to finished him there. Pandit Vijaya Raj was assigned the task of
invitation him. But Junga Bahadur was clever enough to draw out all secrets from the Vijay raj and
set off Bhandarkhal accompanied buy his brothers and some soldiers.
 Bir Dhwaj who had come t welcome them on the way was killed by Rana Mehar on the order of
Junga Bahadur. After reaching Bhandarkhal he first of all ordered all people to lay down their
arms. This order created the terror on many and all laid their arm and surrendered. Those who
tried to resist were killed. Other were taken to custody.
 Helpless and powerless Queen Rajya laxmi now prepared to pilgrimage to Benares with her son
Ranendra Bikram.
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Alau Parva
 After the forceful steps of Junga bahadur, King Rajendra bikram shah was living in Benaras with
his queen. They wanted to return Nepal and were waiting for the suitable time. The enemies of
Junga Bahadur were encouraging Rejendra to return Kathmandu.
 King Rajendra Bikram shah gathered some self army and came to Alau near the border of Nepal.
These whole events were observed buy the Junga Bahadur and he sent a military force to
encounter. Many personnel and other supporters of ex king were killed and Rajendra Bikram Shah
was arrested and brought to Kathmandu and put into jail in Bhaktapur. This event is known as
Alau Parva in the history of Nepal.
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Political History of Rana Period

Janga Bahadur Rana
 Junga Bahasur was the second son of Kaji Bala Narasingha Kunwar and his actual name was Bir
Narsingha Kunwar. He was born in 1874 BS. It was his maternal uncle who called him Junga
Bahadur.
 He was the fond of sports, and fights and he was adventurous man.
Reforms of Junga Bahadur
 He made judicial reforms. He repealed the old law and made a new law.
 He set up new work shop for repairing guns, cannon, and rifles and also started some new
factories.
 He made many good roads and also repaired to facilitate the communication.
 For the collection of Land revenue he appointed landlords and chaudharis in the districts of Terai
and introduced new way of revenue collection.
 He made regulations for the preservation of Hindu temples and Buddhists shrines.
 A government notice was issued, which required the taking of records of birth and death from
every house.
 A survey of Nepal-Tibet route was made and a map was prepared.
 He spent a good amount of money to make ponds and wells.
Dev Shamsher
 He formed an idea of establishing parliamentary system of government in Nepal, with the king as
the constitutional head of the state. But he had to surrender before fulfilling his desire of
establishing parliamentary system.
 During his period Gorkapatra was started as a weekly news paper at first.
 He introduced the system of mid-day gun fire at Tundikhel.
 He established the primary paathshalaa in different localities.
 He put the suggestions box in different places asking suggestions in the matters of
administrations.
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Chandra Shamsher
 Among the Rana rulers of Nepal, Chandra Shamsher was the most experienced man. He ruled
Nepal about 29 years.
 He had a good relations with china and Tibet. Nepal was regularly sending present to the Chinese
emperor, in return for this, Chinese emperor also sent valuable presents to Nepal.
Works of Chandra Shamser
Education: - For higher education he established Tri-chandra college and affiliated with Patana University.
Durbar high school was also made open to the general people for study.
Language and Literature: - Gorkha Bhasha prakashini samiti was established in 1969 BS. SIt did much to
raise the standard of Nepale language.
Developmental activities: - He made power house at Pharping which supplied electricity to the town.
 To facilitate transportation and communication he installed ropeway from Dhursing to Matatirth.

He constructed many bridges over many streams and rivers.
 He made supply of drinking water at Dhankuta and Pokhara.
 He established military Hospital for the medical treatment of the military personnel
 He prohibited the import of foreign Liquor and control over opium and hemp etc.
Administrative and Judicial works:- He made reforms in Military, Police and CID departments.
 As a measure of judicial reform he replaced some of old laws and made new one.
 He established two separate court dealing with civil cases and criminal cases.
 He made a land survey of the whole kingdom.
Abolition of Satee system: - He abolished the satee system completely. Junga Bahadur, Bir shamser, and
Dev Shamser had also tried to abolish satee system but they were partially successful.
Emancipation of slaves: - He abolished slavery system.
 He established a separate department for this work. He appealed to the public to help and
cooperate with him in this great work of human liberty. Nearly fifty two thousand slaves were
emancipated at the cost of Rs. 36,70,000. It was paid out of the fund of Pashupatinath.
Mohan Shamser
 Mohan Shamser was the last prime minister of Rana rule.
 Before being prime minister, he had occupied the Singha Durbar. This shwos that he was very
impatient and in hurry to become the prime minister.
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Causes of fall of Rana.
 Political causes:- Revolution, autocracy,
 Economic causes:- Economic Disparity, Inequality
 Social causes: - Caste discrimination, illiteracy, etc.
 Quarrel or dispute in Rana family
 Role of King Trbhuwan
 International causes: world wide wave of democracy, role of India, etc.
A Glimpse of Political revolution of 2007 BS
 Though the political consciousness of Nepalese people came very late, they had been awaken to
social reform for sometime.
 During the regime of Bhim Shamser, Ramesh Bikram Shah, Maina Bahadur, Khadgamansingh
Basnet, Ranga Nath Sharma and others tried to organize a political called “Prachanda Gorkha”
with the view of reforms.
 During the regime Juddha Shamser a political organization called “Nagarik Adhikar Samitee” was
established and it worked secretly.
 The successful struggle of Inda encouraged Nepalese youths to come forward to throw off
autocratic Rana rule in Nepal. So they formed “Nepal Praja Parishad” and leading members were
Dharma Bhakta Mathema, Tanka Prasad Acharya, Dasharath Chand, Ramhari Sharma, and others.
 All the members of Praja Parishad were arrested in the month of kartik 2007 BS. In the Month of
Magh 2007 Shukraraj Shastri and Dharma Bhakta Mathema were hanged and Dasharath chand
and Gangalal were shot dead.
 On the 15th kartik 2003 BS Nepal National congress was established in beneras through the effort
of BP Koirala to run the political revolution.
 In 2004 BS the workers in the Biratnagar Jute Mills started strike. They were encouraged by the
Nepali National Congress. The government sent a force 205 soldiers to deal with the strikers and
arrested some leaders. In the meantime the cadres of National congress held a meeting in Kolkata
and decided to continue the strike and launched countrywide movement.
 Another political party Nepal Prajatantra Congress was formed I Kolkata.
 Towards the end of 2005 BS Nepal Prajatantra congress made a plan to launch a countrywide
political movement.
 In the next year representatives of both Nepal National congress and Nepal prajaatantra Congress
Made a joint meeting in Kolkata.
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 In this meeting they decided that both parties merged into one party “Nepali Congress”. Then
Nepali Congress launched armed revolution against Rana rule from the conference of Bairganiya.
 On the 21st kartik 2007 BS King Tribhuwan left his palace with his family and sought asylum in the
Indian embassy. Mohan Shamser did best to turn him back but King did not accept.
 After the step King Tribhuwan, Prime minister Mohan Shamser declared the king’s abdication and
placed 3 years old infant grandson Gyanendra on the throne. Such activities of Royal palace added
fuel to the burning flame of political revolution.
 On 15th Kartik 2007 BS the Liberation Force of Nepali congress led by the Thir Bom Malla and
Purna singh attacked on Birjung and captured it but next day Thir Bom Malla was killed in action.
 The armed revolution was spreading. The Rana Rule ended on 7th falgun with the agreement of
Delhi. On this day a cabinet of 10 members was formed in which 5 members were from Rana and
5 Members were from the Nepali Congress.
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Political History after 2007 BS.

After Rana Rule
• After the resignation of Mohan Shamser, Matrika Prasad Koirala became the prime minister of
Nepal. The new government tried to establish an auditor’s general office for the auditing of
national budget, the public service commission, an independent supreme court etc.
• Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah became the king of Nepal in 2011.
• King Mahendra formed a Royal Advisory government under the chairmanship of Sardar Gungman
Singh on 1st Bishakh 2012with five members. But this lasted up to 12th Magh 2012
• King Mahendra announced 13 points declaration on 17th Bhadara 2012 which was related to Land.
This announce had following objectives:
• Recommendation of quality crop
• Kut to be paid by the tenants
• Fixation of interest rate in agricultural loan which should not be more than 10 % per year.
• Prohibition of all type of feudal labour.
• Protection of tenancy right
• Tax on Birtaa land etc.
• King Mahendra invited the leaders of different political parties and asked them to form a council
of minister by mutual agreement and cooperation. But they could not come to agreement among
themselves. Due to this disagreement, council of ministers could not be formed many months.
Ultimately king Mahendra appointed Tanka Prasad Acharya as the prime minister of Nepal.
• The main responsibility of Acharya’s government was to conduct general election. But the
government could not fix the date for the general election on time according to the desire of the
King and Tanka prasad Acharya gave resignation from the prime minister ship.
• The King again requested political parties to make coalition government. When the king did not
find the chance of it, he invited Dr. K.I. Singh and asked him to form a ministry within 15 days a
cabinet headed by Dr. K.I. Singh was formed on the 11th Shrwan 2014 BS.
• There were 11 members in the cabinet headed by Dr. KI Singh.
• The Nepali congress, the praja parishad, and others made united front and began to raise their
voice against Dr. K.I. Singh.
• They demanded that there should be a general election on a fixed date. But the prim minister saw
that election on time was not possible due to various political causes . So he resigned from the
prime minister ship.
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• There after on the 4th Jeatha 2015 a council of minister was formed under the leadership of
Subarna Shamser.
• The government conducted the general election in 2015. In this election Nepali congress got a
majority and BP Koirala became the prime minister of Nepal.
• King Mahendra was closely watching and studying the bad state of the country and counting the
blundering step of the congress government. On 1st paush 2017 BS king Mahendra took the
historic step exercising his power given by the clause 55 of the constitution, he arrested the
ministers including prime minister, dissolved parliament, and took the reins of government in his
own hand. He declared the panchayat system.
• King Mahendra took another step to abolish the system of feudal states and freed the people
there from the unnecessary bondage.
• In order to facilitate development work in the country the kingdom was divided into 14 Zones and
75 district during his regime.
• He brought land reform act in 2021 BS. It was based on the suggestions of various land reforms
commissions.
• During his regime East-west highway was constructed.
• On 20th chaitra 2019 King Mahendra formed Panchyat cabinet from among the elected members
of Panchyat and Tulasi Giri was the chairman. King Mahendra tried to build Nepal from below and
bring the Campaign of Gaun Pharka (Back to Village)
• When King Mahendra died on 17th Magh 2028 due to heart attack, Birendra Bikram shah became
the king of Nepal.
• ON the 14th Baishkh 2029, King Birendra formed a council of minister under the chairman ship of
Kirtinidhi Bista.
• King Birendra declared Nepal as a peace Zone.
• Banned political parties were conducting movement against autocratic panchyat system and
movement was becoming strong day by day.
• As a result of political movement and student movement king Birendra was compelled to declare
referendum in 2036 BS.
• Political parties were against the party less panchayat system.
• The referendum was held on 20th Baishakh and in this referendum amended Panchayat system
got a majority.
• A great people movement took place against party less panchayat system by political parties, civil
society and common people.
• This movement was successful on 26th chaitra 2046 and King Birendra dissolved the party less
Panchayat rule and restore the multiparty democracy.
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• The general election on 29th Baishakh 2048 and the Nepali congress got a majority and Girija
Prasad Koirala became the prime minister of Nepal.
• The first Local level election was held in 2049 BS.
• After the restoration of multiparty democracy the condition of Nepal remained same as before.
• CPN (Maoist) launched a revolution called people war on 2nd falgun 2052 BS. The revolution was
going to reach in its climax. They claimed that 80% territories of Nepal under their control. They
instituted parallel administration and court to provide up to date administrative service and
justice.
• The royal massacre happened on 19th Jestha 2058 BS and all the family members of King Birendra
were killed in that incidence.
• After the death of Birendra his eldest son Dipendra who was in coma made King but he was died
and Gynendra became the King of Nepal.
• On the 4th October 2002, king Gyanendra dissolved the councils of ministers and the leadership
of council of ministers was under the sher Bahadur deuba.
• King Gyanendra appointed Lokendra Bahadur Chand and Surya Bahadur Thapa as the prime
minister of Nepal respectively after the steps king. Later he himself became the leader of council
of Ministers.
• After the establishment of Monarchial rule, the seven Political parties and CPN (Maoist) hade
made the 12 points agreement and they started the 2nd people movements jointly.
• People Movement of 2062/063 lasted 19 days and King Gyanendra restored the Multiparty
system. After the success of 2nd People movement the King Gyanendra compelled the leave the
throne on 15th Jestha 2065 BS and he became the last king of Nepal and Shah dynast.
• Political parties agreed to conduct election of constitutional assembly but first assembly could not
make constitution.
• Second constitution Assembly made a constitution of Nepal which was declared on 3rd Aswin 2072
BS and rule of Nepal at present is conduction according to the constitution of 2072.
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UNIT 2
Unit II
People, Society and Culture in Nepal
Demography
What is Demography ?
• The term demography refers to the study of population but such studies is
basically centered around the number of population on different basis.
• Demography deals with the birth, death and migration and impacts on the
number of population or structural composition of population in society.
• According to W.G. Berkeley, “Demography does not deal with the behaviour
of individuals but only the aggregates of people. The numerical picture of
human population is known as demography.”
• It dealt with the distribution and composition of population on the basis of
characteristics of population and such characters are sex, age, education,
religion, occupations, and others.
• In Nepal, though the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) already conducted ten
decennial censuses since 1911 (1968 BS), the taking of census considering
the social components of population such as language, religion and ethnic/
caste groups is relatively a recent phenomenon.
• The inclusion of these social components in the Nepali census gradually
started along with the advent of democratic revolutions in Nepal.
• The democratic revolution in Nepal in 2007 BS motivated to include two
important social components in the census taking; the 1952/54 census
provided information on language (on the basis of mother tongue) and
religion. The other important social component such as caste/ethnicity was
included only in the 2048 BS census after the restoration of multiparty
democracy in Nepal in 2046 BS.
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• Population and Households: Population of Nepal as of the census day (June

22, 2011) stands at 2,64,94,504 showing population growth rate of 1.35 per
annum.
• Similarly, Total number of households in the country is 5,427,302 with
5,423,297 individual households and 4,005 institutional households
(Barracks, Hostels, Monasteries etc).
• Altogether, 85.26 percent of the households reside in their own house
whereas 12.81 percent in rented, 0.63 percent in institutional and 1.30
percent in other arrangements. In urban areas, 40.22 percent live in rented
house.
• Kathmandu district has the highest percentage (58.65) of households living
in rented house.
• Piped water is the main source of drinking water for 47.78 percent of the
total households. For about 35 percent of the total households, Tube
well/hand pump is the main source of drinking water while spout, uncovered
well/kuwa and covered well/kuwa is the main source of drinking water for
5.74 percent, 4.71 percent and 2.45 percent of the total households
respectively.
• Population of Nepal as of the census day (June 22, 2011) stands at
26,494,504. The increment of population during the last decade is recorded
as 3,343,081 with an annual average growth rate of 1.35 percent.
• Terai constitutes 50.27 percent (13,318,705) of the total population while
Hill and Mountain constitutes 43 percent (11,394,007) and 6.73 percent
(1,781,792) respectively.
• Among the five development regions, Central development region has the
highest population ( 36.45 percent) and far western region records the
lowest ( 9.63 percent).
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Distribution of Population on the Basis of age and sex

• Populations differ by sex, age, race/ethnicity, marital status, and a host of
other characteristics.
• Sex and age the most important factors for demography and are essential
for analyzing the demographic processes of fertility, mortality and migration.
• The demographic processes are all affected directly by sex and age, and
these influences occur via biological, psychological, cultural, and social
variables.
• The age sex structure is the product of past trends of population components
i.e. fertility, mortality and migration.
• The age sex composition of a population has significant implications for the
reproductive potential, human resources supply, school attendance,
household formation, child-mother health care and family planning service
delivery, and ageing.
• mortality and other socio- demographic characteristics, for example
marriage and birth.
Sex composition
• Age sex composition directly affects the fertility, One of the most common
variables that we should consider is the sex, whether a person is male or
female, of an individual within a given area. Many types of planning, such as
construction and services, particularly health services, require separate
population data for males and females. The ratio of sexes affects social and
economic relationships within a community.
• There are three main measures of sex structure, and they are inter related
with one another. They are : The masculinity proportion,
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 The ratio of the excess or deficit of males to the total

population, and
 The sex ratio
The Age sex Composition at National Level

Age group 2001 2001 2011 2011
0-4 12.3 11.9 10.2 9.2
05-09 14.4 13.9 12.7 11.5
09-14 13.5 12.7 13.7 12.5
15-19 10.4 10.6 11.2 10.9
20-24 8.3 9.4 8.1 9.6
50-54 3.5 3.3 3.9 3.7
55-59 2.8 2.5 3.2 3.0
60-64 2.3 2.3 2.9 2.8
65+ 4.2 4.2 5.4 5.1
All ages 100 100 100 100
Total No. 11,359,378 11,377,556 12,849,041 13,645,463
Sex Ratio
• Sex ratio (number of males per 100 females) at the national level has
decreased from 99.8 in 2001 to 91.6 in 2011. In abstract number, there are
796,422 more females than males in the country. Sex ratio is highest (127) in
Manang district and lowest (76) in Gulmi district.
• The male to female sex ratio at birth is approximately 105. Generally male
infant mortality rates are higher than female infant mortality rates. Since
mortality is usually higher for males than females, all populations have more
male than female births.
• Above table shows that the sex ratio in the age group 0-4 was less than
hundred until the 1971 census. This could be due to higher female mortality
compared to male mortality in previous years in childhood.
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• The sex ratio is greater than 100 in the age group 0-4 after the 1971 census.
This would seem to indicate that there were more male births than female
due to a male preference for male births.
• It should be noted that Nepal is a patriarchal society and male births are
more valued than female births.
• Sex ratio in the 10-14 age group is consistently high in all the censuses of
Nepal except that of 2011. Since 1991, the sex ratio for the 10–14 age group
has been decreasing and by 2011 it was reported at 103. The sex ratio for the
population between the ages of 20 to 34 is low, and ranges from 79 to 96 for
all censuses. This is consistent with the prevalence of male migration in these
age groups.
• From 1991, the sex ratio was low for the age group 15-19 and remained low
until the age group 40-44, as reported in the 2001 census.
• In 2011 the low sex ratio moved to the age group 45-49. It may be that male
migration started earlier (15-19 age group) than previous years (20-24 age
group) and males remain away from home longer, which would explain the
low rati in the age group 45-49.
• The higher sex ratios after the age of 49 may reflect male migrants returning
home to join their families during retired life. However this trend is found to
reverse after the age of 60. This indicates a lower mortality in the female
population in this age group, as the life expectancy of females is higher than
males in Nepal
Caste composition of Nepal

Caste group No of Pop %
Chhetri 4,398,053 16.6
Brahman-Hill 3,226,903 12.2
Thakuri 425,623 1.6
Sanyasi (Dasnami) 227,822 0.8
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Pop. Of Hill Low caste group

Caste group No of Pop. %
Kami 1,258,554 4.8
Damai/Dholi 472,862 1.8
Sarki 374,816 1.4
Badi 38,603 0.1
Gaine 6,791 0.02
Pop. Of Terai high caste group

Caste – Origin : Madhesi groups
1. Brahman-Tarai 134,106 0.5
2. Rajput 41,972 0.2
3. Kayastha 44,304 0.2
Caste – Origin : Madhesi groups
Cate group No of Population %
Yadav 1,054,458 4.0
Teli 369,688 1.4
Koiri/Kushhawa 306,393 1.2
Kurmi 231,129 0.9
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Dhanuk 219,808 0.8

Mallaha 173,261 0.7
Kewat 153,772 0.6
Kathbaniya 138,637 0.5
Pop. Madhesi low caste
Madhesi (Dalit) or low caste
Chamar/Harijan 335,893 1.3
Musahar 234,490 0.9
Dushad/Paswan 208,910 0.8
Dhobi 109,079 0.4
Tatma/Tatwa 104,865 0.4
Khatwe 100,921 0.4
Ethnic Composition of Nepal

Ethnic Group %
1. Magar 7.1
2. Tamang 5.8
3. Newar 5.0
4. Rai 2.3
5. Gurung 2.0
6. Limbu 1.5
7. Kumal 0.5
8. Bhujel 0.4
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9. Majhi 0 .3
10. Sherpa 0.4
11. Danuwar 0.3
12. Sunuwar 0.2
13. Chepang/Praja 0.3
14. Thami 0.1
15. Kulung 0.1
16. Yakkha 0.1
17. Ghale 0.08
18. Khawas 0.07
19. Darai 0.06
20. Pahari 0.05
21. Thakali 0.05
22. Bhote 0.05
23. Chantyal 0.04
24. Hyolmo 0.04
25. Bote 0.04
26. Brahmu 0.03
27. Nachhring 0.03
28. Yamphu 0.03
29. Chamling 0.03
30. Athpahariya 0.02
31. Jirel 0.02
32. Dura 0.02
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Population distribution on the basis of Language

• There have been several attempts to enumerate the languages spoken in the
country as mother tongues, including the decennial censuses.
• Nepal is country of linguistic diversity and several languages are recorded in
this country
• There has been a steady increase in language enumeration from the 1991 to
2011 census. 91 languages were recorded in 2001 and 123 Languages are
recorded in the census of 2011.
• The existing rise in languages since the 1991 census may be attributed to a
number of factors. Since the restoration of democracy in 1990, there has
been a drastic increase in ethno-linguistic awareness among linguistic
minorities (including indigenous peoples) about their mother tongues.
Subsequently, linguists and other social scientists have been consulted for a
precise identification of Nepal’s languages enumerated in different censuses.
Population distribution on the basis of Religion

• Major Religion followers
• Hinduism 81.3 %
• Buddhism 9%;
• Islam 4.4%
• Kirat 3.1%
• Christianity 1.4%
• Prakriti 0.5%
• Bon 13,006
• Jainism 3,214
• Bahai 1,283
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• Sikhism 609
Literacy status
• Overall, the literacy rate is 65.9% in Nepal based on the 2011 census.
• The gender gap is wider in literacy, which is 75.1% for males and 57.4% for
females with a difference of about 18 percentage points.
• Literacy is highest among Madhesi (82.1%), followed by Hill Brahman (81.9%)
and Newar (80.1%).
• Literacy among Marwadi/Panjabi/Bangali is also considerably high (79.5%).
It is lowest among Madhesi Dalit (34.5%) Madhesi other caste (41.3%) and
Musalman (43.6%).
• These three groups have far less than half of the population that is literate.
Madhesi dalit, Hill Dalit and Janajati and Tarai Janajatis are also below the
national average of literacy.
On the basis of economic activity

• The economically active population has decreased over the years. It was
63.4% in the 2001 census, decreasing to 54.8% in the 2011 census
• This decline may be due to increased school enrolment and increased out-
migration for work.
• The economically active population is highest among M/H Janajatis (61.6%),
followed by Hill Dalit (60%).
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Cultural heritage of Nepal

 A nation is recognized through its achievement of the past and present. The past achievement of nations
which are survive the at present fall under the realm of cultural heritage.
 Thus the cultural heritage is that item of culture which is inherited by the posterity(all future generation)
collectively.
 Heritage is tradition that inherits from one generation to the another. Culture is man made product or social
achievement and it is created and developed by the ancestors and inherited from them is called cultural
heritage.
 We are the successors of a rich cultural heritage, created and left by our ancestors in different walks of life.
 Nepalese cultural heritage is not only one of the most ancient but also one of the most extensive and varied.
 All the tangible and intangible cultural achievements created by our ancestors are taken as the property and
identity of our nation and some of heritages are listed in the world heritage also.
 Temples, monuments, monasteries, forts, sculptures, images, manner, inscriptions, customs, rituals, living
style, music, dance, dress, etc., which are created by human are included in the realm of cultural heritage of
Nepal.
 Changunaryan, Bhaktapur durbar square, Pashupatinath, Swyambhunath, lumbini, etc are the major cultural
heritages of Nepal.
Major cultural heritage of Nepal

 Bhaktapur Durbar Square: - Bhaktapur Durbar square is an important cultural heritage of Nepal.
 Bhaktapur Durbar Square is the monumental treasure of Bhaktapur as well as of Nepal.
 Bhaktapur durbar square is also listed as a world heritage by UNESCO for its rich culture, wood, metal, and
stone work arts.
 Bhaktapur Durbar Square is dotted with many courtyards, royal buildings, stone spouts and temples dedicated
to different gods and goddesses.
 It is medieval period gifted property our generation and it was the administrative centre of the past.
 Mul(main) Chowk , the main courtyard of the Durbar Square is the oldest part which is still surviving.
 The courtyard is made in 1324 AD.
 Most of the monuments located in and around Bhaktapur Durbar square were constructed during the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
 Enriched with the specimens of richest art and architecture, which in course of time, the Durbar Square
appears to have lost many of its splendid heritage and some are now left.
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 Some of the lost and existing heritage of Bhaktapur Durbar Square are as follows:
 Chaukot Durbar: - It was the fort like palace with four corners for the defensive purpose. Jagajyoti
Malla built this Durbar embracing some courtyards particularly Bhandarkhal chowk. This palace was
lost in the earthquake of 1990 BS.
 Basantapur Durbar: - Basantapur Durbar was one of the eminent palace of Bhaktapur Durbar
Square. It was build by the king Jagat Prakash Malla (1644-1673AD). Later Bhupatindra malla
seemed to have beautified this Durbar in 1707 AD. Affixing south facing entrance comprising a pair
of massive stone-lions and goddesses Ugrachandi Bagawoti and god Bhairav on either side. It was
deserted during the earthquake of 1990 BS.
 The temple of Taleju is another heritage of Durbar Square which was built by Dewal Devei the queen of
Harisingha Deva.
 Another beautiful property of Durbar square is the Temple of Yakshewor Mahadev which is constructed by
the Yakshya Malla.
 Pachapannajhyale Durbar: - Pachapannajhyale Durbar is one of the most world widely famous Durbar
having fifty five windows in a row. It is the masterpiece of wood art and as well as famous for the world class
wall painting. It has now been reconstructed and is now a well preserved Durbar. Bhupatindra Mall
constructed the building of the grand palace with ninety nine courtyards and fifty five windows. In the palace
the different stories narrated with some painting the main episode of Ramayan and Mahabharat.
 Lun-dhwaka ( Golden gate): - Golden gate is another heritage of Bhaktapur Durbar Square which is made
by Ranjeet Malla , the last king of Bhaktapur. It is the masterpiece of art work. Locally it is known as the Lun-
Dhwaka. Golden gate is the main entrance of the Bhaktapur Rajdurbar cmplex. The gate was dedicated to
the goddess Taleju, the lineage deity of the Malla rulers. In fact its artistic beauty has attracted the attention
of many scholarly foreigners even to this day. Percy Brown had praised the Golden gate in 1912 A.D. as the
great work adding ‘wonderful doorway’ ...‘the richest piece of art work in the whole kingdom’. E. Alexander
Powel in 1929 A.D. became so spellbound viewing the beauty that he acclaimed ‘ ...Of surpassing beauty
under any condition, the best time to see the Golden Gate is in the late afternoon when the full force of the
sun bursts upon it like a bomb from the west.
 Nyatapola: - it is another remarkable cultural heritage relating to architecture is the It is the tallest pagoda
style temple of Nepal. It is the tallest multi-tiered pagoda temple of Nepal. The construction-work of this temple
was completed within eight month. The then contemporary records, which are now preserved in the National
Archives, are testimony to this fact. It was built in 1702 A.D. This temple is dedicated to Goddess Siddhilaxmi.
Because if these art and architectures, it listed in world heritage by the UNESCO.
The main chowk of Durbar square are Mul Chowk, Bhairav Chowk, Malati chowk, Siddhi Chowk, Kumari
Chwok etc.
 Changunarayan : Changynarayan is another important cultural heritage of Nepal.

Some of the best preserved, eight to twelve century stone sculptures depicting Hindu themes in the valley can
be found in the compound of Changunarayan.
This is the site of the oldest inscription so far discovered in the valley and thus the first historical document
of Nepal.
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Vishnu Vishvarupa is a universal or cosmic form of Lord Vishnu. This is the highly theatrical representation of
a phantasmagoria (Constantly changing medley of real or imagined image)in which Vishnu is wearing all forms
and is universal. Like any vishvarupa icon, which is occasionally assumed by major goals , Vishnu has many
heads and arms.
In lower part of the composition, Vishnu Ananta Shayin is first shown in a sleep of concerntation, on the snake
of eternity. Having risen from the cosmic ocean he is shown in all his glory, supported by his consort Laxmi
and two Nagas. God, Goddessess and semi-deities offer homage. On the Vishnu sides Garuda and elephants
symbolize the four directions. Near Vishnu’s Upper hands there are the four small images of Indra, god of
heaven, Varuna the god of sky, Kuber, the god of wealth and Yama the god of death.
The inscription includes a date namely 336 Shakya, corresponding to 464 AD. The inscription seems to have
been erected by the King Manadeva.
Near the inscribed pillar there is a celebrated huge statue of GARUDA, the mythical bird and the carrier of
Lord Vishnu-Narayan.
The Changunarayan temple is one of the eight cultural heritage structures cited by UNESCO.
 Pashupatinath Area
Pashupatinath is another cultural heritage of Nepali society.
Pashupatinath Temple is temple of Lord Shiva and is the holiest place for Hindus. The sacred temple lies on
the banks of sacred Bagmati river. It has tow tired roof and four silver doors.
Devotees from all over the world come here to pay their homage to lord Shiva.
Guheswori, Mirgasthali, Bankali, Bhandarkhal, Devapatana etc are the most famous places surrounding the
temple.
This temple is related to Gopala dynasty who were the first ruler of Nepal.
The modern temple is related to the medieval architecture.
Some superb examples of ancient stone sculpture can also be found in the Pashupatinath temple area on the
bank of Bhagmati river.
A sixth century Buddha stele I unpolished light gray stone stands half-buried in the ground on the right bank
of the Bagmati river. Buddha is depicted in extreme simplicity of attire. Its perfection of form and expression
makes it a real masterpiece of classic Buddhist art in Nepal.
Eakamukha Sivalingam is the lingam with one face. It is the heritage from the 6th century. This remarkable
head of parvati is sculptured on a lingam the phallic symbol of lord Shiva standing on small pedestal(base) at
the distant end of the observation platform on the hill overlooking the main pashupatinath temple.
Chaturmukha Shivalingam the lingam with four faces found near small bhuwaneswori temple in the little
coourtyard of the main street of Deopatan leading to the pashupatinath temple.
Bhuwaneswori temple is located at southern west part of Pahupatinath temple. Bhuwaneswori is called one
of the goddesses among nine.
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Batsalyadevi temple is located at the southern east of pashupati temple at the bank of Bagmati river.
Batsalyadevi is worshipped as parvati. The premises of temple has Aakash Bhairav, Panchaganesh, Yamaraj
etc.
Jayabageswori temple is situated at the south of Pashupatinath. Jayabageswori is said to be the goddesses
with Mahakali, Mahalaxmi, and Mahasaraswoti in a single body.
 The Swayambhu (Adibuddha)

The Buddhist temple of Swayambhunath is situated on the top of a hill, northwest of Kathamandu. It is one of
the most popular holy site of Nepal. According to Mahayana- Vajrayana sect, the Buddhist pantheon is headed
by Adhibudda or the original Buddha who is without beginning and without end, infinite and self created,
revealing himself in the form of a flame issuing out of a lotus.
In Nepal he is worshipped as Swayambhu (self created).
King Manadeva contributed in making of stupa in 460 AD. But the foundation of it was laid down by his grand
father Brishadeva.
Language and Literature of Nepal
Languages of Nepal
 Language occupies a central role in human self-expression, interpersonal communication,

activity, and identity.
 Language is a medium of expression or feelings.
 The mother tongues enumerated in the census of 2011 (except Kusunda) belong to four
language families:
 Indo-European,: - Indo-Aryan subfamily, constitute the largest group in terms of the numeric
strength of their speakers, nearly 82.1% .
 Tibeto-Burman,: - Though spoken by relatively less number of people(17.3%), it includes a

greater number of languages, about 63 languages.
 Austro-Asiatic – it rank third at 0.19%.
 Dravidian: - It fourth at 0.13%,
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 Kusunda (28 speakers) is a language isolate consisting of a single language without any genetic
relationship with other languages.
 There are 123 languages in the census of 2011 in Nepal.
 Of them 19 are ‘major’ languages: Nepali, Maithili, Bhojpuri , Tharu, Tamang, Newari, Bajjika,
Magar, Doteli, Urdu, Avadhi, Limbu, Gurung , Baitadeli ,Rai , Achhami, Bantawa, Rajbanshi and
Sherpa (spoken by more than 100,000 population) and their cumulative percentage of the
population is 96%. Inversely, the remaining 104 + languages are spoken by about 4% of Nepal’s
total population and may be deemed endangered in different degrees.
Nepali language and Literature
 Nepali, spoken by 44.6% of Nepal’s total population, is the largest language in terms of the
number of speakers in all the censuses.
 It is spoken across the country; however, it is not evenly distributed throughout.
 There are different literary creations in Nepali language.
 The development of Nepali literature can be divided in to three phases which are as follows:
 Primary period ( …….. 1940 BS): - It was the period of writing in Nepali literature. Different
literary books were written during this period. It is the period before The poet Motiram Bhatta.
Patanjali Gajurel, Basanta sharma, Yasunath pokhrel, Bhanu Bhakta Acharya, Dildas etc. major
contributors in Nepali Literatures.
 Badhu Sikshya, Prashnottari, Ramayn, Tanahu Bhakundo, Hasya Kadamba, in Nepali are major
contributions of this period in the Nepali literature.
 Medieval Period ( 1940 to 1990 BS): - It was the period of publication in the history of Nepali
literature. Being a period of Rana, it was also dark period for the development of Nepali
Literature.
 Moti Ram Bhatta who wrote Manodweg Prabha, Panchak, prapanchak and Teejko Katha, Pik
dut, Shakuntala ( drama), Priya Darshika, Padmawoti etc. ,
 Krishna prasad Regmi: Mahabharat Adi parva, Biraha Lahari and Pravawoti Charitara, etc,
 Chakra pani Chalise: - Nepali Samchhipta Ramayan, Jaiminiya Bharatiya, Sahitya Mimamsa,
Hitashi Nepali Shabdakosh etc.
 Shambhu Prasad Dhungel: - Gafa sindhu, Chandrapratap Barnan, Chndra badana, Ratnawali
(drama) Ashoka sundari Natika etc.
 Kul chandra Gautam : Amarkosh, Alankar chandrodaya, etc.
 Kabi siromani Lekhanath Poudel: - Shok prabhah, Ritu Bichar, Buddhibinod, Taruntapasi, Lalitya
part I and II etc.
 Balkrishna Sama: - Mutuko Byatha, Dhrba, Andhabeg, Prempinda, Chiso Chulo, etc.
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Modern Period( 1990 BS onward;
 Laxmi prasad Devkota: - Pahadi pukar, Putali, Bhikahari, Aakash Bolchha, Munamadan, Rajkumar
Prabhakar, Kunjini, Sita haran, Sabitri satyawan ( drama), Laxmi Nibandha Sangrah, Dadimko
Rukhnera etc.
 Bhimnidhi Tiwari : - Sahanshila Sushila, Kashibas, Matoko Maya, Satya harischandra, etc.
 Satyamohan Joshi : - Nepali lokgeet, Hamro Lok sanskriti, Krantika Laharharu, Pharkera herda,
etc.
 Bhawani Bhikshu: - Gunakeshari, Maiyan Shaheb, Abbarta, etc.
 Siddhicharan Shrestha: - Kopila, Kuhiro ra Gham, Mero pratibimba, Banchiraheko Aawaj, Yuddha
ra Shanti etc.
 Gopal Prasd Rimal : - Aamako Sapana (poem), Mashan, Yo Prem (drama), etc.
 Dayaman Shamser Rana: - Basanti, Seto Bhagh, etc.
 Madhav Prasad Ghimire: - Gauri, Rajeshwori, Rastra Nirmata, Papini Aama, Malati Mangale,
Bishakanya, etc.
 Shankar Lamichhane: - Gauthaliko Gudn, Goduli Sansar, Abstract Chintan Pyaj, etc
 Devkumari Thapa: - Ekadashi, Seto Biralo, Tapari, etc.
 Parijaat : - Shirishko Ful, etc.
 Shrawan Mukarung: Yalambar, Bishenagarchiko Katha,
 Rajan mukarung: Damini Bhir, etc
Newari Language and Literatrure
 Newari language falls under Tibeto-Burman language Family.
 Newar is another language of Nepal and total speaker of this language are 846,557 (3.20%)
 Kedarman Byathit (Chhwasa:), Purna Bahadur Baidha ( Sarasu), Dhuswan Sayami ( Gamki) ,
Ramshekhar ( Naasfa: Gucho), Ishornanda Shrestha (hyanayak), Nisthanada Bajracharya
(Laitbistara) etc are major contributor in the development of Newari literatrure.
Maithili Language and literaure
 Maithili is spoken by 11.7% of the population and ranks first in the Terai and second (i.e. next to
Nepali) in the national context. Its core area are the 6 districts of the eastern and central Terai
(Sunsari, Saptari, Siraha, Dhanusha, Mahottari, and Sarlahi) while it occupies second position in
Morang and Nawalparasi, and is also spoken significantly in the four central Tarai districts
(Rautahat, Bara, Parsa and Rupandehi).
 Bidhyapati is the greatest poet of Maithili literature. Parijat Haran of Umapati, Gorkha Vijaya of
Gopi chandra, Gaya of Maganiram Jaha etc were major Literary pieces of Maithili literature.
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Religion
 Society is not guided by only one religion. There are different religions in world society. Society
has the religious diversity. Every religion has its own norms and values, ideology and beliefs. Every
religion has its own different sects also. Some major religions of society are as follows:
Hindu religion:
 It is one of the oldest religion in the world. There is no single founder of Hinduism as found in
other religion. It came through the research and experience of many learned men (Rishi/Muni).
 Some historian trace out the origin of Hindu religion to 3rd millennium B.C. when some nomadic
tribes came to India and settled at the bank of Ganga, Indus and Brahmaputra rives.
 These tribes were called Aryans (noble one). Hinduism is believed to have stated with Sruti (which
is heard). The Rishis who had perfected themselves through meditation are said to have heard in
their hearts Eternal truths and these truths were transmitted to their disciple and followers orally.
 Hinduism believes in heaven, hell, salvation, as well as pure and impure.
 Polytheism, idol worshiping, Varna system, ashram system, belief in reincarnation, liberal religion
etc are the basic features of Hinduism.
 Hinduism has more than 935 million followers in the world (13.7%) In Nepal its total no of
followers are 81.3 %.
 Main concentration area of this religion are India, Nepal and Indian and Nepali communities
overseas
 It has no specific founder
 It was established around 1 500 B.C.
 Hinduism is divided into Shaivism, Vaishnism and Shaktism.
 Hinduism is originally called Sanatan Dharma which means righteousness forever.
 Te term Hindu originated from the root word Indus
 The Vedic Literature was handed down through the verbal transmission and declared to be divine
relation.
 The four Vedas are The Rig Veda, The Sam Veda, The Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda.
Features of Hinduism
 Polytheism: - Hinduism believes in Polytheism. From the origin, the Hindus were polytheist and
worshipped many deities. The Rig Vedic literature divides Gods and Goddess into three groups on
the basis of their nativeness of Heaven, sky and Earth. So it is a polytheist religion.
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 The Concept of Trinity: - During the post Vedic period the concept of 33 kotis God and Goddess
developed within Hinduism but three Gods are recognized as pioneer Gods. They are Brahma,
Vishnu, and Mahesh. These three Gods are considered as the super Gods or Gods of Gods.
 Idol Worshipping: - Idol worshipping is another important feature of Hinduism. Hindu shrines and
temple are usually full of images and statue of different gods and Goddess. Idol worshipping was
started in Hinduism since ancient time and still it is in the practice. This feature is that type of
character that it distinguish Hinduism from other religion such as Islam.
 Believe in unseen force: - Hinduism has it s origin in the worshiping of supernatural power.
Followers of Hinduism have belief that all the disasters, natural phenomena, and misfortune
occurs due to the some supernatural power and developed some ‘Karma-Kanda’ and most of
them guided by superstations and these are not only unscientific but also have no applicability.
 Liberal religion: - Hinduism is one of the most liberal and flexible religion in the world. Followers
of Hinduism doe snot need any orthodox principles. Hinduism has been able to include all the
Gods and Goddess.
 Transmigration of Soul: - According to Hindu religion, the soul after the death of individual passes
into another body and again into another till it can be freed from the worldly pleasure and love.
 The Ashram system
 Mention of four Purusartha
 Varna System and caste system
The Key concepts of Hinduism :
A. Ashram System: - The ultimate aim of every individuals is to get salvation in Hindu religion. People
should perform certain virtues and good deeds in order to get salvation. In ancient time the Rishi (Learned
Men) provided the guidelines for the different phases of life in the form of four ashram which are as
follows:
1. Brahmachrya Ashram: - According to Hinduism this is the first formative stage in the life of an individual.
It is the period of study and an individual has to Gurukul for study. It is the period of first 25 years of an
individual and s/he becomes acharya (Bachelor). They learn Vedic text, Puranas, Ashtra and shastra,
medicine, agriculture, Dhanur Vidhya, and war skill etc. An individual should do following duties in this
period:
 Individual should sleep on earth
 S/he should beg both for Guru and himself.
 S/he should not eat meat, onion, and other sweet dishes
 S/he should not rub oil on his/her body
 Should not wear shoes
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 Should not express anger and quarrel
 Should not speak lie etc.
 Should remain under the supervision of Guru
2. The Grihastha Ashram (25 to 50 years): - This period is determined for the fulfillment of Artha, Kama
and Dharma. Some important duty assigned to Grihastha Ashram are:
 Individual should into marital life through the marriage
 Individual should receive gests with courtesy
 Individual should worship pitris, God and Goddess
 Individual should earn artha for the maintenance of the family, as well as to feed family members,
guests, and the saints.
 An individual has to perform Pitri Yagya, The Rishi Yagya, the Deva yagya etc to express gratitude
and solidarity with Gods and Goddess
 3. Vanaprastha Ashram: - This stage is the period of 50 to 70 years. This period is for resting of
the body and mind. So that one can think or remember parambrahma. In this period individuals
have to live in Jungles with regular philosophical discussion. They have to perform Yoga to keep
fit and mentally alert. They should wear Mirgachamar instead of clothes. They do not have spicy
and fatty dishes.
 4. Sanyas Ashram: - this ashram for only Brahmins. It is the period of 75 to 100. Sanyasi have to
perform ten duties which are Begging, truth speaking, keep the soul sacred, do not quarreling,
pardoning anybody, should not express the anger, etc.
 B. The four Purusartha: -
 1. Dharma: - According to Hindu belief, the Dharma refers to religious activity as well as
righteousness and duty. It refers to the fulfillment of several duties to the nation (Known as
Raj/Rastra dharma), to the teacher (Guru Dharma), Rishi Dharma, Pitri Dharma etc. It is argued
that dharma should be preserved in any costs.
 2. Artha (Economy) : - Artha is necessary to maintain the family, members of family, to perform
religious activities, and to solve the other problems of Life. It is said that the one who has not
wealth (artha) can not fulfill tha all Dharam.
 3. Kama: - Kama has very wide meaning and perspective. In a Narrow sense it means to fulfill the
sexual desires. In a broad sense Kama is considered to the fulfillment of human desire so that
individual can perform all the duties towards Gods, Rishis, Guru and nation. It is also related to
keep controls over sexual desires in Brahmacharya , Vanaprastha and sanyas ashram.
 4.Mokshya: - According to Hindu philosophy Mokshya (salvation) is very important purusartha. In

Hindu society, salvation is the final goal of every individuals. The word mokshya is derived from
the Sanskrit word ‘Mook’ which means control over soul. In fact, Mokshya is a condition where
an individual is above the worldly love and affection.
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 C. The three paths to divinity: -Mokshya is a core of Hinduism. It is the feeling of attachment to
the almighty Gods and Goddess. According to Hinduism, there are three way to achieve the
divinity. They are Gyan Marga(Knowledge Path), Bhakti Marga(worship of the Gods), And Karma
Marga (work Path)
 D. The four Varnas: - According to Rig Veda the Varna is created by the God Brahma. Individuals
are diveded on the basis of their work. The main occupation of Brahmin is teaching, security is the
job of Kshyatriya, economic activities of Vaishya, and serv to others above group is the job of
Sudras.
 The literal meaning of Varna is colour. Yudhisthira is of view that if a person speaks truth, gives
charity, has capacity to pardon, and is of satcharitra, he is called Brahmin. He further says that if
all these qualities are found in a sudra, he is also called Brahmin.
 E. The concept of Avatar: - It is another key concept of Hindu thought. Most of the Avatars
(Incarnation) come to be associated with the lord Vishnu. The ten incarnation of Vishnu are known
as Dasa Avataars. They are Matsya, Kurma, Varah(Boar), Narashima, Vamana(Dwarf), Parshuram,
Rama, Krishna, Buddha and Kalki.
Sects of Hinduism
 Vaishnavism: - The followers of Lord Vishnu are called Vaishnava and their sect of religion is called
Vaishnavism. Lord Vishnu is considered as the supreme God and source of all considered by this
sect. Goddess Laxmi, wife of lord Vishnu is worshipped as the Goddess of Wealth.
 According to Vavishya Purana lord Vishnu had ten incarnation wehich are known as Dasa
Avataars. They are Matsya, Kurma, Varah(Boar), Narashima, Vamana(Dwarf), Parshuram, Rama,
Krishna, Buddha and Kalki.
 Followers of Vaishnavism belives that Lord Vishnu takes such incarnation to wipe the sinfull acts
from this Earth and worship all incarnations.
 Usually the followers of Lord Vishnu are vegetarian and they reject the concept of sacrificing the
animals. Taking bath daily in the morning, worshipping Lord Vishnu daily, putting the holy thread
etc are the basic rules for them. Vaisnavs can be identified by certain marks on their forehead and
body. Vaishnava marks are vary but they usually use the symbols straight drawn U Y etc drawn
with white along with a red representing laxmi.
 Shivism: - The practice of worshipping Lord Shiva as the major deity along with other members of
Shiva’s family like Goddess Parvati, Ganesh etc is called shaivism. The most common form to
represent lord Shiva is Shiva linga.
 Lord Shiva is believed to be settled on the summit of Kailash in a leather of tiger. He is always in
deep meditation. In the middle of his forehead is his third eye which indicates superior wisdom.
 Shaktism: - Shaktism is another important sect of Hinduism. By the post Vedic period, Hindu
started to believe that Goddess are the source of all power and they are more powerful than the
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Gods. It is believed that it is better to worship the goddess. With this aspect the tradition of
Shaktism developed. It is believed that all the natural power remains under the direst control of
eight goddess commonly known as Astamatrika.
Buddhism
 Buddhism is one of the major religion in Nepal. The founder of this religion is Siddhartha Gautam
who was born about 563 BC. In the Lumbini of Nepal.
 The Buddhism is practiced in the Indian sub-continent and many other countries of the World
including China, Sri-lanka, Korea, and others.
 Buddhism has 463 (6.7%)followers Triptaka is the holy book of Buddhism and in Nepal total
followers of this religion is 9 percent.
 Buddhism, developed in the sixth century B.C. as a reaction against Hinduism. This faith is founded
on the teachings of Siddhartha (later called Buddha, or “the enlightened one”). Through
meditation, followers of Buddhism strive to overcome selfish cravings for physical or material
pleasures, with the goal of reaching a state of enlightenment, or nirvana.
 Buddhists created the first monastic orders, which are thought to be the models for monastic
orders in other religions. Though Buddhism emerged in Indian sub continent, its followers were
eventually driven out of that country by the Hindus. It is now found primarily in other parts of
Asia.
 Early Buddhism was a system of ethics concerned with personal salvation. It is a path practice and
spiritual development leading to the insights into the nature of life,
 The Buddha is considered as mortal and human. Followers Buddhism practices meditation as a
means of changing oneself In order to develop the qualities of awareness, kindness and wisdom.
 Buddhism does not include the idea of worshipping of creator God. Some people do not take it as
religion rather they take it as moral philosophy.
 According to this religion nothing is fixed of permanent action that change is possible.
 It teaches the practical method which enables people to realize and utilize its teaching in order
to transform their experience to be fully responsible for their lives to develop the qualities.
 When Buddha was 29years old, he left the comforts of Royal palace to seek the meaning of
suffering.
 After the six years of Yogic training he sat in a mindfullness meditation beneath a Boddhi tree. On
the full moon of Baishakh, Siddhartah Gautam became the Buddha, the enlightened one.
 The Buddha wandered the plains of Nort eastern India for 45 years, teaching the knowledge, he
has realized in the meditation.
 He died at the age 80.
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The four Aryan (Noble) truth of Buddhism
1. Dukha(suffering): - there is suffering but it is invisible. Only noble man with good characters feel
the sufferings. According to Buddha, all sufferings are unrealistic and temporary. Our expectations
are unlimited. So the life in the world is of full sufferings.
2. There are causes of Pain: - Buddha says that he main cause of pain is human desires. Humans are
compelled to do wrong work due to human desires.
3. 3. We can be free from pain: - Human desires are the main source of sufferings and salvation or
free from the unlimited desires is the solution of pain. One can get rid of sufferings by attending
Nirvana(salvation).
4. 4. Dukha Nirodha Marga: - Buddha propunded fourth noble truth as a complimentary of 3rd noble
truth. He presents eight fold path s to get Nirvana or salvation. These are eight fold paths are as
follows:
a. Right vision: - Right vision id the true understanding of the four Aryan truths. According to Buddha,
right vision helps in moral reformations and leads to the goal of salvation.
b. Right speech: - Right speech involves the absent from lying, gossiping, or hurtful task. Right
determination can help to the control of our speech. Our speech should be joyful and soft.
c. c. Right action: - Right action refers to good deeds. Right action involves absent from hurtful
behaviours such as killing, stealing, and taking intoxicating materials.
d. d. Right livelihood: - Right livelihood means living in such a way as to avoid dishonesty and hurting
others including animals.
e. e. Right effort: - Right effort is a matter of exerting oneself in regards to the contact of one’s mind.
Bad qualities should abandoned and prevented from bad things. Good qualities should be enacted
and nurtured.
f. f. Right mindfulness: - Right mindfulness is the focusing of one’s attention on one’s body, feeling,
thought, and consciousness in such way as overcome passion, hatred and ignorance.
g. g. Right concentration: - Right concentration is meditating in such a way as to progressively realize

a true understanding of imperfections.
h. h. Right determination: - Everyone must posses a strong determination to reform his/her life in
the light of truth. It is the true desire to free oneself from attachment, ignorance and hatefulness.
For this one should give up all the bad feelings towards other and be determined to one’s one
own duty.
Features of Buddhism
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 Liberal and flexible religion
 No violence or the concept of ahimsa
 Criticism of case system
 Belief in Nirvana (Karma and mokhsya)
 Belief in rebirth
 Not worshipping the particular God
 Worshiping in Gumba
 Tolerance to other religion
Sects of Buddhism
Gautam Buddha teaches education of Life in simple words. But in course of time, it has become
complicated. The Buddhism is divided into a different sects with the number of followers increased. The
most important sects of Buddhism are as follows:
 The Heenyana sect of School: - this school of Buddhism flourished in south Asia and its present
strong hold is in Srilanka and Burma.
 This sect believes in original version of Buddha’s truth. It’s literature is vast and is written in ‘Pali’
language. This school of Buddhism claims to be more orthodox an faithful to the teaching of
Buddha.
 The name of this sect is given by non other than by Mahayana sect. according to the followers of
Mahayana, the teaching of Hinayana is narrow way. According to Hinayana Gautam Buddha was
simple man as common men but he had the different way of thinking about life and suffering.
Mahayana Sect
 The Mahayana sect of Buddhism is flourished mostly in North Asian countries and its followers
are mainly found in Tibet, china and Japan. This school adopted Sanskrit for their philosophical
discussion and thus large number of Buddhist literature are developed in Sanskrit. Most of these
literature were translated into Chinese and Tibetan language later.
 The meaning of Mahayana is a large way. this sect has taken as a God to the Buddha. So this sect
started to idol worshipping. It is a liberal sect of Buddhism. Mahayana aims at the salvation of
mankind.
Tantrism
 In course of time. One more sect of Buddhism developed under the Mahayana sect. This sect
believes in magical power and worship in the Mandala. It is the way of tantra, Mantra worship to
get Buddha hood. This sect believes that the knowledge can be achieve only through Tantra-
mantra and mediation. Manta and meditation influences the internal knowledge of human. In this
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way this sect takes Buddha as the symbol of Universe and consciousness because Panchtatwa and
consciousness makes the forms of Buddha.
Islam Religion
 Islam is a one of the important religion in the world.
 Prophet Mohammad is the founder of it who was born at Mecca of Saudi Arabia in the 6th century
AD. He was died in Median and these two places are considered as holy places for Muslims.
Mohammad established some rules which are compulsory to all Islam's, those rules are praying
to Allah facing one’s face to Mecca, Treating Friday as holy day etc. all principles of Islam are
inscribed in their religious book ‘Quran’ (lesson).
 The followers of Islam believe in one God but in course of time it is divided into Sunni and Seeya
sects, monotheism, anti idol worshipping, believe in fatalism, orthodox religion etc are the basic
features of this religion.
 Even at the early age < Mohammad used to meditate upon the Gods and he would preach to
those al who gathered to listen him. He bunched a great opposition on the practice of idol
worshipping.
Mohammad insisted that his disciple must perform the five deeds which are:
 Kalama (Part of Quran) recitation
 Namaj
 Giving Jakata or alms
 Fasting (Roza)
 Going To Hoz pilgrimage
Features of Islam religion
 Mono-theism
 Against idol worshipping
 Quran is the holy text.
 Low status of women
 Believe in fatalism
 Shariat as the Islamic law
 Concept of Jehad
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 Mecca and Medina are the sacred place
 More orthodox religion
Sects of Islam
 The Sunni sect: - the Sunni sect of Islam claims to be more orthodox and faithful to the teaching
of Prophet Mohammed. Thos sect was established by those who claimed to be very close to
Mohammed. Most of the Islam are in this sect in the world.
 The Shiya sect: - the Shiya sect is also known as the Group of Ali. Ali was the son-in-law of
Mohammed. Ali claimed that Prophet Mohammed had told him all those things he had learnt
from Allah and Ali even knew those things which were not written in the Quran. Thus, Ali had a
large number of followers to support him.
Christianity
 Christianity is based on the teaching of Jesus Christ, a Jew who lived 2000 years age to which we
call now Israel.
 Jesus taught to his followers, “Do un to others s you would have them do un to you.”
 Christianity has total followers in the world 2,281 Million (33.0%) and in Nepal its total followers
is 1.4 %.
 Main concertaion Area are Europe, North America, South, America . It is founded by Jesus (6 B.C.)
and holy places for a Christian are Jerusalem, and Rome)
 The followers of Jesus called his Christ and the term Christ is Greek word which means “chosen
one”. They believe that he was the son of God. Early people taught that the sins of people would
be forgiven if they became the Christian
 After the death of Jesus followers of Christian combined the stories of life and knowledge of Christ
into four books known as Gospel. The meaning of Gospel is ‘good news’.
 The Holy book of Christian is known as Bible and has its two parts: Old Testament and New
Testament.
 The Old Testament consists of sacred writings of the Jewish people and is written in Hebrew
Language before Jesus.
 The New Testament of Bible includes the Gospels along with the letters of Christian writers. The
Bible has been translated into several language.
 Christians worship in churches led by the Pastures. Most of the Christian practice acts of religious
significance called sacraments.
 Christ believes that Christ was both man and son of the God. They believe that the God is
‘Messiah’. The Roman Governor of Palestine executed Jesus by nailing him to cross. Today this
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cross in Christianity’s most important icon. Most Christian have crosses in and on the top of their
churches.
Features
 Monotheistic Religion
 Orthodox religion
 Christianity is the largest single faith
 Bible is the holy Book
 Holy Place is Jerusalem
Sects of christianity
Christianity is divided into two sects which are as follows:
 Roman Catholic: - About half of Christian population of world is Roman catholic. John Paul – II is
the leader of Roman catholic Church. Catholic is the a Latin word which means Universal and at
a one time. It was the faith of almost every Christian.
 Protestant: - It is another sect of Christianity. Many European leader including Martin Luther King
and John Kelvin, protest against Pope in a period and Known as reformation. The sect and
churches they started is known as Protestant.
Kirat
 Kirat is another religion of Nepal.
 Kirat religion is associated with the ethnic group Kirat and its followers are Rai and Limbu.
 They worship Nature as the source of Life. They worship Nature twise a year one on full moon of
Mangsir and another on Full Moon of Baishak. Here Worship of Mangsir is related to the
harvesting season and Baishakh is related to the Cultivation season.
 Similarly they worship ancestors in these days.
 Main and holy book of Kirat is Mundhum and initially it was verbally transmitted to us and we can
find it in written form.
 They worship their nature god in Sakela Than and their main matter of worship is Land.
 Its main concentration place is eastern Nepal and its total followers is 3.1 percent in Nepal.
Religious Harmony in Nepal
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 Nepal is a country of Religious diversity since ancient time. It is the land of different religion. Most
of people are Hindu and Buddhist and others are Islam, Kirat and Christian respectively.
 In Nepal there is no debate of controversy among the individuals of all religion and Nationality is
a common umbrella for all religion and nationality is above than their Religion.
 The concept of Syncretism can be seen in Nepali society. Syncretism refers to the mixing process
of all religions. Due to the concept of syncretism religious harmony can be found in Nepali society.
 Since ancient time religious harmony is found in Nepali society. People of different religion
celebrates the festivals of each others religion which shows the religious harmony in society.
 Religious tolerance was found in Lichchhavi period . Lichchhavi equally patronized the religions of
Country which step promoted the condition of religious harmony in Nepali society.
 Though In Malla period Hinduism was the main religion of society Muslims and Christian were
allowed to live in this country since that time religious harmony is continued in the society.
 Different shrines, temples and Monasteries are equally important for both Hindu and Buddhists.
They have faith in each others religion in society.
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Festivals of Nepal
 Nepal is country of Diversity. Here we find linguistic diversity, religious diversity, cultural diversity,
regional diversity, ethnic diversity etc. With the diverse characters of Nepali Society there are
several festivals in Nepal Society. These festival are mostly related to the religion, ethnicity and
regional diversity.
 The entire year is a series of festival in Nepal. The celebrations marks religious events, life cycle
ceremonies. Each and every caste, religion, ethnic group, ecological region etc have their own
feast and festivals. Some of the common and National festival of Nepal are as follows:
Dashain
 Dashain is the most important festivals of Nepali society. Dashain is the most auspicious and
joyous times of the year for Nepali society.
 It is celebrated throughout the country by all caste and creeds but the way of celebrating may
differ from the Hindu community.
 It is the celebration of Goddess Durga who is supposed to save people from the evils forces.
 It is celebrated for about fifteen days in later September or early October.
 People celebrate Nawa Ratri symbolizing nine days of war against demons fought by Durga in
different manifestations.
 Dashain begins with Ghatasthapana, meaning the establishing of holy water vessel which
represents Goddess Durga, where people plant Jamara for the tenth day of Dashain
Vijayadashami.
 Fulpati is the seventh day of Dashain which refers to the sacred flowers and leaves of plants which
are offered to the Goddess Devi.
 On this day Kalash filled with a bouquet of tall flowers, banana stalks, holy leaves, and sugarcane
tied with red cloth is brought to Dashain Ghar at Hanuman Dhoka from Gorkha Palace and fulpati
is celebrated
 The eighth day of Dashain is known as the Kal Ratri which is also known as Maha Ashtami in the
common parlance.
 Hundreds of buffalo, goats, sheep, chickens and ducks are sacrificed at the Durga temples at night.
 The Newars of Kathmandu Valley call this day “shako teak”, meaning ‘more you kill, the more you
gain’. In hopes of prefessional success people worships different weapons and other tolls at this
day.
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 The ninth day of Dashain is known as the Maha Nawami, the last day of Naw Ratri. People visits
to Durga temple and offer sacrifice of animals on this day.
 The celebration of Dashain reaches its zenith on the tenth day called Viayadashami, the great
tenth day of victory.
 It is seen as the victory of virtue over the evils, glorifying the power of Goddess.
 It is said to be the celebration of the great victory of Lord Ram against Ravana. On this day all the
people who celebrate dashain visit to their elders for the Tika and Jamara blessing.
Tihar: The festival of Light and flowers
 Tihar is the national festival of Nepal and it is the second largest festival of Nepali Society.
 Tihar is characterized as the close relation between animals and human beings on the one side
and heartily and pure relation with brother and sister on the other hand.
 This festivals falls during the harvest season generally in the month of Kartik.
 Literally ‘Tihar’ means a row of lamps and light displayed.
 It is the festival of worshipping crow, dogs, cow, ox and brother respectively.
 Laxmi Pooja fall on the third day of this festival. Every home, temple and others are decorated by
the colourful lights and flowers in the evening of Laxmi Pooja.
 Deepamalika are placed at every window, Verandah, door, dhikuti, Jato, Dhiki etc of the home.
Every people worship goddesses Laxmi’s idol in the evening. She is called the goddesses of wealth.
After the Laxmi pooja people (generally Females) begins to play vailo.
 The fourth day of Yamapanchaka is the Goru (ox) Tihar. This festival is celebrated worshipping the
bull oxen and Gobardhan Mountain. It is believed that the Gobardhan parbat was the grazing
land and it was full of green grass. This signify the pastoral importance in our agricultural society.
 The last day of Yampanchaka is the Vai teeka. In this day every brothers are worshipped by their
sisters and receives blessing and best wishes for their log and healthy life and future prosperity.
At the same time Tika and marigold are given by brothers and they give the gift to their sisters
cash or goods.
Holi: the festival of colour
 Holi is an ancient Hindu festival named after the Holika demon. According to Hindu myth, Pralahad
was a devotee of god Vishnu and was a religious minded. But his father Hiranyakashyapu did not
like his son’s love of Vishnu. So, King wanted to kill Pralahad but could not do so because Vishnu
shaved him every time.
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 The colourful festival begins with the erection of ceremonial pole called chir at Basantapur, the
southern part of Hanumandhoka palace.
 Holi comes with the message of mutual harmony and friendship in the beginning of Basanta Ritu.
 It is celebrated in the remembrance of victory of virtue over evils force but now a days it has got
negative aspects specially among the youths.
Lhosar
 Nepal is a multi religious and multi ethnic society and there is also diversity in feast and festivals
also.
 There are different festivals in multi-religious Nepali society. Lhosar is an important festivval of
Nepali society.
 Lho means year or age and sar means new or fresh. The word Lhosar means new year or the
beginning of new era.
 Specilly Lhosar is celebrated by the Tamang, Gurung and Sherpa community of Nepal.
 There are different types of lhosar that is Tamu ,sonam,gyalbo lhosar and each lhosar is held in a
different date every year.
 The Lhosar is celebrated by visiting monasteries and stupas where special rituals with mask dance
are performed to drive away evil spirits.
 Lhosar signify the change of the year. It is believed that the Lohsar day is the day when human
beings were created.
 Gurung, Sherpa, Tamang and others celebrate Lohsar in different way and in different date.
 Buddhist community pray for peace, friendship, and welfare of human being on this day. Buddhist
community offer feast on this day and they also sing and dance on this spcial day. ( For Details
see the slides of Laxmi, Pemba, and Parbati)
Chhath Puja
 Chhath Puja is celebrated by Hindu in Terai region of Nepal. It is celebrated on the 6th day of the
Lunar fortnight of Kartik.
 This festival is dedicated to god Sun. The Sun, source power of nature, considered the god of
energy and lord of the life-force, is worshiped in Chhath to promote well-being, prosperity and
progress.
 Hindu people believe sun helps to cure many illness and diseases. Sun is considered as source of
healing too. Sun is also considered as token of stability and prosperity. Therefore, people worship
sun to ensure the longevity and prosperity of family members, and relatives. (See Anish
Presentation for further details)
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Christmas
 Christmas is another important festival of Nepal society and it is specially celebrated by the
Christian community in Nepal.
 It is the birth day celebration of Lord ‘Ishamasiha’ who was in Jerusalem
 It is celebrated on 25th December of every years.
 People who follow the Christianity decorates the Christmas tree on this day.
 Followers of Christianity go the Churches on this day and celebrate Christmas by exchanging good
wishes to friends and other relatives.
 On this day followers of this festival organize a feast, sing and dance joyfully.
Teej
 Teej is another festival of Nepali society and it is generally celebrated by Nepalese women. It is
celebrated by Nepali women, for the long life of her husband and long and firm relationship
between them until the death this life and all lives to come. It is observed for marital Happiness,
well-being of spouse and children and purification of own body and soul.
 Most of Nepalese women wear red dress and dance in different temple of Lord shiva on this day.
Women sit around the Lingam, the phallic symbol of Lord Shiva and offer flowers, sweets and
coins. They pray for their husbands longevity, progress and prosperity. They chant religious
hymns, recalling the ordeal parvati , shiva’s consort, had gone through to win the heart of the
master of all living beings.
 Generally Teej is celebrated three days in Bhadra shukla Pakshya.
 On the first day celebration of three day celebration, group of women both married and
unmarried congregate at one place and have a feast which is called Dar.
 The next day women generally wear crimson saree, singing and dancing in the public place and
worship lord shiva.
 The third and last day of the festival is called Rishi Panchami, which is the fifth day of the waxing
moon. On this day women who have undergone to agonizing (extremely painful) fast pay
homage(oath) to various deities situated bank of sacred rivers. After holy bath in the rivers, they
use a piece of Dattiwan to sprinkle holy water all over their bodies three hundred sixty times.
After the bathing they conduct the worship.
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Migration: Meaning and Definitions
Migration
 Migration is generally defined as a geographical form of population movement involving change

of usual place of residence.
 It is a geographical mobility of a person of group from one place to another particularly with the
intension of permanent settlement.
 Lee, “Migration broadly considers it as a permanent or semi permanent change of residence with
no restrictions on the distance involved In movement”.
 The UN multilingual Dictionary, “Migration is a form of geographical mobility between one

geographical unit and another, generally involving a change in residence from the place of origin
or place of departure to the place of destination or place of arrival.”
 Bouge, “Migration to only those changes of residence that involve the complete change and
readjustment of community affliction of the individuals.”
Causes of Migration
A. Push factors
 No possibility of economic improvement
 Lack of peace and security
 Situation of poverty
 Lack of physical infrastructure
 No opportunities of education, health, employment etc
 Lack of fertile land
 Slow or no development of market and lack of appropriate environment for investment
B. Pull Factors
 Possibility of economic improvement
 Provision of education, health, employment opportunities, technical education etc.
 Good provision of peace and security
 Attraction of friends and relatives
 Fertile land
 Development of physical infrastructure
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 Provision of market
 Opportunities of business
 Appropriate environment of investment
Types of Migration
A. Internal migration: - Internal migration is associated with change of usual place of residence within
the national boundary.
 Hill to Terai migration
 Rural to urban migration
 Rural to rural migration
 Urban to urban migration
B. International Migration
 Emigration/ Out migration
 Immigration/ In migration
Consequences of Migration
A. Positive consequences
 Improvement in economic condition
 Increasement of individual achievement
 Cultural change
 Growth in social prestige
 Creation of cultural syncretism
B. Negative Consequences
 Decrease in social prestige, norms and values
 Separation from relatives, family and ethnicity
 Less sense of social security
 Imbalance distribution of population
 Pressure on physical infrastructure in destination place
 Different type of social problems arises
 Uneven distribution of population.
Historical Trend of Migration
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 Historical trend of Internal Migration: - Historically Nepal has witnessed three distinct trends of
internal migration.
 The first wave of internal migration came during the unification of Nepal by King Prithivi
Narayan Shah and his successors until the early eighteen century. Internal migration in this
period was mainly under the compulsory labour services imposed by the then rulers, called
Jhara labour, in which youths were used for different purposes such as transport of military and
other supplies, construction of temples, palaces, bridges, forts, etc. Jhara labour was a kind of
forced and generally unpaid labour.
 Jhara labourers were frequently required to leave their villages to provide services in distant
communities.
 The second Trend of internal migration emerged in the mid-50s with the implementation of the
state sponsored resettlement programme of hill people to Tarai. The main objective of the
resettlement programme was land colonisation of Tarai and increased agricultural production.
 Launched by Rapti Valley Development Project (RVDP) and Nepal Resettlement Company (NRC),
the resettlement programme continued until the late 80s in Chitwan and Nawalparasi. Many hill
migrants who could not receive land under the project also encroached upon forest land of
Chitwan, Nawalparasi and Rupendehi. Under the RVDP, 5,233 households were settled in Rapti
Valley of Chitwan.
 In addition, an estimated 7,000 families settled spontaneously each year in the Tarai region. NRC
settled 1,504 families in Nawalparasi and there were more than 10,000 spontaneous
settlements. Likewise, as of early 1988, the NRC settled 4,026 migrants under the Dhanewa
project.
 The Third Trend of internal migration emerged with the socio-economic transformation of the
country. With the advent of democracy in 1951, the country embarked upon planned economic
development of the country. This required increasing investment in various sectors of the
economy, such as expansion of roads and transport, development of agriculture, health,
education, and industrial development.
 It can be inferred that people from less developed areas started migrating to more developed
areas, especially to areas where there was better infrastructure and economic opportunities.
After the restoration of democracy in 1991, the country witnessed a rapid increase in the
volume of internal migrants.
 The Third Trend of internal migration emerged with the socio-economic transformation of the
country. With the advent of democracy in 1951, the country embarked upon planned economic
development of the country. This required increasing investment in various sectors of the
economy, such as expansion of roads and transport, development of agriculture, health,
education, and industrial development.
Trends in life-time migration
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 A person is a lifetime migrant whose current area of residence is different from his area of birth,
regardless of intervening migrations.
 In Nepal, the 1961 census collected data on internal migration for the first time. The volume of
lifetime migrants in Nepal for the last 50 year period from 1961-2011 by districts, and 3
ecological zones. There were 422,402 inter-district lifetime migrants in 1961, which increased to
3,788,049 in 2011.
 This shows nearly a nine-fold increase in the number of inter-district migrants during 1961-2011
in Nepal. The 1971 census counted a total of 506,925 inter-regional migrants, which, with an
increase of 5.2 fold reached 2,654,047 in 2011. During the same period, the number of inter-
zonal life-time migrants increased by 4.7% from 445,128 in 1971 to 2,088,170 in 2011. The inter-
district lifetime migration line rises slowly until 1991 and then gets stepper thereafter, implying
a more rapid increase in the number of lifetime migrants after 1991.
Rural-urban Migration
 From the 2001 census data has indicated that, in Nepal, the major streams of internal migration
are rural-to rural (68.2%) and rural-to-urban (25.5%).
 Urban-to-urban (2.8%) and urban-to-rural (3.5) are of lesser importance. The 2011 census also
shows that rural-to-rural migration still predominates over other streams.
 But compared to the 2001 census, there has been a noticeable decline in the proportion of
migrants who move from rural to rural areas (68% in 2001 to 59% in 2011) in 2011, with a
corresponding increase in the proportion who move from rural to urban areas (25.5% in 2001 to
33.5% in 2011).
 The 2011 census further reveals that of the total migrants who originated from the rural areas of
mountain and hill districts, more than 60% went to rural areas of other districts in other regions
.
 As compared to other regions, the predominance of rural-to-rural migration stream was

exceptionally high in mountain region (89%) in 2001. Tarai experienced a significant reduction in
the scale of rural-to-rural migration stream during 2001-2011 (78% in 2001 and 50% in 2011).
Hill region, on the contrary, shows an apparent increase in the scale of rural-to-rural migration
stream (52% in 2001 and 62% in 2011).
International Migration
 International migration in Nepal started with the recruitment of physically strong youth by the
British Army.
 Later on it became a “Lahure” culture, that is, In the 19th Century, Nepali (Gurkhas) were
recruited to serve in the British Army and British India, while recently, during the latter part of
the 1990s, Nepali began to migrate increasingly to the Gulf countries for work.
 Recently, Nepal has observed a rapid increase of absent population over census periods.
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 In the 2001 census, 762,181 persons were reported to be absent. The figure went up to
1,921,494, more than doubled in 2011.
 The emigration rate for 2011 is estimated at 10.77 per thousand populations, whereas the
immigration rate for the same period stands at 0.46 per thousand populations.
 The 2011 census recorded households with absent populations. The data revealed that, one in
every four households (25.42%; 1.38 million households) reported that at least one member of
their household was absent or living out of the country.
 The percentage of absent population going to India sharply decreased in 2011, from 77% in 2001
to 38% in 2011. However, the volume of absent population going to India has increased, from
589,050 in 2001 to 722,256 in 2011, which is an increment of 1.2%.
 One of the reasons for the dramatic percentage decrease is the growing number of youths
tending to go to other countries.
 Among the total absentees in India, 605,869 (83.9%) were males whereas 116,362 (16.1%) were
females.
 While more males (75.4%) were destined for private jobs, almost one third (32.2%) of female
absentees were found to be dependents. Proportionately more females (14.2%) were found to
go abroad to study than males (5.8%).
Trend of foreign born population in Nepal
 Information on both foreign-born populations and foreign citizens are available from the 1961
census. The figures collected so far by the various censuses of Nepal indicate a fluctuating trend.
 Whereas initially in 1961, the percentage of foreign born population of the total population was
nearly 4%, it decreased to 1.6% in 1981, before increasing to 2.4% in 1991, 2.7% in 2001 and
1.8% in 2011.
 Immigration is largely dominated by persons whose birthplace is India, over 90% as recorded in
every census.
 In 1961, 324,159 of the foreign born population were from India. This figure increased to
449,149 in 2011, 94% of the total foreign-born population.
 This heavy domination is due to the open border between Nepal and India and the official and
non-official social, cultural and economic ties that have prevailed between these countries
historically.
 The majority of the foreign-born population stay in Nepal for more than a decade (54%),
followed by 1-5 years (17.3%) and 6-10 years (14.7%). Fewer males (47.7%) tend to live in Nepal
more than 10 years than females (56.6%), which indicates that marriage is the main reason for
staying in Nepal for females.
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Implication on business, economy and work culture
Implication
 Any knowledge without implication can not survive.
 Knowledge about the society, people and culture can be implicate in various sector of business,
economy and work culture.
 Especially the knowledge of people, society and culture can be use in formulation of plan,
policies and strategies of business, and economy in society.
 Max Weber is of that ethics of religion and economy has direct link to each other.
 He further says that the doctrine of religion is directly of indirectly related to the economic
development of society.
 Emile Durkheim takes religion as the binding force of society which increases the chance of
development in society.
 Knowledge regarding to the people, society and culture can be implicate on the business,
economy and work culture. Knowledge of the people, society and culture helps to the
formulation of appropriate plan and policy regarding to the development of business and
economy.
 There are several individuals from the several religions group who are involving in the work in a
company. In this context, the knowledge about the various religion can help in the unity of
workers.
 If the owner of a company is sincere about the religions of workers and addresses their religious
needs, every activities of company can be effective.
 The knowledge of religion can also be implicate in the development of work culture. For
example the concept of artha in Hinduism certainly motivates individual to be laborious in their
activities to fulfill their responsibility towards nation, ancestors, family and others.
 There are various cultural and site heritage in Nepal. The proper development and protection as
well as advertisement of such place helps to the development of cultural tourism which
contributes to the national economy. Such places become the source of national as well as
individual income in Nepali society.
 The knowledge about the migration, causes, consequences as well as trends can also be use in
the development of business, economy and work culture. Especially this knowledge can be
implicate in formulating plan, policy and strategy regarding to the business and economy in the
society.
 The knowledge about the Nepali festivals can be implicate in the production of the goods and
services which are related to festivals and religion which contribute to the development of
national economy.
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Unit III
Nepalese Economy
Meaning of Economy
• The most crucial business for a society is to maintain the different needs of members.
• There must be the provision of food, shelter, clothing, health, education etc in society. Those
provisions are not possible without production function.
• Activities which are related to production is called economy in society.
• Thus economy is the system of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of goods and
services in society.
• Man is not only a social being, s/he also an economic being. S/he is engaged in some economic
activities. These activities are so multifaceted, varied and complex that they constitute what is
known as an economy.
• It may be treated as a system. It fulfills the basic functional necessities of social system.
• The economy of society evolves out from various regulations adopted by the society for providing
stability to it production, distribution, and other economic variables.
• Every nation has its own type of economy based on the specific policy of political economy.
Nepalese Economy
• Nepal remains as one of the least developed country where more than 25 % people are below the
poverty line.
• Nepalese economy, despite presence of great opportunities for higher growth rate through
development of potential sectors of the economy including agriculture, tourism, forestry, mines,
and human resources, has been perpetually bearing the challenge of low economic growth rate.
• Nepal is facing low economic growth rate and wide spread poverty though out the country.
• Since the restoration of democracy, the government of Nepal have been directing its efforts
towards the acceleration of economic growth as well as elimination of absolute poverty. The
international community and international and national non governmental organizations have
also been providing the contributions for the economic growth of the country.
• International aid constitute a significant portion of in Nepal’s annual budget and development
plans but Nepal has low economic growth.
• The major characteristics of Nepalese economy are as follows:
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Characteristics of Nepalese Economy
• General poverty and low per capita income-: The majority of people in Nepal posses' low level of
income because of their extremely low level of production. Poverty is reflected in very low PCI as
compared with that of developed countries. Despite the fact Nepal has low PCI and its poverty is
reflected in low standard of living and consumption.
• Unutilized natural resources-: Natural resources in Nepal are either unutilized or underutilized.
In fact, Nepal is not poor in natural resources like land, water, minerals, forest, but they are not
properly utilized. Underutilization of natural resources is mainly due to our inaccessibility, scarcity
of capital, primitive technology and limited market.
• Lack of capital-: Nepal is suffering from chronic shortage of capital which is largely responsible for
low per capita income in economy. Deficiency of capital is common characteristic which is both a
cause and an effect of poverty. It enlarges the dependence on foreign capital. It finally discards
the development of agriculture, industry, and social services. Thus, the economy remains in
primitive stage.
• Excessive dependency on agriculture-: Nepal is pre-dominantly agricultural and primary goods

producer. In other words, 66 percent of its population is engaged directly or indirectly in
agricultural occupation. Since agricultural work is carried out with primitive technology, the
production is not satisfactory. It is clear that pre-dominance of agriculture is the natural condition
and this one sided distribution of population is not conductive to economic development.
• Foreign trade orientation-: It has been noticed that Nepalese economy is foreign trade oriented.
It is replaced by its dependence on production of few primary goods. The ratio of import and
export is imbalance. Heavy dependence on import has totally crippled the growth and
development of Nepalese economy.
• Existence of under-employed and disguised unemployment-: The Nepalese economy is generally

characterized by the existence of underemployment and disguised employment. Disguised
unemployment is confined to the agricultural sector and it is the result of excessive pressure of
population on agriculture and land. It creates a situation in which it becomes difficult to identify
any person as unemployed or underemployed in the family.
• Dualistic economy-: The economy of Nepal is dualistic in the sense that that is composed of
market and subsistence. The market economy is found in the urban areas while the subsistence
economy is found in rural sector. The subsistence sector is totally primitive and back warded and
does not contribute to the growth and development of market economy.
• Technological backwardness-: Nepal is backward backward in the level and character of

economic performance. So, primitive technology resulting in high labor productivity cost and low
per capita income. Technical backwardness is regarded as a crucial factor in the lack of progress
and development of Nepalese economy.
• Lack of infrastructure-: Nepal is recognized by the fact that it lacks infrastructure needed for the
proper growth and development of economy. The means of transportation and communication
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are not totally developed and the power generation is insufficient to meet the growing need of
the economy.
• Economic backwardness-: Economic organization plays a vital role for the economic development
of Nepal. Since economic backwardness has been a regular feature, the economic feature and
financial institutions are not developed. There is a lack of integration among different parts
market and the money rates needed for international trade.
• Disparity in wealth and income distribution-: An important feature of Nepalese economy is a

disparity in income and wealth distribution. The elite group seems influencing the decision making
level in different sector. As such are major share of government wealth does not go to the
personal betterment rather than the social welfare and benefit.
Market Economy/ Capitalistic Economy
• The market, without the interference of state, organizes and manages the economic activities on
the basis of open market policy is called market economy. There is no control of government of
state on the market or private sector for the economic growth.
• By entering the global scenario, one can widen its production procedures and by exporting the
goods and services in the domestic and foreign market.
• The market economy depends upon the policy like liberalization, economic globalization, and
privatization. The non-intervention policy from the state inspires the private sectors to actively
participate in the process of economic development. Because of extreme competition the
standards of commodities are maintained and the price is kept under strict control.
• In the market economy, large number of production houses makes it easier for the consumers to
get the things in relatively cheap price and also the individuals can be motivated to their passive
capital for the production system which results in the proper mobilization of natural resources.
• This help in accumulation of capital, which can be better utilized for the national development.
Thus, in developing country like Nepal, market-led development strategy is appropriate because
it creates a lot of employment opportunities and offers maximum choices of goals for individual
satisfaction.
• Market is an important aspect of market economy. Market economy is based on the investment
of capital and accumulation of capital by private sector or individuals who then became the
owners of means of production and distribution of goods and services.
• Profit oriented system:- The first and chief feature of market economy is profit oriented system.
The chief goal of investment from the private sector is to earn profit. Profitable programs are
given high priority rather than welfare oriented plan and policies. Private sectors do not invest in
the sector of social welfare in the society.
• Private ownership and Entrepreneurship:- Market economy is conducted by the market

mechanism. One of the most important features of this economy is private ownership over the
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means of production. It creates situation individual entrepreneurship. Individuals have the

ownership of means of production and there is less probability of intervention by the state. There
is the feeling of investment and earning profit which helps to individual entrepreneurship and
personal entrepreneurship help in the growth of national production.
• Pressure groups and collective bargaining process:- There are different pressure groups such as
political parties, consumer group and stake-holder who bargains on the determining the price and
quality of goods and services in the market economy.
• Competitive, liberal and open economic system:- There is the condition of competition in the
market economy. State becomes liberal on the market. Market is open in this economy . Different
investor can invest in the similar field. So, there is competition as well as liberal aspect in the open
economic system.
• Government works as facilitator:- The government creates the environment for investment in
every field and it does not interfere in investment of private sector. There are not any hindrances
for the production of goods, investment, distribution and consumption in the Market .
• Price Mechanism:- In market economy, price is determined by the balance of demand and supply
of goods and services.
Market economy in Nepal
• In Nepal Market economy is exercised after the Structural adjustment program (SAP) of 1985 AD.
• Nepal has adopted the economic liberalization under the structural adjustment program (SAP)
• The concept of privatization which is key policy of market economy in Nepal first initiated in 2042
B.S. but it could not be fully successful because political instability that was seen between 2036
B.S. to 2046 B.S.
• With the beginning of multiparty democracy in Nepal and certain changes in the constitution did
not provide favorable situation for the development of the concept of privatization.
• But soon, it was realized by the democratic government that without the inclusion or involvement
of private sector, the target of economic development cannot be successfully achieved.
Institutionally, privatization began from the 6th five year plan. Especially the government of Nepali
congress started the policy of Market economy.
• The 6th five year plan once again implemented the concept of privatization in Nepal but the real
effort began with the 7th five year plan. Almost all the major commercial establishment of Nepal
are either privatized or are in the process of privatization with in short period of time, the ratio of
privatization in has increased from 20% to 60%.
• This is largely because of passing of privatization act in 2050 B.S.
• At present, more than big and small companies are privatized in Nepal. Some privatized
companies are, Bhrikuti paper factory, Bansbari leather shoes company, Harisiddi Brick industry,
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Nepal film development industry, Nepal lube oil corporation, Balaju clothes industry, Nepal Bank
Limited, Bhaktapur brick industry etc.
Planned Economy
• Planned economy is also known as socialistic economy. In this model of economic development
state plays important role in the development of the country and Government controls, manages,
mobilizes, and regulates the economy through the planned process of development.
• Generally, planned economy is related socialism and socialism is an economic and political system
based on the state ownership.
• In Planned economy State operates the means of production and distribution channels. It, usually,
includes rational social planning to achieve desire goals.
• The term used with the wide range of meaning e.g. some writers regard socialism as democratic
system and distinguish it from communism where as the other socialism with communism.
• Planned economy is the strategy of development in which the state makes definite direction,
plays a leading role to attain a higher level of growth of development with proper justice in terms
of reducing poverty, unemployment problem, and low productivity in the condition and quality
of people.
• In planned economy, the means of production are under the direct control of the state. The state
executes its policies through the proper central planning. What, why, how, and when to produce
the goods and services is totally determine by the state.
• In planned economy government formulates short-term, midterm and long-term plan for
economic development.
• In this economy, land, capital, labor, organizations, industries, and resources etc. get equal
importance in society. There is a public ownership over the means of production and state
operates those means of production. The total production system is based on help, cooperation
and necessity rather than competitions.
• The life of people, wealth and production are under the direct control of state in socialistic mode
of production.
• After the Russian Revolution the socialistic Planned economy was implemented. At present, The
Republic of North Korea, Cuba, China, etc are strongly following this planned economy.
Characteristics of Planned Economy
• Means of production are publicly owned and state controls, regulates, mobilizes and distributes
means of production.
• State adopts the planned process of economic as well as social development.
• Objectives of production is social welfare rather than profit making.
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• In this economy production is based on the needs and demands of society.
• Government determines the objective of the development.
• Government controls the price and quality of goods and service in society.
• Government formulates plan, policies and strategies in this economy.
Brief history of planned economy in Nepal
• The history of planned economy is not long in Nepal.
• First plan of planned development was declared in 1990 B.S. during the rule of Juddha Shamser.
This plan was 20 years plan but it was not implemented.
• Similarly Prime minister Mohan Shamser brought 15 years plan but it was also not implemented.
• The institutional effort of planned development was begun from 2013 B.S.
• First five year plan (2013-2018 B.S.) has aimed the objective of increment in production,
increment of employment opportunities, provide equal opportunity up-liftment of living standard
to all people, establishment of institution to conduct developmental activities etc.
• This plan allocated 33 corer to achieve the objectives of plan. But only 65% rupees were invested
during the time of plan. The plan was given first priority to the transportation and communication.
Agriculture and rural development was in second priority.
• From the first to eighth five year plan the main objective of planning was to increase production
directly or indirectly.
• From the ninth five year plan the objective plan is the poverty alleviation directly or indirectly.
Mixed Economy
• Mixed economy is an economic system that combines the characteristics of both planned
economy and market economy. In other words combined set of market economy and planned
economy is known as the mixed economy.
• It benefits from the advantages of all the component economy of the mixed economy.
• According to Collin’s Dictionary of sociology, ‘Mixed economy is an economic system which

combines two or more contrasting forms of economic decision making, especially the
combination of market principles and state interventions”
• In this economy the role of government in other area depends on the priorities of the citizens.
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• Mixed economy protects private property, allows the free market in the country, protects the law
of demand and supply to determine the price and quality of goods and services and it is driven by
the motivation of the self-interest of individuals. These characteristics are related to the market
economy.
• Especially mixed economy adopts the characteristics of planned economy in strategic , plan and
decision making areas. State becomes the safeguard of people’s life and wealth. The state plays
crucial role in the military, international trade, national transportation and social welfare sector.
• In mixed economy, the state makes the central plan that guides the economy of the country.
Government manages certain areas of economy and other areas especially production sector is
run by the private sector in the society.
Characteristics of Mixed economy
• Co-existence of public and private sectors: - In mixed economy, public sector and private sector
are run in juxtapositional way in society. Governments makes the plan and policies to run the
economy of the country. On the other hand, private sector is free to invest their capital in the
open market.
• Central economic planning: - In mixed economy there is central planning regarding to the
economic development of the country in the society. The government makes certain plan about
the economy of the country. Private sector conforms the rule and regulation laid down by the
government of the state.
• Promotion of both social welfare and profit : - In mixed economy state works all the activities in
the social welfare sector and private sectors increases the production of goods and service
through the motivational factor of profit. In this economy state becomes the parent of all people
of the country. State formulates certain rules regarding to the welfare of the country and its
people. And private sector also takes parts in the social welfare activities.
• Price mechanism: - In mixed economy, state allows the law of demand and supply to determine
the price of goods and services. Sometimes state interfere the market to determine the price and
quality of goods and services.
• Regulation and control on the market: - In mixed economy state does not provide total freedom
to market in the economic activities in the society. It sets the certain rule and regulations to
control the economic activities of the market in the society.
Advantages of Mixed economy
• It secures both rapid growth rate and social welfare in the country.
• There is the environment of healthy competitions in the production of goods and services in the
society.
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• Economic and social development is possible in the mixed economy.
• Mixed economy minimizes the disadvantage of a market economy.
• A mixed economy has all the advantages of market economy. First it distributes goods and
services to where they are most needed.
• It allows prices to measure supply and demand.
• It encourages innovation to meet customer needs more creatively and effectively
• Individuals can invest the capital in more business and production of goods and services because
it allocates capital to the most innovative producers.
• Government fulfills the basic needs of individual in the society.
Disadvantage of Mixed economy
• The defense industry could become the government subsidized monopoly. That can slow down
the economic growth in the long run.
• Successful business company can lobby the government for more subsidies and reduction of tax.
• There is the possibility of creation of conflict between private sector and public sector.
• There is the possibility of corruption due to the role of both government and private sector.
• There is the possibility of unfair competition between government and private business company.
• Delay in decision making by the government due to the intervention of private sector on the
government decision.
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What is Development?
• Development is a process of social change. It is the most valued and perhaps the most imprecise
concept. It only acquires a more appropriate meaning when it makes a reference for theories,
contexts, problem and policies concerning to the developing and least developed countries. It is
the multi dimensional process of social change felt by people and they change their general state
of life into qualitative state.
• It is a condition where a society has high per capita income, provision of education and health
services, employment opportunities, availability of physical infrastructure, equal access of people
in decision making level etc. In other words, development is a process of establishing the unified,
self-reliant, civilized, well cultured and prosperous society.
• Development can be defined as a process of social change. The terms development and social
change are interrelated concepts. Social change is possible only through developmental activities.
• Development activities such as construction of physical infrastructure, increase in PCI, GDP and
GNP, provision of employment opportunities, protection of human rights, formation of national
assets, eradication of absolute poverty etc. result or change society into new and complex forms
of social structure.
• Michael Todaro "Development is a multidimensional process involving changes in structure,

attitudes, and institutions as well as the acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of
inequality, and eradication of absolute poverty."
• David Korten, "Development is a process by which the members of a society increase their
personal and institutional capacities to mobilize and manage resources to produce sustainable
and just distributed improvement in their quality of life."
• Hugo Slim, "Development is not a commodity to be weighted and measured by GNP statistics. It
is a process of change that enables to take change of their own destinies and realize their full
potential. It requires building up in people the confidence, skill, assets and freedom necessary to
achieve this goal."
• We conclude that development is a process of change which results in increased economic

productivity and prosperity and new and more complex form of social structure. It can be taken
as an attack on the chief social problems of modern societies such as malnutrition, disease, slums,
unemployment, inequality, racial and regional discrimination, poverty, low economic growth etc.
• It is a multidimensional process of social change. It is a positive structural and institutional change

as well as transformation of human life to qualitative state. Thus, it is a process of changing
integrated, well-cultured, civilized, self reliant and equitable society.
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Indicators of Development
A) Qualitative indicators
• High per capita income
• Increase in gross national product (GNP)
• Balance in export and import
• Availability of physical infrastructure such as road, electricity, schools, transportations, means of

communications etc.
• Establishment of commercial institutions
• Establishment of industries
• Plenty of natural resources
• Low agricultural dependency
• Use of modern tools and technologies
• Development and use of natural resources
• High economic growth rate
B) Qualitative indicators
• Low level of poverty
• Personal freedom
• Provision of human rights
• Good people's health
• High literacy rate and vocational training
• National unity
• Independent judiciary
• Sense of security
• Creative opportunities
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• sense of security
• Peace and harmony in society
Human Development
• Human development is a process of enlarging peoples choices. Principally, these choices can be
infinite and changeable over time. But these three are essential one;
 To live long and healthy life,
 To acquire knowledge, and
 To have access to resources needed for a descent standard of living.
 Human development is about acquiring more capabilities and enjoying more opportunities to use
those capabilities. With more capabilities and opportunities, people have more choices, and
expanding choices is at the core of the human development approach. But human development
is also a process. Anchored in human rights, it is linked to human security. And its ultimate
objective is to enlarge human freedoms.
 Human development is development of the people through the building of human resources, for
the people through the translation of development benefits in their lives and by the people
through active participation in the processes that influence and shape their lives. Income is a
means to human development but not an end in itself.
 This concept human development, as post modern concept of development, was introduced on
24th may of 1990 by UNDP.
 Human development concerns more on formulation human capital. If these three chances are not
available, many opportunities remain inaccessible. But human development does not end here.
Additional choices highly valued by many people ranges from political, economic, and social to
opportunities for being creative, productive, enjoying personal freedom, self respect and
generated human right.
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Nepal’s status in Human Development
Years HDI HDI Ranking
1990 0.378 120
2010 0.529 146
2011 0.538 145
2012 0.545 145
2013 0.551 145
2014 0.555 145
2015 0.558 144
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Human Development Index and its components
Country Human Life Expect Mean Gross Ra

Developm expecta ed years natio nk
ent ncy years nal
of
incom
Index at birth of schooli
e
(HDI) schooli ng
ng (GNI)
per
capita
Norway 0.949 81.7 17.7 12.7 67,61 1

4
Australi 0.939 82.5 20.4 13.2 42,82 2

a 2
witzerla 0.939 83.1 16.0 13.4 56,36 3

nd 4
Nepal 0.558 70.0 12.2 4.1 2337 14

4
Chad 0.396 51.9 7.3 2.3 1,991 18

6
Niger 0.353 61.9 5.4 1.7 889 18

7
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Central 0.352 51.5 7.1 4.2 587 18

African 8
Republi
c
Human development : Achievement and Challenges
• The levels of human development have improved all over the world. Every developing region’s
HDI value increased considerably between 1990 and 2015, although progress has been slowing
since 2010 . This reflects important advances not only in income, but also in health and education.
Between 1990 and 2015 the aggregate HDI value of the least developed countries increased 46
percent, and the aggregate HDI value for low human development countries increased 40 percent.
Reduced poverty and hunger: - The global extreme poverty rate ($1.90 a day) was estimated at less
than 11 percent in 2013, a drop of more than two-thirds from the 35 percent in 1990.
• The decrease has been particularly remarkable in East Asia and the Pacific, where the proportion
of people living on less than $1.90 a day fell from 60.2 percent in 1990 to 3.5 percent in 2013, and
in South Asia, where the proportion fell from 44.6 percent to 15 percent.
• The working poor, who work and live on less than $1.90 a day, accounted for 10 percent of
workers worldwide in 2015, nearly two-thirds less than in 2000. The global population suffering
from hunger declined from 15 percent in 2000–2002 to 11 percent in 2014–2016.
• Decreased mortality : - The global under-five mortality rate was more than halved between 1990
and 2015. While children in the poorest households are far less likely to survive to their fifth
birthdays, the mortality rate is declining faster for children in poor households than for other
children.
• Maternal mortality rates have also declined considerably since 1990: 45 percent globally and 64
percent in South Asia, as of 2013. Access to professional health care has improved: in 2014 more
than 71 percent of births worldwide were attended by skilled health personnel, up from 59
percent in 1990.
• Improved access to basic social services: - Access to basic social services has been greatly
expanded worldwide. Between 1990 and 2015, 2.1 billion people gained access to improved
sanitation, halving the number of people resorting to open defecation, a major source of
transmittable diseases.
• Improved environmental sustainability: - Environmental protection, which has become a key

global issue, has shown encouraging successes as well. The degradation of the ozone layer, a
major concern in the 1990s, has been halted, and by 2050 the ozone layer will have fully recovered
from the damages caused by ozone-depleting substances.
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• Increased people’s participation: - People’s participation in public and political life, another
essential aspect of human development, has also improved over the past 25 years. The average
share of parliamentary seats held by women worldwide rose from 11 percent in 1995 to 22
percent in 2015, and two-thirds of developing countries have achieved gender parity in primary
education, allowing girls and women to better voice their concerns and interests.
Poverty
Meaning
• Poverty is a condition of individuals in which their income is so low that they are unable to feed
or provide shelter themselves and their families.
• Poverty is also an inability to earn sufficient income to arrange two square meals a day for
him/herself and his/her family members.
• A person who have less than $1.90 daily income is called poor and his/her condition is poverty.
• More than twenty three percent of population live below the poverty line.
• Poverty should also be measured in terms of deprivation.
• Poverty can be measurement in terms of longevity, knowledge and descent standard of living.
• World Bank, “ Poverty is more than inadequate income or human development- it is also
vulnerability and a lack of voice, power, and representation.”
Types of Poverty
• Absolute poverty: - Absolute poverty is a condition in which individuals face the severe poverty.
They are deprived from the fulfillment of basic needs such food, shelter, safe drinking water,
general health, education etc.
• Todaro and Smith, ‘Absolute poverty is meant to represent a specific minimum level of income
needed to satisfy the basic needs of food, clothing, and shelter to maintain minimum level of
living.”
• Relative poverty: - Relative poverty is a condition of people in which people fulfill their basic needs
but they cannot fulfill all their desires and they feel inferior or poor in comparison with others.
• Mahabub Haq, “ The relative poor are those whose average income is less than one third of the
national average.”
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Causes of poverty
• Social causes: Customs, caste division, customs, dowry, rituals, traditions death rituals.
• Economic causes: Unemployment, low wages, low agricultural productivity, Unequal land
distribution, loan etc.
• Political causes: Governmental policies, decision, Unequal development which helped to

migration etc.
• Natural causes: Flood, drought, earthquake, epidemic etc.
• Physical causes: Disease, illness, physically handicapped, accident, death of earning member,
alcoholism and drug abduction.
• Illiteracy: Ignorance, Lack of consciousness, do not find employment, unskilled manpower etc.
Status of poverty in Nepal
• Poverty alleviation is also one of the major liabilities of the government. Periodic plans based
poverty alleviation related activities that are in operation have been founded on policies and
strategies targeted at reduction of human poverty and exclusionary conditions by ensuring good
governance.
• According to economic survey of 2074/75 BS, population living below absolute poverty line is 21.6
percent.
• Similarly, according to multidimensional measure of poverty 28.8 percent Nepali are poor in
multidimensional form.
• Karnali province has highest multidimensional poverty and Province no 3 has lowest
multidimensional poverty.
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Status of Multidimensional Poverty in Nepal
Description MPI
National Level 0.127
Province No 1 0.085
Province No 2 0.217
Province No 3 0.051
Province No 4 0.061
Province No 5 0.133
Karnali Province 0.230
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Province No 7 0.146
• Recently poor household identification survey has been conducted in 26 districts. 12,24,417
household were analyzed in that survey. Out of them 3,91,831 household were identified as the
poor household. Out of them 1,88,235 households were identified as a highly poor, 1,19,748 were
Medium poor and 83,848 household were under the General poverty.
Agriculture
• Agriculture refers to the production of food and livestock by using the land and forest.
• Nepalese economy is based on agriculture. It is predominantly an agricultural country. Thus, the

role of agriculture in economic development of country cannot be underestimated.
Features of Nepalese Agriculture
• Subsistence oriented agriculture.
• Dominace of food production rather than cash crops
• Dual ownership of Land
• Traditional technology based agriculture.
• Monsoon Based agriculture
• Low productivity etc.
• Inadequate investment from the governmental and private sectors
• Small size of land holding
• Primitive organizations etc.
Status of Nepali agriculture
• According to economic survey 2074/75 Agriculture contribution in GDP was 28.8 in the fiscal year
2073/2074.
• Annual growth rate of agricultural sector will be 2.27 percent in the current fiscal years.
• From two decades the growth of Nepali agricultural production is 3.2 percent per year.
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• According to economic survey 2074/75 Agriculture contribution in GDP was 28.8 in the fiscal year
2073/2074.
• Annual growth rate of agricultural sector will be 2.27 percent in the current fiscal years.
• From two decades the growth of Nepali agricultural production is 3.2 percent per year.
• The production of food grains (paddy, wheat, maize, millet, barley etc ) in Nepal was estimated to
drop by 6.2 percent to 869.2 thousand MT in current fiscal year 2015/16 which is 574 thousand
MT less than the production of 926.6 thousand metric ton of the previous fiscal year.
Food crops 2013/14 2014/15 Area
Rice 5047.1 4788.8 1425.4
Maize 2283 2245.3 882.4
Wheat 1883 1975.6 762.4
Barley 35 37.4 28.1
Millet 304 308.5 268.1
Buckwheat 10.5 10.8 1.5
Total 9562.6 9366.4 3387.9
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Status of Cash crops
Description 2013/14 2014/14 Area
Sugarcane 3020 3063 66.6
Oilseed 184 194.54 217.22
Tobacco 2.2 2.23 1.72
Potato 2817.51 2842 190.23
Jute 15.75 16.53 11.4
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Other production
Other crops 2013/14 2014/15
Pulses 2817.51 2842
Fruits 965.04 1186.37
Vegetable 3472.06 3629
Total 7254.62 7657.37
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Livestock production
Description 2013/14 2014/15
Milk and Milk product 170 172.48
Meat 298.24 300.90
Egg (in Million) 872.92 899.50
Fish 65.77 69.4
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Role of Agriculture in Economic development
• Source of Livelihood: - It is the source of livelihood of Nepali society. Most of Nepalese people are
dependent on agriculture for their income and employment. It has provided employment to more
than 66 percent of the labour force.
• Source of Food: - Agriculture is the main source of food for Nepali people. It supplies food for
growing population.
• Source of National income: - In Nepal, agriculture is the source of national income. The agricultural
sector contributed 28.8 percent annually to GDP of the country.
• Source of raw material: - Agriculture helps to the industrialization of the country. It provides raw
materials to the agricultural based industries. It supplies tobacco, tea, jute, grain, milk, skin, wool
etc to industries.
• Source of Foreign Trade: - The main basis of export in Nepal is the agriculture production. We
export mainly rice, jute, jute production, herbs, oilseed, Pulses etc .
• Source of Public revenue: - Agriculture is a source of public revenue in Nepal. Government

receives the registration and land revenue, revenue from the export of agricultural goods.
• Supports development of other sectors.
Challenges or problems In Agriculture
• Pressure of population on Land on Tarai district and lack of agricultural labor in Hilly region.
• Tradition technology
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• Inadequate irrigation facilities
• Extreme poverty
• Lack of market
• Land fragmentation
• Lack of storage facilities
• Lack of agricultural research
• Low productivity etc.
Secondary Sector Development

• Secondary sector in economy refers to the manufacturing economy which is responsible for the
production of final goods.
• The industrial development had begun very late in Nepal. The industrial development had started
with the establishment of industrial council in 1936 BS by enacting the company act 1936.
• The process of planned industrialization started with the launching of economic plan in 1956.
Many large-scale industries such as cigarettes, sugar, cement, leather,, brick, cotton, paper
industries were established in the public sector under foreign assistance.
• Juddha Match factory, Nepal plywood and Bobin company, Morang cotton Mills, Morang Sugar
Mill, Raghupati Jute Mill etc. were initially established industries in Nepal.
• Industries can be divided into Cottage, Medium and large industries.
• Easy to establish, Self employed opportunities, Basis of development of large industries, Use of
local resources, Preservation of art and culture, source of National income, source of national
income, source of foreign income etc are the major importance of cottage industries.
• Lack of capital, Deficiency of raw materials, problem of transport, Limited market, Illiteracy etc
are the major challenge of cottage industries in Nepal.
• Development of basic industries, Increase in the employment opportunity, Increase in the living
standard, increase in the public revenue, utilization of local resources, development of
agricultural sector etc are the importance of medium industries and large industries.
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• Lack of capital, Scarcity of raw material, small domestic market, Lack of managerial talent in local
level, Lack of physical infrastructure, etc are the major challenges in the sector medium industries
and large industries.
Industries registered from beginning to the first eight month of 2074/75
Scale No of Investment(Rs Fixed Proposed Employment

Industries in Corer) capital(Rs employment per industry
in corer)
Large 1001 134076 124470.6 146299 146

Industries
Medium 1624 14599 10005.8 151110 93

Industries
Small 4709 7642.7 4711.4 269625 57

Industries
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Total 7334 156317.7 139187.8 567074 77
Status of industries Province wise
Province Total industries Total Proposed

investment employment
Province No 1 673 34263.7 73610
Province No 2 491 8374.9 50246
Province No 3 4961 58602.4 345947
Province No 4 556 25930.2 32441
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Province No 5 508 15521.3 52965
Karnali 38 10981.7 2562
Province No 7 107 2643.3 9263
• According to the economic survey of 2074/75 out of total registered industries large industries
occupies 13.6 percent, Medium industries occupies 22.2 percent and Small and cottage industries
occupies 64.2 percent.
• On the basis of total investment in industries, large industries 85.8 percent, medium industries
9.3 percent and small industries 4.9 percent.
Contribution in National economy
• Industries provides 567074 employment opportunities in Nepal.
• This sector had recorded a growth of 6.2 percent in the fiscal year 2014/ 15 BS.
• The contribution of secondary sector to GDP at current price that stood at 17.0 % in the fiscal year
2001/02 has dropped 14.5 % in the current fiscal year.
• Significant contribution in GDP.
• Source of Employment
• Use of local raw materials
• Basis of economic development
• Mobilization and utilization of natural resources.
• Basis of export
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Tertiary sector of development

• The tertiary sector is known as the service sector or service industries.
• Especially it includes institutions who provide service to the people and receive certain amount
of incentives from the.
• The focus of tertiary sector is on the people interacting with one another and servicing the
customer rather than manufacturing the physical goods.
• It depends on intangible production or services.
• It includes retail, transportation, distribution, food services, and other service dominated
industries such as private school, college, hospital, hotel, etc.
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Contribution to National economy
Sectors Growth rate Contribution in GDP in

Percent
Tourism 2.1
Wholesale and retail trade 4.5 14.2
Transport, storage, and 2.6 8.4

Communication
Financial intermediation 2.9 5.0
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Real Estate and and 0.8 9.2

Business service
Public administration ans 5.4 2.6

defense
Health and Social work 10.5 1.8
Education 3.7 6.8
Others 5.6 4.3
Challenges of Secondary and Tertiary sectors
• Lack of Capital
• Technological Backwardness
• Lack of Market
• Presence of Multinational company
• Lack of energy supply
• Landlocked position of Nepal.
• Lack of natural resources
• Lack of proper infrastructure development
• Defective government policies
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• Bureaucratic procedure
• Political instability
• Lack of business environment
Tourism
• The people who travel from one place to another within country or beyond the country for
pleasure, adventure, spend holidays, pilgrimage etc are called tourist and the activities which are
associated with tourist and conducted systematically to earn profit is known as the tourism.
• It is the service oriented industries in the world and an important service industry in Nepal.
• Tourism sector is an important and major source of earning foreign currency in Nepal. It covers 7
% gross domestic production and 5. 5 people are directly or indirectly involved in tourism.
• Foreign currency equal to Rs58 Arab 52 corer and 70 lakh was earned in the fiscal year 2073/ 74
BS.
• Different national parks, Mountains and hills, cultural heritages, lake and water fall, religious
places are the major destination place in Nepal and attractions of for the foreign tourists.
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• Nepal has set a vision 2020 with a target to bring in 2 million tourists and create employment
opportunity to 1 million people by 2020 by developing Nepal as an attractive, recreational and
safe tourist destination in the world map by preserving and promoting natural, cultural, biological,
as well as man-made heritages of Nepal.
• To meet the targets of tourism sector, Nepal has set objectives such as building infrastructures,
creating favorable investment environment, enhancing local levels’ people’s capacity, exploring
and expanding potential tourists destinations, enhancing airports’ capacity and strengthening air
safety.
Tourist from other countries in 2017
S.N Country Percentage
1 India 17.2
2 China 11.1
3 America 8.4
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4 Britain 5.4
5 Srilanka 4.8
6 Others 53.2
Situation of Tourist in 2017
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Sales
India
17.10% China
11.10%
America
53.20% UK
8.40% Srilanka
5.40% Others
4.80%
• Lumbini is regarded as the major tourist destination of Nepal. In 2016, the total number of
tourist visiting Lumbini stood at 12 lakh 26 thousand and it was increased by 21 percent in 2017
and the number of visitor reached about 15 lakh 52 thousand and of this 12 lakh 51 thousand
were Nepalese, 1 lakh 55 thousand were Indian while 1 lakh 45 thousand tourists were from
other countries.
Scope
• Tourism is an important sector of economy of Nepal. There are various probability in tourism for
the economic development of the country. There are various places and culture that can attract
the tourists. There are a lot of possibilities of earning foreign currency through the development
of tourism as industry. Similarly thousands of foreigners come to Nepal for the religious purpose
as pilgrimage to visit different holy places.
• National parks such as sagarmataha and Chitwan national park, Hill and mountain, trekking,
religious tourism, various tangible and intangible cultural heritages, Attractive places for birds
and animals etc are important places in tourism.
The following are the major prospects of tourism in Nepal:
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• Climatic diversity
• Cultural diversity
• Beautiful natural places
• Mountain climbing
• Different religious places like Pashupati and Lumbini
• Sports tourism such as Haatti polo
• Eco tourism etc.
There are various scope of tourism in Nepal
• It is the major source of earning foreign currency and development of economy
• It creates the employment opportunities
• To develop the social awareness
• To contribute significantly in GDP of the country.
• To develop social relation with other countries.
Challenges in Tourism
• Lack of transportation
• Lack of conservation of different tangible and intangible cultural heritages
• Insufficient entertainment facilities in the country
• Lack of Hotel and Lodge in remote area.
• Security
• Lack of publicity of our cultural as well as natural property which are the matter of attraction to
the tourists.
• Lack of other physical infrastructure.
• Lack of organized tourist centre
• Lack of expert tourist guides
• Lack of sanitation of the tourist site etc.
Labour
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• The term labour refers to the effort of human beings to perform the activities of production of
goods and service. It includes both mental and physical effort.
• In Nepali society there are various types of labour: Domestic labour, Contractual labour, And
wage labour.
• Domestic labour: - It is related to domestic activities such as caring, cooking, nurturing, washing,
and cleaning houses. Especially women and children involved in these activities but they do not
get any value of labour in cash or they get minimum wage.
• Contractual labour: - It is a type of labour in Nepali society where two parties employee and
employers are agreed to produce things or services in certain condition. It is based on patron-
client relationship. It is also divided into: Jajamani system, Kamaiya, Haliya, and Lagi-lagitya.
• Wage labour: - It is a type of labour where wage is given in cash to the workers by the employer.
It is mostly found in industrial society. Generally, in this labour the value of labour is brought in
cash and wage is paid according to the nature of work and experience.
Employment status in Nepal
• According to the population structure of Nepal 512 Thousand individuals are added in labour
market of Nepal every year. There is a large gap between demand and supply of labor. The
growth of skilled manpower and creation of employment is not satisfactory. According to
economic survey 2074/75 More than 1,300 youths leave the country every day. Around about
4300 thousand foreign employees who left country from formal and informal means are
categorized as 1.5 percent skilled, 24 percent semi-skilled and 74.5 percent unskilled.
• According to latest labour survey the unemployment rate is 2 percent and semi-unemployment
rate is 30 percent.
Country-wise detail of Foreign Employment (current fiscal year firs eight month)
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Country Male Female Total
Quatar 66462 2634 69096
Malaysia 75325 2173 77498
Saudi Arab 28697 670 29367
UAE 35025 4374 39399
Kuwait 9100 924 10024
Baharain 3195 208 3403
Oman 1569 199 1768
Lebanon 10 3 13
Israel 25 58 83
Afghanistan 1018 1 1019
Japan 493 25 518
Others 7431 3724 11155
Total 228350 14993 243343
Challenges
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• Slow rate of internal employment opportunities
• Lack of Security in foreign employment
• Lower level utilization of remittance
• Low wages in internal employment
• Lack of diversification in employment opportunities.
• Unsatisfied growth of skilled manpower
• Lack of social security of laborer.
• Lack of proper policy and strategy of government to the labour sector etc .
Natural resources
• Natural resources are those naturally available goods and sources under the natural environment and human
acquire these goods to fulfill their needs. These are the free gift of nature to us. Forest resources, minerals,
water, wind, etc are the example of natural resources.
Types of natural resources

• Perpetual resources: - Natural resources which do not decreases even if they constantly used are known as
the perpetual resources. Solar energy, water, wind etc are the example of perpetual resources.
• Non-renewable resources: - the resources that cannot be regenerate after they are used are called non-
renewable resources. Petroleum, natural gas, minerals etc are the example of non-renewable natural
resources.
• Renewable resources: - the resource which can be renewed and regenerated with the human efforts during
the certain period of time are called renewable resources. Forest resources, water resources, etc are the clear
example of renewable resources.
Water resources
• Nepal is the second richest country of the world in water resources.
• Water sources of Nepal useful to irrigation, Ecological balance, drinking, and hydropower.
• Nepal has more than six thousand small as well as big river.
• Nepal is divided into three region Koshi, Karnali and Gandaki region.
• More than one thousand rivers are of 11 km long.
• About 100 rivers are of more than 160 km long.
• Probability of hydroelectricity is 83,000 Mega Watt.
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• Irrigation probability is 80 lakh Hector.

• Rivers of Nepal are divided into three class on the basis of flow of river, water reservation capacity and utility
The major hydropower projects
S/N Projects Capacity ( IN MW)
1 Kaligandaki A 144
2 Madhya 70
Marshyangdi
3 Kulekhani I 60
4 Marshyangdi 69
5 Kulekani II 32
6 Khimti 60
7 Bhotekoshi 36
8 Trishuli 24
9 Chilime 20
10 Gandak 15
Etc.
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• There are various hydropower projects which are under constructions. Some major hydropower projects are:
Upper Tamakoshi 456 MW, Chameliya 30MW, Upper Trishuli 3 “A’ 30 MW, etc.
• Current produced energy is 1044.6 MW in Nepal.
• First Class river:- Saptakoshi, Karnali, Gaandaki and some others are of first class rivers. These rivers are
started from the Himalaya. It has high probability hydroelectricity and irrigation.
• Second class river:- The rivers which are started from the Mahabharat hill and flows continue are known as
second class rivers. Mechi, Triyouga, Kamala, Bagmati, Tinahu, Rapti etc fall under this category.
• Third class river: Rivers which are started from the sivalik and chure are known as third class rivers. These
types of rivers depend monsoon for its smooth flow. For example sunsari khola falls under third class river.
Main rivers of Nepal

• Saptakoshi:- The rivers which is made from the different small and big rivers of are between Kanchanjanga
and Lamtang is known as saptakoshi river. Sunkoshi, Dudhkoshi, Arun, Tamakoshi, Indrawoti, Tamor and
Likhu are the main rivers which constitute saptakoshi. Out of seven rivers Arun is the bigest and Liku is the
smallest river. It is the largest river of Nepal. It has the capacity of irrigating 33000sq.km area.
• Saptagandki River:- Saptagandaki river is made from the seven river which are Kali Gandaki, Budhi Gandaki,
Seti Gandaki, Madee, Daraudin, Marsyngdi and Trishuli. It is the deepest river of Nepal. Kali Gandaki is the
biggest river and Trishuli is the smallest river of Saptagandaki. It is also known as Narayani river. Sapta
gandaki has irrigatinf capacity of 26000 sq. km. area
• Karnali:- Karnali is the longest river of Nepal. It is made from the Humal Karnali, Mugu Karnali, Thuli Bheri,
Sani Bheri, Seti, Tila and Budhi Ganga. It has 507 Km length. We can irrigate 49000 sq. km. by using this
river.
• Mechi River:- It is originated from the Lalikharka of Mahabharata range and flows the eastern part of Nepal.
It has 125 km length with the territory of Neapl.
• Kankai River:- It is originated in Chhintapu of Mahabharata range and flows in the eastern part of Nepal. It
has 108 Km Length.
• Bagmati River:- It falls under the central Nepal. The origin of this river is Bagdwar of Shivapuri lake of
Mahabharata range. It has 163Km length.
• Kamala River:- Kamala river Origins from Chure range of suthern Sindhuli. It has 107km Lenghth. It has
2200 Sq.km water resources area.
• Tinahu: - Tinahu river origins from the Mahbharata range. It is the best source of irrigation in Rupandehi
district.
• Mahakali River:- Mahakali river flows in the western boarder of Nepal. It origins from Mountain called Jaskar.
Tinker khola, Chameliya, Surniyagadj etc are the branch river of this river. It has 223km length, It has 15300
sq. km water resource area.
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Lakes of Nepal
Rara Lake: -
• The Rara Lake is situated 3200 m above from the sea level.
• Mugu District of Karnali.
• It is surrounded by the Rara national park.
• Length: 5.2 km
• Depth: 167 m
• Source of Khatyad river
Phewa:
• Distric: Kaski
• Lies at the height of 742 m from the sea level
• Depth: highest 24 m
• Area: 435 Hector
Beganas Lake:
• District: Kaski
• Lies at the height of 677 from the sea level
• Depth: 7.5 m
• Area 225 Hector
Rupa Lake:
• District: Kaski
• Depth 4.5 m
• Area: 120 Hector
Phoksundo Lake:
• District: Dolpa
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• Length: 4.2km
• Breadth: 1.8 km
• Depth: 2000 ft
Gosainkunda
• District: Rasuwa
• Lies at the height of 4380 m
• Area 4 Km2
Indrasarobar
• District: Makawanpur
• Length: 7 km
• Constructed by human efforts
Tilicho Lake
• District: Manang
• Depth: 200m
• Area: 4.8 km2
Land of Nepal
• Nepal is a mountainous country in the central Himalayas, which occupies about one third of (800 km) of the
entire length of the Himalayan mountain range. Nepal alone claims eight out of the top ten tallest mountains
in the world, including Mount Everest (8,848 m).
• Nepal is divided into seven regions: (1) Tarai, (2) Siwaliks, (3) Mahabharat, (4) Midlands, (5) Himalayas, (6)
Inner Himalayas and Tibetan marginal mountains
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Terai
• Terai land (25–32 km wide) in the southern part of the country running along the border between India and
Nepal.
• It is a part of the Indo-Gangetic plain; hence the soil is alluvial (Pango) and fine to medium textured.
• Terai covers about 17% of Nepal.
• The total agricultural land of Terai is 61.9 Percent.
• There are 20 districts in Terai
• It covers 25021 square kilometer area of the total area of Nepal
• Main agricultural production of Terai are paddy, wheat, sugarcane, edible oilseed, vegetables etc.
Siwalik
• To the north of the Tarai and Bhabar the land rises abruptly and reaches altitudes ranging from 700 to 1,500
m. This hilly range and its intervening area are commonly known as the Siwalik or Churia range. The Churia
range is composed of sedimentary rock and big boulders. We find sandy boulder soil in Siwalik region.
• This region is not suitable for agriculture and human settlements and it has low agricultural productivity.
However, there is productive land in Tarai like Dun valleys between the Siwaliks and Mahabharat, which are
extensively exploited for agriculture and settlement.
Mahabharat
• Mahabharat is located between the Siwalik to the south and Midlands to the north. The Mahabharat is an
east-west running mountain range. The altitude ranges from 1,500 to 2,700 m and is characterized by a
subtropical climate at low altitudes and a temperate climate at high altitudes.
• The relatively gentle slope on the north face is cultivated and settled in places. It the valley of this region
Glacial soil is found which is appropriate for agricultural activities. It is the fertile land. Most of this area is full
of mixture of alluvial and sandy boulder soil.
Midlands
• This region lies to the north of Mahabharat Lekh and includes many high valleys, such as Kathmandu,
Pokhara, Banepa and Trisuli. It is situated in central Nepal and is an economically vibrant and well-populated
region. Hagen called it the “heart of the country” because of its central role in the social development of the
country. The altitude ranges from 600 to 3,500 m, with an average altitude of 2,000 m. It has Lacustrine soil
(Black soil) which is the fertile land for agriculture.
Himalayas
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• It is a mountain range running in the east–west direction above the altitude of 3,000 m cradled between high
mountains, worn in the past by glaciers, north of the Midlands. This Himalayan region is the home of the
highest mountains in the world.
• It has the residual soil or mountain soil. Similarly we find glacial soil in high lands. It is less fertile soil
appropriate crops are Potato, Barley, Bug wheat, Maize etc.
Inner Himalayas and Tibetan Marginal Mountains
• Inner Himalayas includes several inner Himalayan valleys with desert conditions, such as the upper Kali
Gandaki and Bheri valleys, located at altitudes above 3,600 m. These valleys are dry, and the effect of the
monsoon is virtually absent. Tibetan marginal mountains lie north of the Annapurna and Dhaulagiri mountains
at altitudes of 6,000–7,000 m.
• It includes some parts of the Dolpa, Mustang and Manang districts.
• Here we find Glacial soil which is less fertile for agricultural activities.
Bio-diversity
• Variation in all living things such as plants, animal life and microorganism is called biodiversity.
• The mountains, deep gorges, river valleys and the flat lands of Nepal provide a unique assemblage of very
different habitats and a great biodiversity within a small geographical area.
• Nepal contains a large diversity of plants and animals. The country’s 118 ecosystems harbour over 2% of the
flowering plants, and 6% of the bryophytes in the world’s flora. Similarly, the country harbours 3.9% of the
mammals, 8.9% of the birds and 3.7% of the world’s fauna of butterflies.
• Nepal’s rich biodiversity reflects its unique geographic position and variation in altitude and climate.
Diversity in Flora
• Nepal’s great biodiversity is attributed to its very variable topography and climate. The flat lowland of the Terai
region is covered with a mosaic of sal and riverine forests with large patches of tall grassland. Sal extends
into the mid-hills along river gorges and valleys throughout the country. However, the vegetation on the
mountain slopes in the Mahabharat and mid-hills of eastern and western Nepal is very different.
• In eastern Nepal, there is comparatively dense forest dominated by several species of oaks and
rhododendrons, depending on the altitude. In contrast, western Nepal is relatively dry and with large areas of
pine forest. The Himalayan region has a similar type of vegetation except in western Nepal where conifers
dominate. In the eastern part, moist climatic conditions favor oak and other broadleaved species over conifers.
The composition of the vegetation in the alpine zone differs in eastern and western Nepal, especially in terms
of rhododendron species.
• Flowering tree 6500
• Non-flowering tree : 248
• Rhododendron: 32
• Herbs: 750
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• Grass: 320
• Local flora: 318 etc.
Faunal diversity: numbers of species in Nepal

Faunal group Global Nepal Nepal % of Global
of species numbers Number of Species
Mammals 4,675 185 3.96
Birds 9,799 874 8.92
Reptiles 7,870 78 0.99
Amphibians 4,780 118 2.47
Fish 10,000 187 1.87
Butterflies 17,500 651 3.72
Moths 160,000 85 0.49
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Spiders 39,490 175 0.44
Importance of Biodiversity
• Animal and plant production
• Helps to agricultural production
• Production of domestic materials
• Conservation of soil
• Tourism development
• Balance in the environment
• Conservation of water shed
Causes of Biodiversity Decrease

• Deforestation and lack of residence to animals
• Population explosion
• Poverty
• Maximum utilization of forest resources
• Illegal hunting
• Maximum utilization of chemical fertilization of poison in agriculture
Remedies of Biodiversity protection

• Government of Nepal has adopted different policies and strategies to preserving the biodiversity of Nepal.
Especially government of Nepal is adopting the protection policy by implementing different laws.
Establishment of different national Parks, wildlife reserve area, and conservation area are the major remedies
to protect the biodiversity of Nepal.
National parks
• Chitawan National Park: It is an important area from the perspective of biodiversity. It was established in
1973 AD. It was recorded in world heritage list in 1984 AD. There are more than 43 types of Mammals and
more than 450 types birds. It covers 932 km2 land of Chitawan, Parsha and Makawanpur.
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• Sagarmatha National park: It is spread from 2845 m to 8848 m from the sea level. It was established in
1976 AD. Snowleopard, Red panda, Kasturi, Thar, Ghoral, Nilo Bheda, etc fauna are found. Similarly, Pine
tree, Bhojpatra, Gurans, Dhupi, etc flora are found in this area. It covers 1148 Km2 Upper area of solukhumbu
district.
• Langtang National park: It was established in 1976 AD. It covers the 1719 km2 area of Rasuwa, Nuwakot,
and Sindhupalchowk. Red panda, Kasturi, Ratuwa, Ghoral, Gharal, Wild Sheep, Snow Beer, Yak etc are
found in this National park. Similarly Gobre salla, Khote salla, sal etc are found in this national park.
• Rara National Park: It was also established in 1976 AD. It lies between the altitude of 2800 to 4048 m from
the sea level. It covers only 106 Km2 area. It is near the Rara lake of Mugu district and covers the some area
of Jumla district also. Snow leopard, Himali Bhalu, Kasturi, Bandel etc are found in this national park.
• Bardiya National park: It was established in 1976 AD as wildlife reserve area and converted into national
park in converted into national park in 1988 AD. It covers the 1868 km2 area. Red panda, Chittal, Ratuwa,
Krishnasar, Wild pig, Elephant, Rhino, Ghadiyal, etc are found in this national park.
• Makalu-Barun National Park: It was established in 1993 AD. It spreads from the altitude of 435m reaches
to 8463 m. Birds 440 types, Butterfly 150 types, mammals 50 types, fish 84 types, Herbs 67 etc are found in
this national park. It covers the 1500 km2 area of shankuwashabha and solukhumbu district.
Wildlife Reserve
• Koshitappu Wildlife reserve: It is situated in sunsari district of Koshi zone. It was established in 1976 AD. It
covers the area of 175 km2. Many types of birds migrated from other area and Arnas are found this area.
• Parsa Wlidlife Reserve: It was established in 1984 AD. It covers the area of 499 km2. Tiger, leopard, elephant
are the major animals of this wildlife reserve.
• Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve: It was established in 1987 AD. It is ranges from the altitude of 2850m to 5500m.
It covers the 1325 km2 of Baglung, Myagdi, and Rukum District. Nilo Bheda, Thar, Bandel, Ratuwa,
Krishnasar, leopard etc are found in this Hunting reserve.
• Shuklaphata Wildlife Reserve: It was established in 1976 AD. It covers 155 km2. Langoor, Krishnasar,
Elephant, Chittal, Leopard, etc are found in this wildlife reserve.
Conservation Area
• Annapurna Conservation Area: This conservation area was established in 1986 AD. It covers the total 2660
km2.
• Kanchanjunga Conservation Area: It is situated in Taplejung District. It was established in 1996 AD. It
covers the area of 165 km2.
• Makalu-Barun Reservation Area: It is situated near the Makalu-Barun national park. It was established in
1993 AD. It covers the 130 km2 area.
• The Tinjure-Milke-Jaljale (TMJ) rhododendron conservation area : it is situated in Tehrathum,
Sankhuwasabha and Taplejung in the eastern hilly region of Nepal, the Tinjure-Milke-Jaljale area is regarded
as a potential Community Conserved Conservation Area because of its rich biodiversity, especially of
rhododendrons. It has a total area of 585 km2. There are more than 25 species of rhododendron in this area
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Climate
• Nepal has a diverse climate ranging from tropical (extremely Hot) to arctic (extremely cold). All these can be
found within a distance of approximately 180 km. The mountain ranges and their deep river valleys and gorges
exhibit diverse climatic zones, which further increases the diversity of habitats due to the differences in
precipitation ( the quantity of water falling to earth), humidity, temperature and aspect.
• Precipitation in Nepal is brought by the summer monsoon and winter rains. The summer monsoon accounts
for about 80% of the precipitation (June–September) and is accompanied by a northwesterly airflow from the
Bay of Bengal. Most of the east and the lower hills and lowlands of central and western Nepal receive more
than 80% of the annual total precipitation during the monsoon season.
Climatic Condition of Nepal
• Climatic condition of any country or place is influenced by the different factors such as Latitude, Land feature,
Mountain barrier, Distance from the sea, Vegetation etc.
• Condition of Climate In Nepal is also influenced of by above factors and generally climatic condition of Nepal
can be divided into two conditions.
A. Summer season: when sun enter to north from the equator, summer season starts in Nepal. In this condition,
day increases and night decreases slowly. Summer season is also divided into two parts which are:
I. Hot dry season
II. Hot wet season
Hot dry season: In this season the temperature of Nepal begins to be hot due to the sun rays above the
tropic cancer line. In this season the temperature in Tarai and valley is very hot But in the hilly region
temperature is normal. Hot dry season in Nepal starts from late falgun and continue up to Mid jestha. It is
mostly dry season. In this season, after 12 there is the possibility of thunder.
Hot wet season: This type of climatic condition, in Nepal, Starts mid jestha (June) and continues up to Mid
Bhadra (Precipitation in Nepal is brought by the summer monsoon in this season. The summer monsoon
accounts for about 80% of the precipitation (June–September) and is accompanied by a northwesterly airflow
from the Bay of Bengal (September).
B. Winter season: When sun enter to the south from equator, the winter season starts in Nepal. Due to the
location of Nepal (North Latitude) sun rays are straight and increases the cold in Nepal. This climatic condition
continues up to Last magh. Winter season is also divided into tow category which are:
I. Cool wet condition
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II. Cool dry condition

III. Cool wet season: this season prevalent during the period of September to December. In this season air flows
from the Mediterranean sea to Nepal and there is the possibility of Precipitation in Nepal. It is also known as
post monsoon period.
IV. Cool dry condition: In this climatic condition, Sun remains above the Tocopic of Capicon (Makar Rekha).
Being located in north Latitude, there is the very cold in Nepal and it is the dry season.
Types of Climate and Vegetation in Nepal

• Nepal has a diverse climate ranging from tropical to arctic. The mountain ranges and their deep river valleys
gorges, flat land, altitude, etc. exhibit diverse climatic zones. There is an array of climatic zones along the
vertical gradient of the mountain slope. Basically there are five types climatic zones are found in Nepal which
are as follows:
• Sub-tropical region: - Sub tropical climate is found from the sea level to the altitude of 1200 m. This type of
climate is mostly found in Bhawar, Dun, Tarai, and other valley. In summer season the temperature of this
region remains more than 35 degree Celsius. It is the hot area in Nepal. Sub Tropical zone is characterized
by hot and humid climate. The rainfall is less than in western part of Tarai due to the hot air flow of western
part which also known as Loo.
• Warm Temperate climate: - This type of climate is found from the altitude of 1200 m to 2100 m. In Nepal, it
is mostly found in upper part of Chure, central part of Mahabharat and Midland. It has less temperature than
the subtropical region. In the summer season the temperature remains between 24 degree to 30 degree
Celsius. In winter 5 to 10 degree temperature is found in this region.
• Cool Temperate climate: - This type of climate is found between the 2100m to 3300 m. It is mostly found in
the upper land of Mahabharata and Lower part of Himalaya. Here we find the cold temperature with the growth
of altitude. In summer season maximum temperature is about 20 degree Celsius and winter less than 5 degree
Celsius.
• Alpine Climate: - This type of climate is found between the altitude between 3300 m to 5000 m from the sea
level. This type of climate is found in upper Himalaya and inner Himalaya. The temperature of this region
remains between 10 degree Celsius to 15 degree Celsius in summer season. In Winter season less than 0
Degree Celsius. It is the cold region.
• Tundra Climate: - This type of climate is found above the 5000 m from the sea level. There is always cold
around the year in this region. It is always covered by the snow. It is not suitable place for human settlement.
Here we find the tundra. It is also called cold desert due the lack of vegetation. It is also known as third pole
of the world.
Types of Vegetation
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• Vegetation refers to the specific type of plant life extended to over a specific area. Climate determines the
vegetation of Nepal.
• The categorization and demarcation of vegetation is difficult because of the Complexity of physiographic and
climatic zones in the region. Vegetation of Nepal can be classified into five types on the basis of climatic Zone.
Which are as follows:
• Sub-tropical forest: - This type of forest is found in the Tarai area of Nepal. The major types of forest in this
eco-region are sal forest, tropical deciduous riverine forest, and tropical evergreen forest. Sal forest occurs
throughout the flatlands of Tarai and is also present in the Siwaliks. Sal is the dominant species. However,
the species composition of sal forests in the Siwalik region varies.
• Sal forests are replaced by tropical deciduous riverine forest along the banks of rivers and on river terraces.
• Similarly, this eco-region is characterized by wide range of savanna type grasslands, evergreen and
deciduous forests, whose presence depends on the different climatic and moisture conditions prevailing here.
• Sal, Khayar, Sisau, Jamun, Tuni, Simal etc. are the major plants of this area.
• This eco-region includes five protected areas consisting of three wildlife reserves (Shukla Phanta, Parsa and
Koshi Tappu) and two national parks (Bardiya and Chitwan).
• Deciduous Monsoon Forest: - This type of forest is found in the warm temperate climatic region. we can
find subtropical deciduous hill forest and , subtropical semi-evergreen hill forest.
• This type of forest is found in upper part chure and the middle part of Mahabharata range. The trees shed
their leaf in winter season. The major trees in this region are chilaune, Lakuri, Simal, Uttis, Kattush, Chap,
Okhar etc.
• Evergreen Coniferous forest: - This type of forest is found in the altitude of 2100 m to 3300 m from the sea
level. Cheer, Pine, Devdaar, Nigalo, Gurans, Dhupi, Bhojpatra etc are the major kind of vegetation in this
forest.
• Alpine Grass land: - Alpine grassland is found in altitude between 3300 m to 5000m from the sea level.
There is the grazing land. Herbs, Gurans, harsh Bushes etc. are found in this forest.
• Tundra : - This type of vegetation is found at the altitude above 5000 m from the sea level. In this region,
some herbs, Mosses, Lichen etc are found.
Human Resources
• The term ‘human resource’ refers to the manpower or employees. Human that possess the capacity, strength,
skill, experience, and efficiency to carry out some works is known is human resources.
• Human resource is an important resource in the economic development of the country.
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• It also refers to the human capital.

• Human resource is the active source of production which increases the economic production of society.
• Human resources also refers to human capital and its utilization is the crucial factors of economic development
of the country.
• Population with good health, skill, knowledge, and efficiency is the main source of development.
Human resources is categorized on the basis of level of technological skill and knowledge and general level
of education or situation of literacy. Human resources can be categorized into three types which are as follows:
• Skilled human resource:- Human resource which have the technological knowledge and skill is known as
the skilled human resources. Such manpower is capable of working independently, efficiently and accurately.
Educated manpower fall under this category.
• Semiskilled Human resource: - Semiskilled manpower is such type of manpower which has the limited
technological knowledge to perform the certain activities. Generally who perform the simple administrative
works and simple technological activities are known as the semiskilled manpower.
• Un-skilled manpower: - men who does not posses any type of technological knowledge and skill and illiteracy
is known as the unskilled manpower. In Nepal unskilled powers is the larges manpower in number. Due the
lack of technological knowledge they are compelled to work in manual labour.
• The analysis of data has indicated remarkable achievements in the status of literacy, educational attainment
and/or school attendance rates of both the male and female population over the years. However, disparities
continue to exist across sex, rural-urban, districts and regions. Overall literacy rates have increased to 67%
in 2011 from 54% in 2001
• Female literacy has increased from 43% in 2001 to 58% in 2011, which places Nepal in fourth position among
SAARC countries and above Bhutan, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan. About 90% of adolescents can
read and write. Similarly, 69% of the population are attending school. Literacy rates of urban and rural areas
stand at 82.3% and 62.5% respectively. Kathmandu has the highest literacy rate while Rautahat has the
lowest.
Democracy
Meaning and Definition
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• The term “Democracy” is derived from the Greek word “Demos” and “Kratia”. Here the term
demo means people and Kratia means power. Thus literal or etymological meaning of democracy
is the political system in which power is in the hand of People or democracy is regarded as that
government wher the power is vested in the people.
• The term ‘Democracy’ is from the Greek language which means rule by people. There are various
political system in society which maintain the order in society. According to Aristotle political
system can be classified as: Kingship (Monarchy) and Tyranny (Rule by one), Aristocracy and
Oligarchy (Rule by few) and Polity and Democracy (Rule by Many).
• Out of six fold political system, Democracy is a political system in which ruling authority of society
is under the people.
• Democracy is not a mere form of government. It is a type of a mere form of government as well
as an order of society conducted by common people.
• Democracy as a political system has become politically fashionable today.
Definition of Democracy
• MacIver, “ Democracy is, not a way of governing whether by majority or otherwise but primarily
a way of determining who shall govern and broadly, to what ends.”
• Gettell, define Democracy as “that form of government in which the mass of the population
possess the right to share in the exercise of sovereign power.”
• Abraham Lincoln, “ Democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the people.”
• Thus, Democracy is a form of government and state in which the power of monitoring, appointing,
controlling, and dismissing of government remain in people.
Basic principles of Democracy
The basic principles of Democracy can be listed as follows:
• Democracy guarantees all individuals the right to speak, criticize and disagree with others.
• It stands on the spirit of tolerance and allows people to diverse views, ideas and ideologies.
• It believes in the methods of persuasion and peace.
• It is opposed to the use of coercive methods or to the threat of power.
• It upholds the dignity of human personality.
• It guarantees the fundamental rights to its citizens like right to freedom of speech, press, peaceful
assembly, to contest the election, constitutional remedies etc.
• It is based on the foundation of Liberty, Equality, and fraternity.
• Sovereign power rests with the people.
• It is the rule by majority with full safeguards for the right of minorities.
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• It is the government by the representatives of the people who are elected on the basis of universal
adult franchise.
• It functions strictly according to the provision of the constitution which is written or unwritten,
which has been accepted by the people.
• It provides for a change in government according to constitutional provision.
• Though it is a rule by majority, it aims at the welfare of all.
Types of Democracy
I. Direct democracy: - Direct democracy is also known as the pure democracy. A direct democracy is a
type of political system in which the people themselves take part in the affairs of the state, in passing laws
and in executing them. In this democracy people exercise their power directly. This type of democracy is
possible in small state where people can conveniently assemble at a given place and pass the laws.
II. Indirect Democracy: - Indirect democracy is a type of political system in which people take part
in the affairs of the state indirectly. In this type of political system the government is run by the
representatives who are elected periodically by the people.
• J.S. Mill defines indirect democracy as on in which the whole people of some numerous portion
of them, exercise the governing power through deputies periodically elected by themselves.
• The people judge the representatives by their deeds. If they are found to efficient they are
reelected. Otherwise, new members are elected.
III. Liberal Democracy: - The political system in which people enjoy freedom, equality, social justice and
emphasis on democratic norms and values is called liberal democracy. The pressure group are there in
this type of democracy.
IV. Revolutionary Democracy: - Revolutionary democracy is a type of democracy is a type of democracy

in which people executrices their power by their representatives but there is the limited right are provided
to people. It is base d on the Marxist principle. In this democracy there is the central planning for the
economic development of the country. It has characteristics of both communism and individualism. But
state become the powerful body to conduct different activities.
V. Inclusive Democracy: - Inclusive democracy is a type of democracy in which people, who are
excluded, included in the political system by providing certain reservation quota. This type of democracy
is based on the equity rather than equality. Individual of all caste, ethnicity, region, community get equal
chance to be elected but there is certain provision for the guarantees of their participation in governing
and law making body.
Essential conditions for Democracy
There are certain conditions which must be fulfilled if democracy is to be successful and fruitful
which are as follows:
• Political maturity and education on the part of people.
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• People should have consciousness to protect democracy at all costs.
• It requires system of self governance and self governing institutions like Gaunpalika and
Municipalities in Nepal.
• People should have strong desire to democracy.
• It requires the spirit of tolerance because democracy is a government by debate, discussion and
criticism.
• It requires strong opposition.
• It requires undisturbed jurisdiction of judiciary.
• Free and independent press which is the watch dog of democracy.
• It requires economic, political and social equality.
• It requires non corruptible citizen or citizen of high moral characters.
• Andrian suggest suggests six main essential conditions for the stability of democracy which are as
follows:
1.Territorial, political and constitutional legitimacy- the people must accept the geographical definition
of the state, must respect the constitution and the regime power.
2. Consensus Politics- democracy requires a consensus among the political forces at least at the minimum
level and loyalty to the democratic process itself.
3. Government policy- democracy is also depend on the government policy. Specially in new democracies,
government should not pursue highly contentious policies too far and too fast unless there are a
consensus .
4. Link with economy- democracy must linked with economy. Stable and secure democracy has never
been found in really poor societies. The economic condition is also plugged in with literacy, formal
education, and communications etc.
5. Distribution of political power and economic resource - the distribution of economic resources and
political power to societies should be on an equitable basis. Because it will produce new winners and new
losers, this sometimes, might invite violence that may easily crate civil conflict.
6. Ethno cultural Difference – Ethnocentrism which is sometime found in ethno cultural difference
deteriorate the prospects of consensual basis for democratic politics and thus, it threaten democracy.
Democracy in Nepal
• The country was for a long period, divided into many petty principalities in medieval period. In
this period most of the principalities were economically and politically back warded.
• After the 1828 B.S. the country started its steps toward the unification of the land.
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• In the history of Nepali politics, the democracy inaugurated in 2007 B.S. when it received freedom
from the autocratic rule of Ranas.
• The King had been the real ruler of Nepal since 1825 B.S., when the unified country was founded.
• The Rana rule was dethroned by a popular revolution of 2007 B.S. Until than a hereditary prime
minister was the real sovereign since all activities Nepali politics had to lead to Singh durbar, the
then seat of prime minister.
• In 2007 BS, Nepali people threw the Ranas out of power and established democracy and restored
the Shah Kings.
• The political system after 2007 BS was a liberal democracy under the leadership of Constitutional
monarch. Political organization and forces of different ideological colour were developed.
• In this process the people of Nepal adopted a liberal democratic political system but their lack of
democratic experience and political culture made it difficult to sustain for the long run.
• Nepali politics marched to the institutional road only after the first parliamentary election in the
history of the Nation.
• In this election, Nine Political parties had contested the election in which the Nepali congress had
got the two third majority. This was the first exercise of democracy in Nepal.
• The elected government was also formed providing better chance for Nepali politicians to
consolidate a parliamentary form of government and exercise power in a democratic manner.
• Unfortunately, this chance never happened because the parliament was ended abruptly on 1
Poush 2017 BS when the king Mahendra exercised the emergency powers laid down in the Article
55 of the constitution of 2015.
• Autocratic Monarchy remained until 2047 BS. During this period the partyless panchyat system
was practiced in Nepal.
• King Birendra announced a referendum with a choice of reformed panchyat system of a

multiparty system in 2036 BS. Reformed Panchsyat system had got 54.99% vote and multiparty
system had got 45.1 % vote in that referendum.
• A joint front of Nepali congress and United Leftist front was formed and it conducted the
movement with the motive of restoration of democracy. The primary task of this front was to
accelerate the people movement for restoration of Multiparty democratic system and to uproot
the 30 years old Panchayat system from the Nepal.
• Many urban based groups such as Journalists, teachers, professors, lawyers, doctors, nurses,
engineers, poets, writers etc. joined the democratic movement to restore the democracy.
• The movement for the restoration of multiparty democracy was started on 7 Falgun 2046 BS and
ended on 26 Chaitra 2046 BS which restored the multiparty democracy in the country.
• The democratic constitution was promulgated on 23rd Kartik 2047 BS.
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• After the restoration of multiparty democracy, first general election held on 29th Baishakh 2048
and Nepali Congress got the simple majority and the government was form under the leadership
of Girija Prasad Koirala. But this government disorganized untimely in 2051 due to the internal
conflict of Nepali congress.
• Similarly mid term election held in 2051 BS and in this election any party of Nepal did not get
majority but Nepal Communist party (UML) stood as the largest party in Parliament and
government of minority was formed under the leadership of Manamohan Adhikari but this
government was also disorganized due to the failure to get the vote of confidence in Parliamet.
• Similarly another general election in Nepal held in 2056 BS and in this election Nepali Congress
got the majority and democratic government was form under the prime minister ship of Krishna
Prasad Bhattarai. But this government also became the victim of political instabilty faced by
Nepal.
• In 2064 first election of Constitution assembly held but the constitution assembly failed to give
the democratic constitution to the country.
• Second election of constitution assembly held in 2070 BS and this assembly gave the constitution
to the country on 3rd Aswin 2072. At present we are practicing federal democratic system which
is of inclusive nature.
Constitutional development in Nepal
1. Pre-constitutional period: - The written history of constitution in Nepal was started in 2004 BS. Before
2004 BS constitutional norms and laws were the main basis of state operation. The history of
constitutional development goes back to 1825 BS when the country was formed. Royal Edicts and key
Hindu scriptures formed the law of land.
• Civil Code (Muluki Ain) was promulgated by King Surendra Bir Bikram Shah in 1854 AD (1910 BS)
and it was the firs civil code in Nepal. The code was the main source to administer justice in Nepal
for many years. Civil code was the codification of traditional approach of Hindu laws in common
practice in Nepal.
2. Nepal’s Government Legal Act-2004 : - This act was proclaimed by the then prime minister Padma
Shamsher. Three Indian constitutionalists Prakash Gupta, Dr. Ram Ugrasingh and Raghunath Singh were
invited to draft the constitution of Nepal. The contstitution was with 6 parts, 68 Articles and 1 Schedule.
Salient features of Nepal’s Government legal Act 2004 BS
I. Sovereignty: - According to this constitution the sovereignty of country was vested with the shree
3 Prime minister.
II. First Written Constitution: - It was the first written constitution. It was divided into 6 parts, 68
Articles and Schedule. Part 1 Article 1 to 3 Background, Part 2 Article 4 and 5 Fundamental rights and
Duties of Citizen, Part 3 Article 6 to 15 Executive assembly, Part 4 Article 16 to 47 Panchayatee Shabha,
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Centaral assembly and Legislature, part 5 Article 48 to 59 Judiciary, and part 6 Article 60 to 68
Miscellaneous were the major contents of this constitution.
III.Provision of Fundamental rights and Duties: - The fundamental rights and duties were provisioned in
Part 2 Article 4 and 5. Individual liberty, Right to speech, Right to publication, equal access in law,
Compulsory free initial education, right to vote etc are major fundamental right. Similarly protection of
the country according to physical, mentally and economically, labour according to physical and mental
capacity etc. were the major duties of Citizen to the country.
IV. Provision of Bicameral parliament: -
• Two houses lower house and upper house
• Natioanl Assembly as Lower house, total member 70, out of 70 42 were elected from the people
and 28 nominated by the shree 3.
• Bhardari Shabha, total members 30 and all would be nominated by the shree 3.
V. Provision of Public Service Commission (Darkhasta Parisad)
• In the Article 65 (a), all the members nominated by the shree 3
• Main duty was recruit, Promotion and transformation of bureaucrats
• Main motto able bureaucrats in administration in the country.
VI. Provision of Judiciary
• In Article 52 (a)
• To conduct the judicial activities the was the provision of Judicial committee, One chief justice
and 12 other judges, all member nominated by Shree 3
• Main job explanation of constitution, hearing of appeal, to make law regarding to judicial
administration in the country.
VII. Provision of Auditor general
• There was the provision of Auditor-General (Pradhan Jachaki) to audit the governmental income
and Expenditure.
• It was mentioned in Article 62 (a) and (b) about the Auditor – General.
• The Auditor-General must had to submit annual report of auditing to Shree 3 Every year.
VII. Provision of local self governance
• The constitution had managed sytem of local governance in the name of Panchayat. Constitution
had managed there kinds of Local government which are Village Panchayat, Nagar Panchayat and
District Panchayat. The job of local development is assigned to Village and Nagar Panchayat and
to give suggestion to the Bada Hakim was the main job of District Panchayat.
IX. Provision of Emergency proclamation
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• It was mentioned in the Article 47 (a)
• All the rights of emergency proclamation was with the Shree 3.
X. Provision of temporary Law
• The temporary law was managed in the constitution to give continuity in the peace and
harmony of society. The right of drafting temporary law was vested with the Shree 3
The Interim Government Act of Nepal- 2007
• It was the first implemented constitution in the constitutional history of Nepal. The interim
constitution had Seven parts, Seventy Three Articles and Three Schedules. The interim
constitution had amended in 6 times. The constitution had managed three organs of government,
public service commission etc. The constitution had following salient features:
Salient features of the Constitution
I. Directive principles of state
The constitution had managed directive principles in part 2 Articles 3 to 20 of the constitution. It
mentioned education, governmental aid, international relations, Social provision of citizen, Gram
panchayat, Aged and sick citizen, Equal opportunities, rule of Law, etc were major directive principles of
the state.
II. Unilateral Parliament
This constitution had managed the unilateral parliament. According to Article 30 all the legislative
power was vested with the King. There was the provision of Advisory Assembly and all the member would
be nominated by the King. Completion 25 years, Nepali Citizen, etc. were the major qualification to be
member of Advisory Assembly. It was the temporary parliament.
III. Provision of Executive
• There was the provision of executive to conduct the daily administrative work of state. The king
himself was the head of Executives. It was managed in the Article 22 of the interim constitution
of 2007 BS.
IV. Provision of Public Service commission
• The constitution had managed a public service commission in part five, Article 64 of the
constitution. There was the provision of one chairperson and other member would be nominated
by the King. Main function of this commission were mentioned in the article 67 of the interim
constitution of 2007 Bs.
V. First monarchial constitution
• In the constitution of 2004 shree III was mentioned instead of His majesty the King. But
this constitution had mentioned about Shree 5 king. All the sovereign power was vested with the
king rather than people. So it is the first monarchial constitution in constitutional history of Nepal.
VI. Head of the Executive was King:
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• The constitution of 2007 BS had managed the King as the head of the state as well as the
head of Executive. He was the head of government also. It is manage in the Article 22 of the
constitution of Nepal. There was the provision of appointment of prime minister from the King.
VII. Provision of Fundamental rights
• There was the provision of fundamental rights of people in article 14 to 20 of the

constitution of 2007. Right to equality, right to speech, right to Publication, Right to form
organizations, right to individual liberty, Right to wealth, Right to employment, occupation,
industry and business etc. are major fundamental rights provisioned in the constitution.
VIII. Provision of Election commission
• The provision of election commission was mentioned in the article 68 and 69 of the
constitution of 2007 BS. Main duty of commission was to conduct the periodic election of
parliament in the country. Similarly election court was also managed to see the cases of election.
IX. Temporary constitution
• The main feature of this constitution is that this constitution was not permanent. It would
be implemented until the promulgation of constitution which was made by the constitutional
assembly. So the constitutional objectives and target were limited due to its temporary nature.
X. Provision of Supreme court
• Article 32 of the interim constitution had managed a supreme court. The function and
Members of court would managed according to the separate law. Main function of this court was
to explain the constitution.
Constitution of Kingdom of Nepal 2015
• A constitution drafting commission was formed through the royal proclamation by the King
Mahendra on 19 Magh 2014. Chair person of the commission was Bhagawati Prasad Singh other
members were Ramraj Panta, Surya prasad Upadhyaya, Rana Dheer Subba and member secretary
was Hira prasad Joshi.
• The new constitution was promulgated on 1st Falgun 2015 through the Royal proclamation. It was
the King provided Constitution . It was mentioned in preamble that this constitution was provided
by the King by using his sovereign power.
Salient features of the constitution
I. Sovereignty was vested with the King:
The constitution has managed that all the sovereign power would vested with the King. Similarly
it was the king provide constitution in the country.
II. Written constitution:
It was the constitution in the written form. The constitution was divided into 10 parts and 77
articles. So it is the written constitution in the country.
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III. Constitution as the Fundamental Law
The constitution of 2015 BS. Was the fundamental law of Nepal. According to this constitution, all
laws inconsistent with the constitution would, to the extent of such inconsistency, be void. It should be
the duty of every citizen to uphold the constitution.
IV. Provision of fundamental rights
provision of fundamental rights is another feature of the constitution of 2015. Fundamental rights
were manage in part 3 of the constitution. Right to liberty, right to property, right to religion, right to form
the political party, etc. were major fundamental right provided the constitution of 2015.
V. Provision of Bicameral Parliament
• It was mentioned in part 5 articles 18 to 43 of the constitution.
• Lower house was known as House of Representatives and total members 109 elected from the
people.
• Senate total members 36. out 36 members 18 would be electetion from the house of
representative and 18 nominated.
VI. Provision of council of Ministers
• Executive power was with King and Council of Ministers. Article 1o to 17 were concentrated in the
formation of council of ministers, role and duties of ministers, no of ministers, administrative
work etc. there was the provision 14 members in council of Ministers.
VII. Responsible Government: the government would be responsible towards parliament which the
representation of people. It means government was responsible toward people.
VIII. Independent Judiciary: - It was mentioned in article 57 and 58.
IX. Provision public service commission: - there was the provision of Public service commission in article
59 and 60.
• Sovereign Hindu Kingdom: - The constitution of 2015 had accepted Nepal as the sovereign Hindu
Kingdom.
Constitution of Nepal 2019
• As a fourth constitution of Nepal, the constitution of Nepal was promulgated on 1 paush 2019 BS.
The constitution of Nepal 2019 gave Constitutional recognition to Panchayat system Proclaimed
by King Mahendra.
• King Mahendra Formed a Drafting committee for the new constitution on 26 Baishakh 2019.
• The constitution drafting committed was formed under the leadership of Rishikesh Shah and
other members of such commission were Prakash Bahadur Khatri, Shambhu Prasad Gyanwali,
Angoor Baba Joshi, Dambar Narayan Yadav and Member secretary was Kul Shekhar sharma. The
constitution drafted by this commission had been promulgated on 1st Paush 2019 by the King
Mahendra.
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• The constitution of 2019 BS was amended in 2023 BS, 2032 BS and 2037 and finally abandoned
by the people movement of 2046.
• The constitution provided people’s fundamental rights, adult franchise, the council of ministers,
national panchayat, supreme court etc. The characteristics of this constitutions a were as follows:
Salient features of the constitution
I. Written Constitution : -
This constitution was in the written form. It is prepared by the constitution drafting commission
headed by the Rishikesh Shah and promulgated by the King Mahendra. It was divided into 20 parts, 97
articles.
II. Provided by King: -
This constitution was provided by King Mahendra to the Nepali people. As the practitioner of
sovereign power he provided this constitution of Nepal.
III. Provision of Fundamental rights: -
Fundamental rights people were managed in part 3, article 10 to 16 in the constitution. Right to
equality, Right to liberty, Right against exile, Right against exploitation, Right to religion, Right to property,
and right to constitutional remedies are fundamental rights provided to people by the constitution.
IV. Unilateral Parliament: -
Provision regarding to parliament was managed in article 34 of the constitution. According to

constitution National panchayat would be the parliament or legislative body. The total members of
national panchayat would be 140. Out of 140, 112 would be elected by people on the basis of adult
franchise and 28 members would be nominated by the king.
V. King as the source of Power
According to the constitution of 2019 King was the source of all power . It was managed in article
20 of the constitution of 2019 BS. He was the source of sovereign power.
VI. Adult Franchise
The constitution provided the right of adullt franchise. Individual of 21 years had the right to vote.
VI. Independent Sovereign and Monarchial Hindu State
This constitution has declared Nepal as the sovereign, independent, and Hindu Monarchial state.
According to the Par 1, Article 3 “Nepal is a independent, sovereign, Indivisible, and Monarchial Hindu
State.” Similarly in Article 2 Nepal would be the monarchial state.
VII. Constitution as Fundamental Law
The constitution of 2019 treated constitution as the fundamental law of the country. It was
mentioned in part 1 article 1 that constitution would be the fundamental law of the state. All laws
inconsistent with the constitution would, to the extent of such inconsistency, be void.
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VIII. Provision of directive principle of the Panchayat system
Different directive principle of panchayat system were mentioned in part 4 of the constitution.
The directive principles of the panchayat system should remain as guidelines for the governance of the
state. Directive principle should be the political objectives.
IX. Provision of Public service commission
The constitution of 2019 manage a public service commission in part 13 article 77. Function of
public service commission were mentioned in the article 78 of the constitution.
X. Provision of Independent Judiciary.
XI. Provision of Council of Ministers etc.
Constitution of Nepal -2047
• The constitution of Nepal- 2047 was the fifth constitution of Nepal and fourth implemented
constitution in Nepal. A commission was formed to draft the constitution under the leadership of
Bishwanath Upadhya. Other memers were Pradhumnalal Bhandari, Ramananda Singh, Laxman
Aryal, Mukunda Regmi, Daman Nath Dhungana, Nirmal Lama, Madhav kumar Nepal and
Bharatmohan Adhikari.
• Committee formed constitution on time and Promulgated by King Birendra on 23 rd Kartk 2047.
The constitution had following features:
I. Written Constitution: - As other constitutions, it was also written constitution. This constitution was
prepared by commission formed by King Birendra with the consensus of political parties. It was divided
into 23 parts, 133 articles, and 3 schedules.
II. Constitution as fundamental Law: - The constitution of 2047 treated constitution as the
fundamental law of the country. It was mentioned in part 1 article 1 that constitution would be
the fundamental law of the state. All laws inconsistent with the constitution would, to the extent
of such inconsistency, be void.
III. Sovereignty was vested with people: - It was the first constitution which accepted people as the
source of sovereign power. All the sovereign power was vested the people.
IV. Constitutional monarchy: - The constitution had managed the provision of constitutional
monarchy. The king was the head of the state but he was ceremonial head of the state. Any executives
rights were not provided to King by the constitution. He was the protector of the constitution. He had no
right to intervene in the activities of the council of ministers. The King had to work under the constitution.
V. Fundamental rights: - Provision of fundamental rights is another salient feature of this

constitution. Fundamental rights of people were managed in the part 3, article 11 to 23. Right to equality,
Right to liberty, Right to publication and newspaper, Right related criminal justice, Right to information,
Right related to culture and education, Right to religion, Right to privacy and right to constitutional
remedies were major fundamental rights provided by the constitution.
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VI. Parliamentary ruling system: - the constitution of 2047 had provisioned parliamentary ruling system.
In this system parliament become the supreme body in the country. According to this constitution the
government should be responsible towards the parliament. Thus this constitution had provided the
parliamentary supremacy.
VII. Bicameral legislature: - Provision of bicameral parliament was another feature of this constitution.
According to the constitutional provision there would be two house named house of representative and
National Assembly. The house of representative as lower house should have 205 member elected on the
basis of adult franchise. Similarly national assembly was upper house and total member 60, out of it 50
were elected indirectly and 10 would be nominated.
VIII. Executives Right: - According to this constitution of 2047, the executive rights would be vested with
king and council of minister both. Ruling system of Nepal would be controlled, managed, balance, directed
by the council of minister. His majesty the king had to exercise his executive power in accordance with
suggestion of council of ministers.
IX. Independent Judiciary: - The constitution of Nepal 2047 proposed a independent judiciary. Similarly
the court system was divided into three layers: Supreme court, Appellate court, and District court. The
constitution guaranteed the supremacy and independency of judiciary.
X. Adult franchise: - The constitution of Nepal 2047 had provided the opportunity of adult franchise.
According to this constitution the election of parliament would be on the basis of adult franchise.
Individuals who were of 18 years were provided voting right.
Interim constitution of Nepal- 2063
It was the sixth constitution in the constitutional history of Nepal. The interim constitution of
Nepal was promulgated on 1 Magh 2063 BS in the name of people by the legislative parliament. Salient
features of this constitution were as follows:
I. Written constitution: - Interim constitution of Nepal 2063 was also written constitution. It was divided
into 25 parts, 167 articles and 4 Schedules.
II. Constitution as Fundamental Law: - The Interim constitution of 2063 treated constitution as the
fundamental law of the country. It was mentioned that constitution would be the fundamental law of the
state. All laws inconsistent with the constitution would, to the extent of such inconsistency, be void.
III. Sovereignty was vested with people: - This constitution had managed that supreme power of the state
would be vested with the people and people are the source of all political power. Article 2 of interim
constitution was dedicated to this provision.
IV. Republican constitution: - In the constitutional history of Nepal, it was the first republican constitution.
According to article 4 of interim constitution, Nepal would be an independent, indivisible, sovereign,
secular, inclusive democratic federal republican state.
V. Provision of fundamental rights: - Various fundamental right were provided by the interim constitution
in article 12 to 32. Right to equality, right to liberty, Right against untouchability, right to environment
and health, right to culture and education, right of children, right to religion, right to justice, Right against
exile, Right to constitutional remedies etc. are the major fundamental rights provided by the constitution.
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VI. Rule of Law:- the interim constitution of 2063 guaranteed the rule of law. According to this constitution
no one was above the law of state. All are equal in law.
VII. Secularism: - Secularism was another salient feature of this constitution. It was the first constitution
which advocated secular state. Provision about the secular state was mentioned in the preamble of
interim constitution 2063.
IX. Constituent Assembly: - The interim constitution has proposed the constituent assembly to form the
new constitution. It was the temporary constitution and would be implemented till the promulgation of
new constitution made by the constituent assembly. It was mentioned in article 82 of the interim
constitution.
X. Parliamentary Hearing: - It was the new feature of the interim constitution of 2063 BS. According to
article 155, the appointment of constitutional posts, Chief judge, judges, Ambassadors would be after the
parliamentary hearing.
Xi. Unicameral parliament
XII. Provision of public service commission
XIV. Provision of human right commission
XV. Provision of women commission
XVI. Independent judiciary etc were major features of this constitution.
• Constitution of Nepal 2072 is the first constitution enforced by the constituent Assembly. This
constitution was promulgated by the then president Dr. Rambaran Yadav unveiled on the behalf
of speaker Subashchandra Nembang on 3rd Aswin 2072. A constitution Draftin committee was
formed under the leadership of Dr. Babu Ram Bhattarai prepared a draft of constitution and all
the articles were discussed and approved by the two third majority of constituent assembly.
Salient Features
• Written constitution: - The constitution of Nepal- 2072 is in the written form as other
constitutions. It is divided into 35 parts, 308 articles and 9 schedules.
• Federal Model with Seven provinces: - The constitution of Nepal has mention about the federal
model of ruling system and it has proposed seven provinces. According to this constitution the
state power of shall be used by the federal, provincial, and local level government.
• Democratic republican state: - According to constitution of 2072 Nepal is an independent,

indivisible, Sovereign, inclusive democratic and democratic republican state.
• Secularism: - Secularism is another feature of this constitution. According to this constitution

Nepal is a secular country, It provided the opportunity of protecting all religion and cultures being
practiced since ancient time.
• Constitution as fundamental Law: - The constitution of Nepal 2072 has taken constitution as the
fundamental law of the state. According to the article 1 (a) all the laws inconsistent to this
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constitution, to the extent of inconsistency , be void. So this constitution is the fundamental law
as other constitutions of Nepali constitutional history.
• Provision of Judiciary: - Provision about judiciary is mentioned in part 11 of the constitution.

According to the constitution all power relating to the justice shall be exercised by the courts and
other judicial institutions accordance with the constitutional provision. All must adhere to the
order or verdict given by the court in relation to the court cases. According to the article 127 there
are three types of courts: Supreme court, High court and District court.
• Executive power: - According to the constitution of Nepal 2072 executive of power of Nepal shall
rest with the council of Ministers in accordance with the constitution of Nepal. The responsibility
of providing general directives, control, and enforcement regarding the governance system of
Nepal will rest with the council of ministers.
• Provision of President: - Provision of president is mentioned in part 6 of the constitution.

According to Article 61(b) the president will be the head of the state. S/he shall perform his/her
duties according to the constitution and federal law. Provisions regarding to the election of the
president is given in article 62 of the constitution of Nepal 2072.
• Bicameral Federal Parliament: - The constitution has mentioned that there shall be a federal
parliament consisting of two hoses named house of representatives and National Assembly.
House of Representative has 275 members. Out of 275 165 elected through the First-Past- the
post electoral system and 110 members elected from proportional representation electoral
system.
• According the constitution, National Assembly is the upper and permanent house. There will be
59 members in national assembly. Out of 59, 56 members elected from an electoral college
comprising from the members of provincial parliament, Chairperson and vice chairperson of
Village council and Mayor and Deputy mayor of the Municipality.
• Provision of Fundamental rights and duties : -fundamental rights are given in part 3 of the
constitution. There are 33 fundamental rights and duties of people are given to the people. Article
16 to 48 are dedicated to the fundamental rights and duties. Right to live with dignity, Right to
freedom, right to equality, right to communication, right to justice, Right of victim of crime,
• Right against torture, right against preventive detention, Right against untouchability and
discrimination, Right to property, Right to religious freedom, Right to information, Right against
exploitation, Right to education, Right to language and culture, Right to employment, Right
regarding labour, Right to health care, Right to housing, Right to women, Right to children, right
against exile etc. and Protect nationality, sovereignty and integrity of Nepal, Abide by the
constitution and to protect and conserve public property are the major duties of People.
• Mixed electoral system
• Provision of different commissions
• Provision of province executives
• Provision of provincial legislature
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• Provision of public service commission
• Provision of commission for the investigation of abuse of authority etc are the major features of
the constitution of Neal – 2072.
Political Parties and their roles

Meaning and Definition of political Parties
• A voluntary organization of people who believe in the same political ideology, aims, and programs
of action is called political party.
• A party is a voluntary association which formulates the program that program is discussed in the
parliament and majority members in which parliament carry the program into effect through the
agencies of their leaders organized in a cabinet.
• MacIver, “A political party is an association organized in support of some principle or policy which
by constitutional means of endeavourers to make the determinant of government.”
• Ian Robertson, “ political parties are collectives of people organized for the specific purpose of
joining legitimate control of government.”
• Gil Christ, “A political party may be defined as an organized group of citizens who prefer to share
the same political views and who by acting as a political unit try to control the government.”
• Thus a political party is an organized group of people who share common political ideology,
program, and policy to control the state power.
Essentials of political parties
• A group of people to constitute a political party, must be organized for the political purpose.
• There should be similarity of principles helping to unite people.
• The political parties should have the main aim of attaining political power.
• The parties should use peaceful and legitimate means of attaining political power.
• It becomes necessary for a political party to pronounce its main principles in public make equally
known to the electorate its plans, programs, and the course of action which it is going to follow.
• The political parties which are found within the framework of the national boundaries are
expected to protect and promote the national interest.
Functions of political party
• Political parties have the basic task of propagating their ideals, policies and programs.
• Political party should have contest and in election.
Political parties of Nepal
Nepal Communist Party (NCP)
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• Nepal Communist party is the largest political party of Nepal.
• First of all Nepal communist party which is the first communist party of Nepal was established in
15 September 1949 under the leadership of Pushpalal.
• First conference was held in 2008 Manamohan became the Secretary
• Second conference was held in 2014 and Kesharjung Rayamajhi Mahamantri.
• Nepal communist party got 4 seats in theelection of 2015 BS.
• Latter the communist party of Nepal was divided into several communist parties.
• The present Nepal Communist Party (NCP) is made after unifying two major communist parties
which are as follows:
• Communist party Of Nepal (UML): The communist party of Nepal (UML) was the leading force of
Nepali communist movement before 2075 Jestha 3.
• CPN (UML) was committed in constructing toe society of justice ad equality with the idea of
multiparty democracy and by eradicating feudalism and semi colonialism.
• Nepal communist party (Marxist) and Nepal communist Party (ML) merged on 22 Paush 2047 and
Nepal communist part was formed.
• The communist party (UML) contest in the election of 2048 and won the 69 seats in parliament.
• Similarly in the Mid term election of 2051 UML won the 88 seats and became the largest party in
the parliament.
• In the election of 2056 the communist party had got the second position.
• In the first election of Constituent assembly the communist party of Nepal (UML) became the
third party.
• Second election of constituent assembly it stood in second position.
• Focus on the implementation for qualitative employment based education for creation of healthy
human resources.
• Revolutionary change on national educational system to make it scientific.
• Promotion of women right in paternal property etc.
Role of UML
• It contributed in the establishment of democracy in 2007 BS.
• It contributed in the restoration of multiparty democracy in 2046 BS.
• It marched first steps in the security of aged people in the country in 2052.
• It played the crucial role in the peace building process of the country during the period between
2052 and 2062.
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• It played the vital role in making constitution in constituent assembly etc.
The basic objectives of party were as follows:
• Establishment of people’s republic under the principle of Bahudaliya Janabaad established by

Madan Bhandari.
• Distribution of Land to the landless and small farmer in accordance to report prepared by high
land commission.
• Promotion of privatization for only selected public enterprises.
Unified Communist party of Nepal (Maoist)
• Unified communist party of Nepal (Maoist) was a component of contemporary Nepal Communist
Party (NCP).
• Unified communist party of Nepal (Maoist) was officially established on fourth February 1996 AD.
• Main Political philosophy of this party is communism and it used to believe in Marxism, Leninism
and Maoism.
• Unified communist party of Nepal (Maoist) raised a armed revolution for nearly ten years In order
to establish to federal republican state.
• Unified communist party of Nepal (Maoist) started armed revolution on 2 falgun 2052 BS.
• Finally they came to peace talk and declared n end to armed revolution.
• Unified communist party of Nepal (Maoist) took part in the first election of constituent assembly
and became the largest political party in Nepal.
• In the election of second constituent assembly it became the third political party in Nepal and in
the election of Parliament held in 2074 it, again, became third largest party in the parliament.
Objectives of this party
• Removal of monarchy and promulgation of republican constitution.
• Establishment of people’s rule by wrecking the reactionary ruling system of Nepal.
• To direct the historical revolution against feudalism, imperialism and reformist.
• To establish justice for the back-warded indigenous and marginalized peoples of Nepal.
• Establishment f public private partnership policy in the economic development of the country.
• Removal of dominance of the feudal forces and capitalistic democratic party and grant full
freedom to all the anti-feudal and anti imperialistic party.
Role of Maoist
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• Unified Nepal communist party (Maoist) Played the determinant role in the establishment of
republic country by wrecking the monarchy in the country.
• It played the great role in the constitution building process.
• It raised the issue of identity in Nepali society.
• It played the crucial role in the reduction of social discrimination in Nepali society.
Nepali Congress
• Nepali congress is the largest opposition party in Nepal. Nepali National Congress (2003 BS) and
Nepal Democratic Congress (2005) merged on 27 Chaitra 2006 BS Merged and became Nepali
Congress. Matrika Prasad Koirala Became the chairperson of this party.
• The conference held on 9 Jestha 2009 in Janakpur and BP koirala became the chair person of this
party.
• Main principle of this political party is the democratic socialism the principle propounded by the
BP Koirala. It is the mass based party.
• Main objective of this party is to establish democratic socialism in the country.
• Nepali congress contested in election held in 2015 BS won the 74 seats out of 109 seats and BP
Koirala became the prime Ministers Nepal. But the first elected democratic government became
the victim of Royal coup and all political parties were banned by the King Mahendara and various
political parties conducted their political activities underground.
• In the second election held on 2048 Nepali congress won the 110 seats out of 205 seats.
• Similarly Nepali congress won the 83 and in the election of 2056 Nepali congress stood in the first
position and got simple majority.
• Nepali congress stood at the second in the election of constituent assembly held in 2064 and
became the first in second election of constituent assebly.
• It became the second largest party in the election held in 2074 BS.
Role of Nepali congress
• The role of Nepali congress in the establishment of democracy is very crucial. In Nepal democracy
is possible thorough the armed revolution conducted by Nepali congress in 2007 BS.
• Similarly Nepali congress played a great role in restoration of Multiparty democracy in 2046 BS.
• The Nepali Congress and the then chairperson Girija Prasad Koirala played great role in peace
building and constitution building process.
Sanghiya Samajbadi forum

• Federal socialistic forum is another political party of Nepal.
• It is developed after the unification of Madhesi jana Adhikar Forum and Sanghiya samajbadi party.
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• MJF initially was not political party but a political advocacy movement demanding ethnic self
determination rights with the formation of Madhes autonomous region.
• This party believes in an election system based on the proportional representation and setting of
federal republic in Nepal.
• Main principle of this party are social democracy, Rights of Madhesi people and ethnic group of
Nepal, Federalism, Self determination rights etc.
Role of SSF Nepal
• This party played crucial role in establishment of rights of Madhesi party and ethnic group of
Nepal.
• It raised the issue of identity in Nepal thorough the social movement in Nepal.
• It played the vital role in the establishment federal and secular state.
Administrative Division of Nepal
• At present, Nepal is divided into three layers administratively.
• Specially Administrative of Nepal is divided into Federal state Level (Central Level), Provincial and
local level administration.
• The Administraive structure of Nepal is Federal, Provincial and local.
Central level Administrative
• Central level administrative is also known as the federal government which conducted daily
administration of the country.
• In a broad sense Central level administration includes executives, Legislature and Judicial
administration but in a narrow sense it only includes executive body.
Federal Executives
• Council of minister is the executive body of Nepal and the responsibility of provide general
directives, control and enforcement regarding the governance system of Nepal is the main duty
of Council of ministers.
• Provision of about federal executives is made in the part 7 of the constitution of Nepal 2072 BS.
Formation of Council of ministers
• The president appoints leader of parliamentary party with the majority as the prime minister and
the council of ministers forms in his or her leadership.
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• If there is not majority of single party in parliament the president appoints prime minister to the
member of parliament who can have the majority with the support of other party.
• In this condition the prime ministers have to get vote of confidence within 30 days of
appointment.
• If the government could not formed above condition, the president appoints prime Minister to
the leader of largest party in the parliament and s/he also have to get vote of confidence within
the 30 days of his her appointment.
• Council of Ministers shall form by the president on the recommendation of Prime Minister.
Conditions under which Prime Minister and Minister Ceases

In case of Prime minister
• If prime minister tenders written resignation to the president
• If failing to get vote of confidence in parliament
• If s/he ceases to be member of parliament.
• If s/he dies.
In case of Ministers
• If s/he tenders written resignation to the prime Minister
• If the prime minister removes minister from the post.
• If s/he dies
Functions of Executives
• To conduct daily administrative activities
• To maintain peace and harmony in the country
• Conduct different developmental activities of the country
• Appointment of different officials and of the constituent organs etc.
• The function related to defense and army
• To protect the national unity and territorial integrity
• To maintain the interrelations etc.
Federal Legislature
• According to constitution there is a legislature called federal parliament which is consisting of two
houses house of representative(165 FPTP) + PR 110 =275 ) and National Assembly (56 Electe+3
Nominated =59 Members).
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• Generally the term of house of representative will be years and National assembly is the
permanent house.
Qualification for Members
• The persons who meet the following qualifications will be eligible to be the member of Parliament
• Citizen of Nepal
• The Completion of age 25 for the member of house of representative and 35 to the members of
National Assembly
• Should not be punished for the criminal offence involving moral turpitude (morally degraded)
• Should be eligible under any law
• Should not hold the post benefit
Vacation of seats
• Seat of parliament member will be vacant in the following circumstances
• If the members of parliament tenders written resignation to the speaker or chairperson.
• If the member of the parliament does not meat the above qualification
• If his/her term of office expires
• If he or she remains absent from ten consecutive meetings without notification to the house
• If he or she dies.
Functions of Parliament
• Legislative function: which includes law making, amendment of the law etc.
• Control over executive
• Financial functions: To pass the fiscal bill
• Constitution amending functions by two third majority
• Electoral functions
• Miscellaneous functions
Judiciary
• Judicial administration is another administration in Nepal.
• According to the constitution all the judicial functions and power are exercised by the courts and
other judicial institutions
• Judiciary in Nepal is divided into three layers: Supreme court, High court and District Court.
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Supreme Court
• According to the constitution there is a supreme court in Nepal. It is the court of record. It has
final power and in accordance with constitution all other courts and judicial institutions shall
remain under the supreme court.
Appointment and Qualification of chief Justices and Other justices in Supreme court
• In addition to Chief justice, supreme court shall be maximum of 20 justices. In case of inadequacy
of justices, other temporary Judges may be appointed.
• President appoints the chief justice on the recommendation of the constitutional council and
justices of supreme court on the recommendation of Judicial council.
• Any Judge who has the at least 3 years experience in supreme court is eligible to be a chief justice.
But the he or she must be approved by the parliamentary hearing committee.
• Any Nepali citizen with bachelor degree in law and has worked as the chief Judge of high court or
practiced advocacy for 15 years as law graduate senior advocate, or has worked as a gazetted first
class officer for at least twelve years is eligible for the appointment in the judge of supreme court.
• The office tem of chief justice is six years
Conditions Vacant of Justices and chief Justice
• If the chief justice renders his/her written resignation to the president and a judge submits his/her
resignation to the chief justice.
• If s/he attains the age of 65 years.
• If an impeachment resolution is passed from the parliament
• If s/he dies etc.
Jurisdiction of Supreme court
• Function related to petition: Supreme court protects the legal rights of people. Any Nepali citizen
may file a petition in this court to have access on law and the law which is inconsistent with the
constitution will be void by the court.
• Enforcement of Fundamental rights: - The supreme court have extraordinary power to issue the
necessary and appropriate orders to enforce the fundamental rights of people. Specially it has
legal rights for the enforcement of fundamental rights provided by the constitution.
• Jurisdictions to hearing original and appellate cases: - The supreme court of Nepal have
jurisdiction to hear original and appellate cases, to review its own judgments or interim order, to
examine decision referred for conformation and hear petition.
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• Jurisdiction of hearing appeal cases: - The supreme court of Nepal hears the appeal cases that
have been initiated and executed by the high courts. Similarly it hears a subject of public interest
litigation including a questions related to the interpretation of the constitution and law cases
referred by high courts along with its opinion that it is appropriate for the supreme court to decide
on it.
High Court
• There is a high courts in each province of Nepal.
• In addition to chief Judge, every high courts have judges in the number as provided in the federal
law.
Appointment and Qualification of Chief and other Judges of High courts
• The chief Justice appoints Chief judge and Judges of High courts on the recommendation of the
judicial council.
• Any Nepali citizen who has a Bachelor Degree in Law and experience five years as a district Judge
or has practiced law as senior advocate or advocate for at least ten years or at leas ten years of
teaching law or worked in any post gazetted first class officer of judicial service is eligible to be
the chief and other Judges in the high courts.
Conditions of Vacant posts of Chief Judge and other Judges in High courts
• If s/he submits written resignation to the chief justice.
• If S/he is completed the age of sixty three.
• If S/he is removed by the judicial council for reason of incompetence, misbehaviour, ill-intended
activities and serious violence of the code of conduct.
• If S/he is removed by the judicial council for being unable to perform the duties of her/his office
due to the physical or mental illness.
• If s/he dies.
Jurisdiction of High Courts
• The High courts have the right to order special issue and appropriate order in the name of
government, institution or individuals within the its provincial jurisdiction for the enforcement of
fundamental rights.
• The high court have jurisdiction to hear the original and appellate cases and to examine decisions
referred for conformation.
• Other powers of the high courts are according to federal law.
District Court
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• There is a district courts in every district.
• Appointment: - The chief justice appoints the Judges of district court on the recommendation of
judicial council.
• Out of total vacant position 20 % to be fulfilled through the appointment of the second class
officers of the judicial services who have completed bachelor degree in law and completed at least
three years of service based on seniority and work performance evaluation.
• Out of total vacant posts of Judges 40 % to be fulfilled thorough the appointment of the second
class officers of the judicial services with bachelor degree in law and three years of experience
based on the open competitions.
• Similarly 40 percent out of total vacant position to be fulfilled through the open competitions
among Nepali citizen who have the bachelor degree in law and worked as advocate for eight years
or teaching experience of law etc.
Jurisdiction of District court
• It has jurisdiction to hear original cases and execute all decisions.
• It has jurisdiction to hear appeal over the decision taken by the quasi judicial body and local level
judicial institutions. Etc.
Provincial level Administration
• Provincial level Administration is also called sub national administration.
• Basically it includes provincial executives and provincial legislature.
• Provincial Executives: - The executive functions of the province is exercised in the name of
provincial government.
• The provincial head appoints to the leader of provincial parliament party with the majority as the
Chief minister and the provincial council of ministers forms in his or her leadership.
• If there is not majority of single party in parliament the Provincial head appoints Chief minister
to the member of provincial parliament who can have the majority with the support of other
parties.
• In this condition the Chief ministers have to get vote of confidence within 30 days of his /her
appointment.
• If the government could not formed above condition, the provincial head appoints Chief Minister
to the leader of largest party in the Provincial parliament and s/he also have to get vote of
confidence within the 30 days of his /her appointment.
• Provincial Council of Ministers shall form by the provincial head on the recommendation of Chief
Minister.
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• The chief Minister and Ministers of provincial council of ministers shall be collectively accountable
towards the provincial Assembly and ministers shall be individually responsible to the chief
minster and the provincial assembly for the work of their respective ministries.
Vacancy of office of chief-Ministersand other Ministers
In case of Chief Minister
• If the chief Minister submits his of her resignation to provincial head.
• If vote of confidence fails of no confidence motion against him / her is passed.
• If s/he ceases to be member of provincial lower house.
• If S/he dies.
• In case of other Ministers
• If they submit their written resignation to the Chief minister.
• If the chief Minister remove them.
• If chief minister himself/herself ceased from the post.
• If S/he dies.
• If S/he is ceased from the member of provincial parliament.
Provincial Assembly
• There the provision of unicameral legislature in a province which is called Provincial Assembly.
• Every provincial Assembly is consist of members equal to double the number of members to be
elected thorough the First-Past-The- Post (FPTP) lection system to the house of representatives
from the concerned province.
• The numbers of members to be elected through proportional representation system equal to the
remaining forty percent when the number of members FPTP is regarded as Sixty percent.
• Term of provincial assembly will be of five years, if it dissolved earlier according to constitution
Qualifications to be member of Provincial parliament
• S/he should be Nepali citizen.
• S/he must be the voter of the concerned province,
• S/he attained twenty-five years,
• S/he should not have punished for any criminal offences involving moral turpitude,
• S/he should not have ineligible by any Law,
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• S/he should not hold the post of benefit.
Conditions under which the post of member will be vacant
• If S/he gives written resignation to the speaker of provincial Assembly,
• If S/he does not meet the required qualification, If the terms provincial assembly expires or
dissolved,
• If S/he remains absent from ten consecutive meeting without notification to the provincial
assembly,
• If S/he left the party fro which S/he is elected and concerned party gives written notification to
the provincial assembly.
• If S/he dies.
Provincial Jurisdiction
• Provincial police administration as well as law and order,
• Banks and operation of financial institutions according to the policy of Nepal Rastra Bank,
• Radio television and FM operation,
• Land and house registration fee, Vehicle tax, Entertainment tax, advertisement tax, tax on tourism
etc,
• Provincial civil service and other service,
• Provincial level electricity, irrigation project, drinking water, and transportation,
• Exploration and management of mine, Land management and record keeping of the land,
• Agriculture and livestock development, factories, industrialization, and business
• Provincial Highways etc.
Local self governance

Concept and Meaning
• Local self-governance is the main essence and backbone of the democratic government that
adopts the policy of decentralization.
• It is the system of governing the public affairs through appropriate mechanism at the local level,
close to the people, lower than the national level, i.e. Village and urban level or grassroot level in
country.
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• Local self-governance act provides decentralization in development programs by devolution of

authority to the local bodies like Village council, and municipalities .
• The local bodies work as local authority or governments with in their jurisdiction after the
implementation of the Act.
• ‘Local self-governance is the basic place for democratic experiment.’
• Similarly Ashirbadam defines ‘Local self-governance is a unit of central government in which

elected representatives are there in city and village and they used their authorities for welfare.’
• Form the above definitions, it may be concluded that local self-governance implies the act of
governing by the local bodies, elected by people, which receive the authority and responsibility
through the national government and which act autonomously guided by the wisdom and
common sense to identify and mobilize the local resources.
• Local self-governance implies the act of governing by the local bodies, elected by people which
receive the authority and responsibility through the national government and which act
autonomously guided by the wisdom and common sense.
• The democratic exercises make the provision for maximum participation of local people for use
of state’s power.
• The concept of local self governance refers to the transmission of power and authority at the local
level.
• According to this concept, local problems are to be highlighted for a balance and sustainable
development. The concept of local self-governance revolves around the aspect of inclusion of all
peoples from the different sectors of society.
• It is based on the principle of ‘Think locally act globally.’
• Power decentralization: The power and responsibility of centre body need to be decentralized
when we talk about local self-governance. The power and responsibility of the centre agency
transfer into local agency (Village Municipality, and municipality). The local self-governments are
concerned with water, transportation, electricity, roads, school, and telephone like local level
development by identifying local resources.
• Development of Local `Leadership: In local self-governance, people of local level are inspired
towards leadership. The local leadership is set up through election. The elected leaders always try
to do well for the welfare the village or community.
• Direct Involvement of People: In the local self-governance system, local representative of people
hold the leadership in the institution of village, town and district. Only the persons elected by
people take the leadership. As the elected representatives of people take part in governance it
can be said that people are involved in the practice of local self-governance.
• Increasing People’s participation in development and administration: In the centralized system,

the state only plays the role of interference. But in the local self-governance, the central
government happens to have given the greater autonomy to local bodies or authoritative person.
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In the local self-governance and local development administration, people’s participation is on

the increase and their direct or indirect participation in the administrative system takes place.
• Cheap and Flexible Administration: The local agencies (Village Municipality and Municipality)
identifies and mobilizes locally available resources and implemented successfully developmental
works in a smooth and economic way. As all works to be done in local community need to be
accomplished through the active participation of people. Similarly, people find it easy to obtain
essential administrative co-operation.
Local governments and their functions and roles
• Village Executives:- According to constitution there is a village executives which acts as the local
government in each Village councils.
• Composition of Village Executives: The elected head of village council becomes the chairperson
of the village executives. The village executives forms under the his/her chairpersonship.
• Similarly Deputy head and other ward chairpersons elected from ward become the members of
Village executive.
• Four women members that are elected by the village assembly members from among themselves
and two persons elected from Dalit or Minority community will be members of the village
executives.
Composition of Municipal Executive
• The Municipal Executives:
• There is a Mayor in every Municipality and municipal executive is formed under the
chairpersonship of Mayor.
• Similarly there will be a deputy mayor and Ward chair persons of each ward will be the members
of Municipal executive.
• The Five women members that are elected by the municipal assembly members among
themselves and
• Three persons elected from Dalit or minority community.
Qualifications of To be the head, deputy head and Member of Village and Municipal executive
• Individual should be Nepali citizen.
• S/he should have attained the 21 years of age.
• The name should be included in voter lists of concerned Municipality or Village Council.
• S/he should not be ineligible by any law.
Conditions under which the post will be vacant
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• If the head submits his/her resignation before the deputy head and the deputy head before the
head.
• If his her terms comes to end.
• If s/he dies.
In case the post of Head and Deputy head falls vacant with more than one years of the term
left, the vacant post for the remaining period should be fulfilled thorough the election.
Functions of Municipality and Village Council (Executive)
• Municipal Police : The composition, conduction, regulation, and management is the main
function of Local level. Similarly Municipality and Village council can formulate the policy, Law,
criteria and implementation is the main job of local level. The local executive can mobilize the
municipal police to implement to policy and law, to protect the property, to protect the local
tradition, festival and jatra, to manage the local market, etc.
• Cooperatives: The Municipality and village council can formulate the policy, law, criteria and can
regulate the cooperatives. Similarly it can register, disorganize within its territory.
• FM Radio: The local level Can give the permission to conduct the FM radio of 100 watt. Similarly
it can renew, Regulate, and discard the registration of FM radio.
• Local Tax: The local government can formulate the law, policy, relating to property tax, house
rent tax, fee on the registration of house and land, vehicle tax, service fee, entertainment tax,
advertisement tax etc and can implement and regulate within the territory. But the local
government should remain under the federal and provincial law.
• Management of local services: The local government can formulate an implement the policy,
terms of service plan and criteria relating to the local service.
• Local statistic and record keeping: The local government can formulate, regulate, and implement
the policy, law, criteria, plan of local statistics. Similarly the registration and the record keeping
relating to Birth, death, divorce, migration etc is the main function of the Local government.
• Local Development: it is another function of village and municipality. The local government can
formulate and implement the policy, program and projects of local development. Similarly it can
regulate, evaluate, control the socio-economic development of the local level. Similarly it can
facilitate, coordinate, and manage the federal and provincial level development projects and
plans. Etc.
• Local Development: it is another function of village and municipality. The local government can
formulate and implement the policy, program and projects of local development. Similarly it can
regulate, evaluate, control the socio-economic development of the local level. Similarly it can
facilitate, coordinate, and manage the federal and provincial level development projects and
plans. Etc.
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• Basic and secondary education : The local government can formulates policy, criteria, regulate,
law, implement the law and policy relating to the early child development and education, Basic
education, secondary education, community learning, special education etc. formulation of village
and municipal education committee, management of closed and merged schools, Naming of the
school, conduction of extracurricular activities etc. are the major function relating to the basic
and secondary education.
• Basic and secondary education : The local government can formulates policy, criteria, regulate,
law, implement the law and policy relating to the early child development and education, Basic
education, secondary education, community learning, special education etc. formulation of village
and municipal education committee, management of closed and merged schools, Naming of the
school, conduction of extracurricular activities etc. are the major function relating to the basic
and secondary education.
• Basic health and sanitation: formulation and implementation of policy and law relating to basic
health and sanitation, operation of reproductive health and nutrition program, maintain the
quality of drinking water, establishment of hospital, etc are the functions relating to the basic
health and sanitation.
• Management of local markets, environment conservation and bio diversity.
• Construction local roads, agricultural roads, rural roads and irrigation.
• Distribution of land and building ownership certificate.
• Management of senior citizens, people with physical disability.
• Collection of statistics of unemployment people.
• Drinking water, small hydroelectricity projects and alternative energy.
• Disaster management,
• Reservation and development of local languages, culture and fine arts.
• Conservation of mine, watershed, wetland, wild life, minerals Etc.
District Assembly and District Coordination Committee
• There is a District Assembly in each district consisting of Mayor and deputy mayor of Municipality,
and chair person and vice chairperson of rural municipality.
• There is a district coordination committee in each district. The district assembly elects Maximum
none members including
• Head 1,
• Deputy Head 1, and
• 7 members including 3 women and 1 from Dalit or minority community.
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• The members of Village Assembly and Municipality are eligible to be the members of district
coordination committee.
• The term of office is 5 years.
Functions of DCC
• To carry out monitoring to maintain balance in development and construction works.
• To coordinate among the Rural Municipalities and Municipalities and Province within the District.
• To maintain coordination among federal, and provincial government offices and rural and
municipalities within the district.
• To coordinated the plan and task related to the natural calamity and disaster management within
the district. Etc.
Nepal and International /Regional Organizations

Nepal and SAARC
• South Asian Association for Regional cooperation was established on 8 December 1985.
• Main aims
• To promote welfare of South Asians,
• To improve the quality of life of South Asian people,
• To accelerate the economic growth of this region,
• Social progress and cultural development,
• To provide a individuals opportunity to live in dignity and realize their full potentials etc.
Members Countries
• Afghanistan,
• Bangladesh,
• Bhutan,
• India,
• Maldives,
• Nepal,
• Pakistan and
• Sri-Lanka.
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Organs of SAARC
• SAARC Summit: It is the highest body of SAARC. Executives heads of the member states.
• Council of Ministers: - It comprises the ministers of foreign affairs of the members states. It
formulates policies, reviews progress of cooperation, decides new areas of cooperation etc.
• Standing committee: - It is the charter body at foreign secretary level for monitoring and reviewing
progress of SAARC activities and program.
• SAARC Secretariat: - It was established in Kathmandu on 16 January 1987. it mainly coordinates

and monitors the implementation of SAARC activities.
Nepal’s contribution to SAARC.
• SAARC Secretariat is established in Kathmandu Nepal on 16th January 1987.
• The Logo of SAARC was designed by the Shailendra Mahargan.
• Nepal contributes 10.72 of the expense of SAARC.
• SAARC information centre and head office of SAARC economic union is in Nepal.
• Nepal Hosts SAARC Tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS centre at Bhaktapur
BIMSTEC
• Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi Sectorial Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) was
established on 6 Jan. 1997.
• It mainly aims to create an enabling environment for rapid economic development, accelerate
social progress and promote collaboration on matters of common interest in the region.
• Members country are
• Bangladesh,
• Bhutan,
• India,
• Myanmar,
• Nepal,
• Sri Lanka and
• Thailand.
• Its secretariat is located in Dhaka.
• Nepal’s membership in BIMSTEC on 8 February 2004.
Priorities areas
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• Trade and Investment,
• Technology,
• Energy,
• Transportation and communication,
• Tourism,
• Fisheries,
• Agriculture,
• Cultural cooperation,
• Environment and disaster management,
• Public Health,
• People to people contact,
• Poverty alleviation,
• Climate change etc.
Organs of BIMSTEC
BIMSTEC Summit:
• it is the highest policy making body. It is comprised of head of the member state/government of
the member states.
Ministerial Meeting: It is the second policy making forum of BIMSTEC .
• It is comprised by the external of foreign affairs ministers of member state.
• Ministerial Meting is preceded by senior official meetings and is represented by the senior
officials.
• Business and Economic forum: It ensures active participation of private sector. In business forum
private sector representatives meet and discuss various issues.
• Senior Official’s meeting:
• BIMSTEC working group
UNO
• UNO was established in 1945 after second world war.
• First Meeting 10 Jan 1946.
• Nepal’s membership on 14 December 1955.
Objectives
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• To maintain the international peace and security.
• To develop the friendly relations among the countries of the world.
• To promote and protect the human rights and fundamental liberty in the world.
• To solve the international problems such as economic, social, and cultural problems etc.
Principles of UNO
• UNO is based on the theory of equal sovereignty of all countries.
• All countries shall solve the international disputes according to the responsibility towards the UN
charter.
• All countries will help the action of UNO and do not help to the countries who are against the UN
charter etc.
Organs of UNO
• General Assembly: -
• General Assembly is the supreme and highest organs and legislature of UNO.
• All the member state send five representatives in the general assembly but each country has one
vote in the decision making.
• It makes important decision on the tow third majority.
• Meeting of general assembly starts from the third Tuesday of September in every year.
• Security council: -
• There are 15 members in the security council.
• America, Britain, China, France, and Russia are the permanent member of security council and
other ten member are elected by from the General Assembly by two third majority for two years.
• Main function of this council is to maintain international peace and security.
• Economic and social council: - There are 54 members in the economic and social council. All 54
members are elected by the General Assembly by two third majority for 3 years.
• Judicial Council: It has 14 members. Out 14, 7 are administrative and other 7 are non
administrative member. Its main function is decolonized the countries which are under the
colony.
International Court: -
• There is the provision of a international court to see the dispute among and between the
countries.
• There are 15 judges who are appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of
Security council.
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• Terms of office for international judges is 9 years.
Specialized institution of UNO
• Food and Agriculture Organization –FAO,
• International Labour Organization- ILO,
• United Nation Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization- UNESCO.
• World Health Organization- WHO,
• World Bank- WB,
• International Monetary Fund-IMF,
• International Civil Aviation Organization- ICAO,
• Universal Postal Union- UPU etc.
Role of Nepal In UNO
• Nepal is showing enduring help to UNO after joining the UNO on 14 December 1955.
• It has been actively involved in the activities of the UNO.
• Nepal has been significantly contributing to the UN peace keeping operation around the world by
sending military and police personnel.
• Nepal is showing the commitment to the international contract and treaty by signing on different
treaties.
• Nepal has shown strong commitment towards peace, security and disarmament.
• Nepal has been actively fulfilled its responsibilities while being members of security council in
1969-70 and 1988-89 and other different positions etc.
NGOs/INGOs in Nepal
Meaning of NGOs and INGOs
• The organizations which are privately established, regulated through their own mechanism, non-
political, non-governmental and not profitable such organizations are known as the NGOs.
• If these organizations are opened within the national boundary are called NGOs and
internationally operated organizations are called INGOs.
Registration of NGOs In Nepal
• In Nepal, NGOs have been recognized as important avenues for development.
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• The NGOs are to be registered according to Association registration act 1977. This act provides
registration of NGOs at all chief district administration offices with minimum of restrictions.
• Any group of seven citizen may apply for registration specifying the name of the institution, it’s
objectives, name and address of the management committee members, sources of funding and
office address.
• INGOs are required to get permission from social welfare council for working in Nepal.
Types of NGOs in Nepal
a) National welfare oriented NGOs:-
The national welfare oriented NGOs operate their work at National scale. In institutional
structure, it consist a central office mainly in Kathmandu and branch offices in different parts of the
country.
Programs are approved once in a year and generally the members are volunteers.
They also have district and local committee. The decision making process is generally on the
people. They provide the selfless service to the people. Yet, recently they are seen participating in the
several development activities. Nepal Red Cross Society is a good example of National welfare oriented
NGOs in Nepal.
b) Professional NGOs:-
• The general characteristics of the professional NGOs are highly qualified personnel with
rich payment. Usually, executive director is hired for day to day management of organization.
• Main activity of professional NGOs is conduct research and action program. These NGOs operate
in a few districts with a limited capital or budget.
• c) District / village based or Community based NGOs:-
• District /village based NGOs are the creation of a particular characteristics of personality.
• The decisions are generally made by the leaders and passed through the common
consensus at the executive meeting. The activities of the executive leaders include fund raising,
planning, coordinating as well as implementing, the programs. Social workers are hired and kept
under the strict and continuous supervision at the centre. The availability of funds from the donor
agencies or countries determines their course of action.
• Most of NGOs in Nepal are of district/village/Community based NGOs.
Focused areas of NGOs in Nepal
• The growth and expansion of NGOs in Nepal is faster. Likewise, Non-governmental organizations
are conducting their activities in different sectors of society. They are performing different
activities. NGOs are focusing their activities on the following areas:
a) Poverty alleviation:-
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Especially Non-governmental organizational are focusing their activities in the poverty alleviation.
They are contributing on generating program and constructing the saving and credit group.
b) Agriculture:-
Agriculture is another area, where NGOs of Nepal are focusing their activities. They use the
concept of group mobilization in agricultural development.
NGOs motivate people for the cultivation, animal husbandry, and other unified services by forming the
different agricultural groups. Likewise, NGOs provide training of horticulture and vegetable cultivation.
They also distribute hybrid of crops and animals.
c) Irrigation:-
NGOs help to irrigation by identifying the source of water and carrying out feasibility study with
the intended beneficiaries group.
NGOs are helping to target groups to organize and working out resources mobilization plan,
construction program, including supply of construction materials, use of water and charges to be paid by
the water users, maintenance and operation and mobilizing governmental as well as non-governmental
support for such activities.
NGO are providing training to the local people in construction, operation maintenance and creating local
experts.
• d) Drinking water and sanitation:-
• Another area of NGOs activities is drinking water and sanitation. NGOs are helping
community groups and others identifying feasible areas for construction of drinking water
projects. They help to mobilize technical and other material support for construction of drinking
water projects. They are also helping to train community members in repair and maintenance
activities. They are educating community groups to organize water users association and
providing assistance in account maintenance and management. They are propagating and
educating communities in water conservation, sanitation etc.
• e) Primary health and family planning:- NGOs of Nepal are performing different activities
in the area of primary health and family planning.
• They are providing general health and family planning education on preventing health
car, and personal hygiene. They are also popularizing the use of family planning devices.
• They are also providing training in basic health care and the need to immunize the
children and pregnant mothers.
• f) Basic and primary education:-
• NGOs are helping communities in initiating the establishment and operation of primary
school.
• They are also encouraging enrollment of all school age children including girls by
motivating their parents and the children.
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• They are also organizing non-formal education classes. In fact, they are conducting
literacy, post-literacy and out of school education programs.
• g) Income generating program:-
• NGOs are conducting and developing income generating program for poor through
training.
• They are providing financial service in local level by forming small saving and credit group.
• They are educating the lesson of capacity building in the local level.
• h) Forestry:-
• Forest is another focus activities area of NGO in Nepal. They are creating awareness on
the necessity to plan, protect and manage community forest resources both for individual,
household and community.
• They are educating the communities about the rules and regulations of community and
private forest.
• They are also facilitating legal recognition for the indigenous groups already managing
community forest and also seeing that they are receive ownership rights and other requisite
supports.
i) Gender main streaming:-
• Another an important area of focused activities of NGOs is gender main streaming.
• They are providing the education of gender equality by creating awareness community members.
• They are performing the activities in gender awareness, gender discrimination equality etc.
• Apart from above areas, NGOs are doing their activities in the field of
• social welfare,
• human rights,
• conflict management,
• construction of physical infrastructure,
• heritage conservation and growth etc.
Implication on Economy and Business

• Generally political development and governance in Nepal is about the constitution, democracy,
political parties, administrative division, local self governance etc which are the matter of
implication in each and every field of economy and Business of the country.
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• Politics being the decision making component of society it always influences our economic and
business policies and activities so we should consider about the state law and politics in making
the economic and business policies.
• Democracy always taughts about to respect the majority which is also can be implicate in the
economy and business.
• The knowledge of constitution and law can be helpful to develop the economy and business. W
should remain under the existing law and regulation in making the different policies and plan of
business.
• Similarly knowledge about the political parties and their policies and ideologies help to determine
the business policy.
• Political ideology is always related to the economic system which always influences the economy
and business.
• Local self governance always helps the mobilization of local resources which can be use in the
development of local economy and business.
• The knowledge about international and regional organizations helps to the international trend
and policy which is helpful to internal economy and business.
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Nepalese Society and Politics

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NOTE BY MR.

BIGYAN SHARMA – MMC, DHARAN

 How was the name Nepal and state originated ?

 In limbu language Plain area is known as Nepal

 Sovereignty is the ultimate power of the particular state.

 Indivisibility: - According to Gettell if sovereignty is not absolute, no state exists, if sovereignty is

Nepal as Sovereign state: Origin and Development

Origin of Nepal as Sovereign country

 Gopalas were the founder of the Nepal state.

 Initially the sovereignty was vested in the Gopal kings.

 According to constitution of 2072 BS sovereignty is vested in Nepali people .

Geographical Location of Nepal

 Nepal is a small Himalayan country which is situated in south Asian region.

 It is the landlocked country situated between China and India.

 It occupies the 147181 sq.km are area of the world.

 East-west average length of Nepal is 885 km.

 Average north-south extension is 193 km.

 Maximum width of Nepal is 242 km (western part)

 Minimum width of Nepal is 141 km in eastern part.

Ecological situation of Nepal

Division of Ecological regions

 Every ecological region has different cultures and products.

 Every region are not equally developed.

 It is situated in northern part of the country.

 It occupies the 15% territory of the total area of Nepal.

 It lies between 2400m to 8848m from the sea level.

 It is also divided into three sub-region.

 Marginal Mountain:- It is spread from 30 km to 45 km from the main mountain.

 In this mountain region specially Buddhism is followed by most of people.

 It has low fertility rate.

 It has 6.73 percent of the total population.

 Animal husbandry is the main occupation in this region.

 Herbs and tourism is also main source of income in this region.

 It is situated between 600m to 2400m from the sea level.

 It covers 68% territory of the total area of Nepal.

 It has 43 percent of the total population of Nepal.

 In this region Main spoken language is Nepali.

 Agricultural occupation is the main occupation in this region.

 Religious diversity can be found in this region.

 Lower plain area of Nepal is called Terai.

 It ranged from 60m to 600m from sea level.

 It occupies 17% area of total area of Nepal.

 Economy of Terai is based on agriculture and industries.

 Social structure of Terai is totally based on the caste structure.

Political History of Ancient Nepal

Gopala Dynasty (900 to 700BC)

 Religiously Gopala were the followers of Lord Krishna.

 Gopala ruled Nepal from near Modern Matatirtha.

Mahishpala Dynasty (700 to 625BC)

 The Mahishpala dynasty was the second ruling dynasty of Nepal.

Kirata Dynasty (625 to 100AD)

 Kirati came to Nepal and ruled over here.

 There were 29 kings of kirata dynasty who ruled over Nepal.

Condition of Nepal under Kirata

 Kirata developed a number of town such as Matatirtha, Shankhamul, Thankot,, Khopung

Some Major kings of Lichchavi Dynasty

 He issued the coin Mananka.

 He was also known as the wise adminstrator.

Amshuvarma: - Amshuvarma was experienced in administration because he was involved in politics

 Period of King Amshuvarma is known as the golden age of Lichchavi period.

 The coins bearing his name were minted.

 He adopted the title of Maharajadhiraj of Nepal.

 He was in favour of Natural Law

 Many taxes were dismissed during his regency.