Aircraft Instrument Systems

AIR SPEED INDICATOR (ASI)
 PURPOSE:-
It is used to indicate the

speed at which the
aircraft is moving
through the air.
152
 It registers the speed of the air

striking the aircraft from
reading of Dynamic Pressure
registered by the Pitot Head.
Its registers only Indicated Air
Speed (IAS) which varies
substantially with differences
in Altitude and Temperature.
153
 PRINCIPLE:
It works on the Principle
of “Differential Pressure
between Dynamic and

Static Pressure”.
154
Calculation of airspeed from altimeter
 pitot pressure (P) - static pressure (S)
pitot pressure (P) = dynamic pressure (D) + static pressure (S)
therefore;
P – S = (D + S) - S = D
 the pressure inside the capsule consists of dynamic + static

Pressure.
pressure outside the capsule is entirely static pressure.
SO any expansion of the capsule is due entirely to dynamic
pressure.
 Dynamic Pressure (D) =

Where ρ is density and V is true airspeed 155
Sensitive and Servo Airspeed Indicators
 In the Sensitive and Servo Airspeed Indicators extra sensitivity is
achieved by using a capsule stack rather than a single capsule, plus
additional gearing to drive two pointers over a linearly
calibrated dial.
 the Servo ASI is that the mechanical

linkages are replaced by an electrically
driven transmission system with power
amplification.
156
ASI Errors
 Instrument Error: Any small manufacturing imperfections such as
bearing friction.
 Position Error: the static vents suffer from position (or pressure)
errors.
 Compressibility Error: At high air speeds the air compresses when

brought to rest in front of the pitot head and consequently enters
the tube at an artificially high density.
 Density Error: the ASI is calibrated to correctly indicate the

aircraft's true airspeed only at a density of 1225 gm/m3.
 Static Line Blockages And Leaks: Should either the pitot or the
static line become blocked the ASI will thereafter read incorrectly. 157
Airspeed definitions
Indicated Airspeed: is that which is shown on the face of the ASI.
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)/Rectified Airspeed (RAS): corrected for

instrument error and position (pressure) error.
 Equivalent Airspeed (EAS): CAS/RAS corrected for compressibility

error gives equivalent airspeed (EAS).
 True Airspeed (TAS): EAS corrected for density error gives true
airspeed (TAS).
158
AIR SPEED Color Codes
159
Machmeters
 Mach number is an expression of the speed of an aircraft as a
ratio of the aircraft's true airspeed to the local speed of sound.
The machmeter shows the aircraft speed as a Mach number,

where:
true airspeed
Mach number =
local speed of sound
With high-speed aircraft the Machmeter is an essential
instrument.
160
Machmeters
Local Speed of Sound: The value of the local speed of sound varies
only with temperature. The formula for calculating the local speed of
sound (LSS) is:
where;
LSS is given in knots
38.94 is a constant
T is temperature expressed in degrees
absolute or Kelvin (0°C = +273°A)
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Machmeters
Principle of Operation:
As already explained, Mach number is the ratio of TAS to LSS.
•TAS can be derived from an air data computer,
•LSS can be computer-modelled.
Let us start by considering an increase in
airspeed at a constant altitude. The airspeed
capsule will expand and the movement of
arm A will cause the ratio arm (B) to move
towards the bottom left hand corner of the
page; this movement is translated through
the ranging arm and a mechanical linkage to
result in a clockwise rotation of the needle on
the face of the instrument (an increase in the
indicated Mach number). The spring which is
shown ensures that the whole transmission
path remains suitably tensioned. 162
Machmeters Errors
The machmeter suffers only from instrument and position
(pressure) errors.
The machmeter does not suffer from density error.

The machmeter does not suffer from temperature error.
The machmeter does not suffer from compressibility error.
163
VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR (VSI)
The vertical speed indicator (VSI) is otherwise known as the rate of climb and
descent indicator (RCDI).
PURPOSE:
 It is used to indicate the vertical speed
of the aircraft in terms of thousand of
feet or meters per minute.
 It is mainly used in climbing or

descending at specified rate to ensure
arrival at a predetermined level or let
down through cloud or an instrument
landing.
164
Static pressure is fed directly into the capsule, and into the gas-tight instrument casing
through a restrictive choke or metering unit.
The changing pressure associated with the climb or descent is sensed immediately within
the capsule, however the restrictive choke imposes a small time delay before the change of
pressure is sensed outside the capsule.
This causes the capsule to contract

during a climb and to expand during a
descent, the greater the rate of change of
altitude the greater the distortion of the
capsule.
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Most VSI scales are calibrated in ft/minute however meters/sec is used occasionally
as an alternative unit of measurement.
The purpose of the choke is to create a pressure difference between the capsule
and the instrument casing which is proportional to the rate of climb or descent.
The movement of the capsule wall is

conveyed via the mechanical linkage to
a needle which moves across either a
linear scale, or more commonly a
logarithmic scale.
An adjuster screw on the front of the
instrument facilitates zeroing of the
needle before flight should it be
necessary.
166
The Inertial Lead or Instantaneous VSI
When the airplane noses over to begin a descent, the inertia of the accelerometer piston
causes it to move upward,
instantaneously increasing the
pressure inside the diaphragm and
lowering the pressure at the diffuser.
This gives an immediate indication
of a descent. By the time the lag of
the ordinary vertical speed
instrument has been overcome so it
will indicate the descent, there is no
more inertia from the nosedown
rotation and the piston is again
centered, making the instrument
ready to indicate instantly the
leveling off from the descent.
167
VSI Errors
 Time Lag: A short period of time will necessarily elapse before the pressure
differential appropriate to the rate of climb or descent is established within the
instrument.
 Instrument Error: caused by manufacturing imperfections.
 Position Error: If the static vent is subject to position (or pressure) error, the VSI will
show an erroneous rate of climb or descent when the speed of the aircraft changes
suddenly.
 Manoeuvre Induced Error: A change of attitude of the aircraft, especially in the

pitching plane, may well induce a short term inaccuracy of static pressure, giving a
false rate of climb or descent information on the VSI.
 Static Line Blockages And Leaks: the static line become blocked, the VSI will
cease to operate, showing continuously zero feet per minute rate of climb/descent.
168
Temperature Indicator
Bimetallic thermometer
 The bimetallic thermometer is probably the simplest of aircraft thermometers.
 A helical bimetallic element which twists with temperature changes is encased in a
tube.
 The thermometer is mounted on the
windscreen or fuselage with the tube
protruding into the airstream
169
Bimetallic thermometer
170
Remote bulb thermometer
 Can be either liquid or vapour filled.

 With a liquid filled system the bulb, capillary and Bourdon tube are completely filled
with liquid.
 The expansion of the liquid with increasing
temperature causes the Bourdon tube to
straighten.
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Rosemount probe (or total air temperature probe)
The probe has a small resistance coil surrounded by concentric cylinders.
The probe has an integral heating element fitted to it to prevent icing.
The heater obviously affects the temperature sensed by the sensor, however the
resultant error is small enough to be acceptable, being in the order of 1°C at Mach 0.1 and
0.15°C at Mach 1.0.
172
Air Temperature Errors
 Lag: usually only a consideration when simple probes, which are basically no
more than thermometers, are used.
 Instrument Error: caused by manufacturing imperfections
 Position Error: a temperature probe will be affected by its location on the

airframe.
 The magnitude of instrument and position errors can be determined.

Depending on the type of system, these errors may then be largely removed.
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True and Measured Temperature
 Static air temperature (SAT): the correct temperature of the ambient air and is
sometimes referred to as the corrected or true outside air temperature.
 at high speeds, the effect of compressibility means that the temperature which is
sensed will be considerably higher (warmer) than the static air temperature.
 Total air temperature (TAT): the temperature of air which has been brought
virtually to rest, and which has suffered the full effect of heating due to compressibility.
 stagnation rise: The difference between the static air temperature and the total air
temperature.
 recovery factor or K value: The proportion of the stagnation temperature which is

sensed.
174
True and Measured Temperature
With a Rosemount probe the K factor is normally assumed to be 1.0.
 Ram air temperature (RAT): With bimetallic or liquid/vapour filled thermometers (and
electrical thermometers of a more basic type than the Rosemount probe) the K value is
normally in the order of 0.75 to 0.85. In this case the measured temperature is the
temperature of air which has been brought only partially to rest. Now the measured
temperature is known as the ram air temperature (RAT).
 Static air temperature can be derived from the measured temperature using the
formula:
175
Conversion of TAT to SAT
 The table gives an easier way of converting Rosemount probe readings to SAT.
176
The Directional Gyro Indicator
 The Directional Gyro Indicator (DGI) or Direction Indicator (DI) is used in
aircraft to give a stable heading reference which is free from the turning and
acceleration errors of the Direct Reading Compass.
 As with any gyro the instrument may
be air driven or electrically driven.
Principle:
The spin axis is tied to remain within the
aircraft's yawing plane. Because of the
inherent rigidity of the gyro a stable heading
reference is achieved relative to a fixed point
in space.
177
The Directional Gyro Indicator
 The latitude nut shown is used to induce real drift, hopefully at a rate which is
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the apparent drift due to Earth
rotation.
 In order for the instrument to function correctly it is necessary to ensure that
the spin axis of the gyro remains within the yawing plane of the aircraft.
178
Directional Gyro Error
Real Wander: due to mechanical imperfections. Any real drift will result in
erroneous heading indications, which can only be eliminated by periodic
resetting of the instrument.
Apparent Wander: Apparent drift due to Earth rotation.
Apparent drift
179
Directional Gyro Error
the spin axis of a DGI correctly aligned with true north at time B1. The spin axis defines
gyro north, and so at time B1 gyro north and true north are coincident, and the DGI is
reading correctly.
At time B2 the apparent drift due to Earth rotation has caused the spin axis, and
therefore gyro north, to move to the right of true north.
The DGI is
consequently under-
reading, and this is
caused by apparent drift
due to Earth rotation in
the northern hemisphere.
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Apparent drift = 15° x the sin of the latitude °/hour
The Artificial Horizon
 known as the Attitude Indicator or Vertical Gyro.
 provides the pilot with information in terms of the aircraft attitude both in pitch and
roll.
 When the Aircraft banks, the horizon in the display remains parallel to the real one.
When the machine dives, the displayed horizon rises up the face of the instrument.
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PRINCIPLE:
 The artificial horizon employs an Earth gyro, the spin axis of which is maintained
Earth vertical under the influence of gravity, regardless of whether the instrument is
air driven or electrically driven.
 The beam bar (the horizon line on the front of the instrument) is controlled, through
suitable linkages, by the gyro gimbals. The aircraft symbol is attached to the
instrument casing and therefore to the actual aircraft.
Types of Artificial Horizon:
 The Air Driven Artificial Horizon.
 The Electrically Driven Artificial Horizon.
182
 The three axes of the gyro are shown as A-A, B-B and C-C.
 axis A-A (the spin axis) will remain Earth vertical, and axis B-B will therefore remain Earth
horizontal.
 Should the aircraft adopt a pitch up attitude (nose high), the outer gimbal would be forced
out of Earth horizontal, since it is attached to the instrument casing. This
movement of the
outer gimbal is
amplified by the
beam bar which
now appears to the
pilot to be below the
aircraft symbol at
the face of the
instrument.
183
 Whenever the aircraft rolls, the aircraft itself, and consequently the instrument casing and
the aircraft symbol, rotate about the axis C-C. The gyro spin axis remains vertical.
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The Electrically Driven Artificial Horizon
The gyro in the artificial horizon needs to be as rigid as possible, and
consequently the higher spin speed of the electrically driven instrument is
significant.
 The electrically driven artificial horizon employs different techniques to maintain

the gyro spin axis Earth vertical using the influence of gravity.
 Mercury switches and torque motors replace the erection chamber and
pendulous vanes in the electrically driven instrument.
 Regardless of whether the instrument is air driven or electrically driven, artificial

horizons fitted to civilian transport aircraft would typically enjoy freedom in roll
through 360° and freedom in pitch through ± 75 to 85°.
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 At Figure (a) the spin axis is vertical and the mercury switch is not therefore making an
electrical circuit to the torque motor. At Figure (b) the spin axis has toppled out of the
vertical, the electrical circuit is completed through the mercury switch and the torque motor
is energized. The force applied by the torque motor is precessed through 90° and re-erects
the gyro.
186
(a)
The mercury switch which senses topple of the spin axis in the fore and aft
plane (1) is located on the inner gimbal. The torque motor associated with this
mercury switch (2) is attached to the
outer gimbal and applies a torque about
the roll axis, which is
then precessed to
act about the pitch
axis.
187
TURN AND SLIP INDICATOR (TSI)
PURPOSE:
It is used to indicate to
the Pilot the movement
of the aircraft in rolling
and yawing planes.
188
 It consists of two separate
instruments contained in one case.
(1) Turn Indicator

(2) Slip Indicator
189
TURN INDICATOR
PURPOSE:
 It is used to indicate the rate of turn, either left or right, about the vertical axis of the
aircraft.
PRINCIPLE:
 It employs a rate gyro which is normally electrically driven.
 Being a rate gyro, there is only one gimbal.
 There is freedom of movement
about the longitudinal (fore and aft)
axis, although this movement is
restricted by a calibrated spring.
 The gyro has no freedom of
movement about the aircraft vertical
axis, and so any torque applied
about this axis, due to yaw, will be
precessed and cause the gyro to
topple against the restraining force of
the spring 190
SLIP INDICATOR
PURPOSE:
 The slip indicator enables the pilot to fly the aircraft in
balance, keeping the ball in the middle.
 It is used to indicate lateral level while the aircraft is in
straight and level flight and the amount of slip and skid
when the aircraft is turning.
PRINCIPLE:
It is work on the Principle of “PENDULUM”.
191
SLIP INDICATOR
 Now consider an aircraft in a balanced turn to
the left. There are now two forces acting on
the ball, weight (W), and centrifugal force (C). The
magnitude of the centrifugal force depends on the
TAS and rate of turn of the aircraft. For a turn to be
balanced (no slip or skid) the resolution of the two
forces must lie in the aircraft vertical axis.
 The aircraft is overbanked for the TAS and

required rate of turn, with too little rudder
applied in the direction of turn. This results in
the aircraft slipping into the turn. The solution is
to increase the TAS or to reduce the bank angle
whilst increasing the rudder pressure.
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SLIP INDICATOR
 The aircraft is underbanked for the TAS and required rate of turn, and is turning at the
required rate primarily because of yaw induced by over-application of rudder into the
turn. The results in the aircraft skidding out of the turn. The solution is to decrease the
TAS or to increase the bank angle whilst relaxing the rudder pressure.
193
194
 The major limitation of the older turn-and-slip indicator is
that it senses rotation only about the vertical axis of the
aircraft.
 It tells nothing of the rotation around the longitudinal axis.
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TURN Coordinator
The turn coordinator is a development of the turn and slip indicator.
A turn coordinator gimbal frame is angled upward about 30° from the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
This allows it to sense both roll and yaw.
The statement ‘2 min’ on
the face indicates that, with a
balanced turn and the wing
of the aeroplane on the
instrument face aligned with
the left or right mark as
appropriate to the direction
of turn, a turn through 360°
will take two minutes. In
other words, the instrument
will be indicating a rate one
turn.
196
TURN Coordinator
It is the ability of the instrument to respond to roll as well as to yaw which makes it react
more quickly than the turn indicator to the initiation, change of rate, or completion of a
turn. It is the enhanced sensitivity of the turn coordinator when compared with the turn
indicator which is its principal advantage.
197
Compass Indicator
Slave Gyro
RBI (Radio Bearing
Navigation instruments
Indicator)
RMI (Radio Magnetic

Indicator)
OBI/CDI (Omni-bearing
Indicator/ Course Deviation
Indicator)
HIS (horizontal Situation

Indicator)
ADI (Attitude Direction

Indicator)
EHSI (Electronic horizontal

Situation Indicator)
EADI (Electronic Attitude

Direction Indicator)
198
Direct Reading Compasses (DRC)
 A direct reading compass enables the pilot to read the aircraft heading directly in relation to a
magnetic assembly.
 This type of compass basically consists of two or more pivoted magnets, which are free to align
themselves with the horizontal component of the Earth's magnetic field.
 The compass points toward the magnetic north pole, but it is susceptible to certain errors such as
oscillations in turbulence and incorrect readings during turns or when influenced by other magnetic
attractions.
 The liquid that fills the compass case expands and
contracts as altitude changes and temperature fluctuates. A
bellows diaphragm expands and contracts to adjust the
volume of the space inside the case so it remains full.
199
E Type Compass
The E Type compass is otherwise known as the vertical card compass. It is in very
common use, as the main magnetic heading reference in modern light aircraft, and as a
standby compass in larger aircraft.
200
 Serviceability Tests:
The following tests would normally be carried out after compass installation, following a
compass swing, or whenever the accuracy of the compass is in doubt.
a. Check that the compass liquid is free from discolouration, bubbles and sediment. The
movement of bubbles could deflect the magnetic assembly and the presence of
sediment could prevent its free movement.
b. Carry out a damping test. Using a small magnet deflect the compass by 90° and hold
for at least 20 seconds to allow the liquid to stabilise. Now remove the magnet. The
time taken for the compass reading to return to within 5° of the original reading
should be 2 to 3 seconds for an E type compass.
c. Carry out a pivot friction test. Turn the aircraft so that it is on one of the cardinal
headings (N, E, S or W). Again using a small magnet, deflect the compass by 10°
and hold for 10 seconds. Remove the magnet and note the reading when the
compass settles. Now repeat the procedure but deflect the compass in the opposite
direction. For an E type compass the readings after deflection should be within 2½°
of the readings prior to deflection. 201
The Slaved Gyro Compass
Heading reference unit, gyro magnetic compass or remote-reading compass
 The direct-reading compass (DRC) which forms the primary heading reference in most
light aircraft is relegated to the role of a standby system in larger aircraft.
The DGI will subsequently drift because of both real and apparent errors, and so the
problem of producing an accurate heading reference, whilst reduced, is still evident.
 The slaved gyro compass automatically and Continuously comparing the output of a
magnetic sensing element with the indicated heading of the gyro indicator, and by
resetting the gyro whenever a discrepancy exists.
The gyro output is therefore slaved to magnetic north.
The pilot is no longer required to reset the gyro indicator periodically.
202
The Flux valve
 The element which senses the direction of magnetic
north, the detector unit, is called the flux valve.
 The output of the detector is

a series of electrical currents
which represent magnetic
heading.
203
The Slaved Gyro Compass
The three coils are connected to three
similar but smaller coils in a synchro
inside the instrument case. The synchro
rotates the dial of a radio magnetic
indicator (RMI) or a horizontal situation
indicator (HSI).
204
Advantages of the Slaved Gyro Compass
a. The detector unit is located in an area which is low in aircraft magnetism.
b. The electro/mechanical output of the compass system can be used to feed

other instruments and systems, for example RMIs or a Flight Management
Computer.
c. Turning and acceleration errors are much reduced.
d. The system can be operated as a DGI in high latitudes or in the vicinity of

thunderstorms, where magnetic compasses are unreliable.
e. The detector unit senses rather than seeks the magnetic meridian, giving
increased sensitivity.
205
N
Relative Bearing: Direction of a fixed object
(RB) measured clockwise from
Aircraft.
Magnetic Bearing: Direction of a fixed object

(MB) measured clockwise from
magnetic north.
= +
206
Radio Bearing indicator (RBI)
 The fixed-card ADF (also known as the relative bearing indicator (RBI).
 RBI always indicates zero at the top of the instrument, and the needle indicates the
Relative Bearing to the station.
 Figure indicates an RB of 135°, and

if the MH is 45°, the MB to the station
is 180°. (MH + RB = MB to the station.)
207
Radio magnetic indicator (RMI)
 The compass card is driven by signals from the flux valve.
 The two pointers are driven by an automatic direction finder (ADF) and a very-
high-frequency Omni-directional range (VOR).
 When a needle is being driven by the ADF, the head of the needle indicates the
Magnetic Bearing TO the station tuned on the ADF receiver.
 When a needle of the RMI is

driven by a VOR receiver, the
needle indicates where the
aircraft is radially with respect to
the VOR station.
208
Radio magnetic indicator (RMI)
 slaved to the aircraft gyro-compass and presently indicates the aircraft heading of
060°(M) at the top of the instrument.
209
Course Deviation Indicator (CDI)
 The deviation indicator is composed of an instrument face and a needle hinged to
move laterally across the instrument face.
 The needle centers when the aircraft is on the selected radial or its reciprocal.
 Full needle deflection from the center position to either side of the dial indicates the
aircraft is 12° or more off course
 The course deviation bar operates

with a VOR/Localizer (VOR/LOC)
navigation receiver to indicate left or
right deviations from the course selected
with the course-indicating arrow.
210
Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)
(HSI) combines the heading indicator and CDI.
The HSI is a direction indicator that uses the output from a flux valve to drive the dial,
which acts as the compass card.
It combines the magnetic compass with navigation signals and a glide slope.
 This gives the pilot an indication of the location of the aircraft with relationship to the
chosen course.
The course deviation bar

operates with a VOR/Localizer
(VOR/LOC)navigation receiver to
indicate left or right deviations
from the course selected with the
course-indicating arrow.
211
Attitude Director Indicator (ADI)
The ADI furnishes the same information as an attitude indicator, but has the additional
feature of a set of computer-driven bowtie-shaped steering bars.
The mode controller provides signals through the ADI to drive the steering bars. The
pilot flies the aircraft to place the delta symbol in the V of the steering bars.
An integrated flight director system
consists of electronic components that
compute and indicate the aircraft attitude
required to attain and maintain a preselected
flight condition.
212
Attitude Director Indicator (ADI)
A flight director, which consists of two bars indicating lateral and vertical steering
guidance to achieve a desired flight path. Different navigation aids are coupled to the flight
director, depending on the phase of flight.
These include radio aids
ADF, VOR, and TACAN, the
flight management computer,
and the autopilot itself as a
monitor. During approach and
landing, these bars are
coupled to the ILS receiver to
indicate glide slope and
localizer deviation.
213
HIS and ADI
214
The Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS)
 For the purpose of the practical test standards, any flight instrument display that utilizes
LCD or picture tube like displays is referred to as “electronic flight instrument display” and/or
a glass flight deck.
 These systems provide many advantages such as being lighter, more reliable, no
moving parts to wear out, consuming less power, and replacing numerous mechanical
indicators with a single glass display.
 The Boeing 757 and 767 aircraft were the first to enter service in September 1982 with
a glassflight deck.
 It comprises an Electronic ADI (EADI) CRT display and an electronic HSI (EHSI) CRT
display.
 The EADI display format emulates the electromechanical instrument.
 The EHSI display format offers both the conventional compass and also the map format.
Weather radar information can be superimposed on the map.
215
 EFIS also include the Primary Flight Display (PFD), the Navigation Display (ND) and
Multi-Function Display (MFD).
 These new PFD displays contain a

lot of information and make up the
basic ‘T’ all in the one picture.
 The PFD provides the pilot
instrumentation necessary for flight to
include altitude, airspeed, vertical
velocity, attitude and heading.
216
 As the modern ND is also shown on a
multicolour CRT, it is more versatile than
conventional, mechanical HSIs and can
display a wide variety of information in
various crew selectable formats.
 The ND displays route information, a

compass card or the weather radar picture.
217
 In addition to a PFD directly in front of the pilot, an MFD that provides the display of
information in addition to primary flight information is used within the flight deck.
 Information such as a moving

map, approach charts, Terrain
Awareness Warning System, and
weather depiction can all be
illustrated on the MFD.
 Additionally, the MFD can
display flight data or navigation
data in case of a PFD or ND
failure.
218
EFIS Configuration
 These two figures shows how the modern EFIS layouts have evolved progressively.
Maintaining the relative position of the instruments has been important in allowing
pilots to adapt from one aircraft type to another.
219
The EFIS comprises two identical systems supplying the captain and first officer with
navigational information on two display screens.
• Electronic Attitude and Direction Indicator (EADI)
• Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI).
 Each pilot’s display has its own control panel, and a symbol generator.
 Each symbol generator receives inputs from all navigational sources, both internal
and external, and interfaces between these inputs and the display screens to present the
information in a standard format. In addition, the symbol generators perform the
monitoring and control functions of the EFIS.
220
Left Right
Light Sensor Light Sensor
Left Right
Control Panel Control Panel
EADI EADI
EHSI EHSI
Left Center Right

Symbol Symbol Symbol
Generator Generator Generator
Data Tusses
TMC (ctr) (Left) (l&r) (ctr) TMC TMC (ctr) (Right)

IRS VOR VOR IRS IRS VOR
FCC DME DME FCC FCC DME
ILS WXR FMCS ILS
RAD ALT IRS ILS RAD ALT
WXR RADAR FCC RAD ALT WXR RADAR
IRS (right) IRS
FCC FMCS FCC 221
FMCS FMCS
EFIS Control Panel
EHSI Range
Setting Knob
ADI H SI
EX P V O R
D H R EF 80 100 320 ILS M A P C TR
Decision Height 40 N AV M AP
Reference Indicator VO R P LA N
20 ILS
FU LL
10 N AV
EHSI Manual
R AN G E
Decision Height Brightness Control
Setting Knob
Decision Height ON
Weather Radar
Reset Button Display Button
R ST
BR T W XR
EADI Brightness M AP
Control Knob ON ON ON ON ON
BR T
VO R /AD F N AVAID AR PT R TE W PT
D ATA
EHSI Map Mode Selector Buttons

(Select Features to Be Added to MAP Display)
222
The Electronic Attitude and Direction Indicator (EADI)
 The EADI screen displays aircraft attitude in pitch and roll . The display also
includes flight director command bars, ILS glideslope and localizer deviation
indications, and deviation indication from a selected airspeed.
 Radio altitude, decision height

and operating modes of the
automatic flight and autothrottle
systems are also displayed on the
EADI screen.
The decision height (DH) can be
set by a control knob on the EFIS
control panel. The selected DH is
digitally displayed on the EADI
screen.
223
The Electronic Attitude and Direction Indicator (EADI)
Selected
Decision Radio
Roll Pointer (W) Roll Scale (W) Height(G) Altitude(W)
700
Ground D H 100
G S 350
Speed (W) 1850
20 20 Display Below 1000ft
Flight Director
Speed F 10 10 Command Bars (M)
Scale (W) Aircraft Symbol (W)
Speed Glideslope
Pointer (M) Scale (W)
Glideslope Deviation
Pointer (M)
Autothrottle 10 10
S
Status (G)
Autothrottle A/T AFDS Status (G)
20 20
Mode (G) GS CM D
Armed Roll
Armed Pitch SPD LO C
Mode (W)
Mode (W) VN AV PTH LN AV
Engaged Roll Mode
Engaged
Pitch Mode (G)
Slip Indicator W White

Localiser Localiser
G Green
Deviation Deviation
Scale (W) M Magenta 224
Pointer (M)
The Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI)
 The EHSI presents a display of flight navigational information and
progress in one of nine possible modes, selected from the HSI section of
the EFIS control panel.
The modes available are as follows:
• MAP: The display used for en-route navigational information and the
one most commonly selected in cruise flight. The display shows features
ahead of the aircraft, with the aircraft symbol appearing at the bottom of
the display.
• CTR MAP: Essentially the same as MAP, but the display is centered
upon the aircraft current position, with an aircraft symbol in the center of
the display.
• PLAN: This display shows the planned route with waypoints and is
principally used when entering waypoints into the flight management
system (FMS) computer before flight or when making changes to the
planned route.
225
Plan Mode Display Map Mode Display
Distance to Heading
Next Waypoint (W) Magnetic Track (W) Heading Pointer (W) Set Bug (M)
ETA Next
85 N M TR K 209 M 0923.5Z
Waypoint (W)
28.5 N M TR K 209 M 0923.5Z
Expanded Compass
Instantaneous Rose (W)
21 Track (W) 21
Range
Scale (W)
PERRY
SED
Weather Vertical
BKE Radar Deviation
Display 40 Pointer (M)
(G.Y,R,M)
CENTR Vertical
Range to
SO C Selected KHND Deviation
GNGN Altitude (G) Scale (W)
Trend
Vector (W)
Wind Speed
and Direction (W) 40
Selected ILS
112.2
N Frequency (G)
Lateral Deviation Lateral Deviation

Scale (W) Pointer (M) C Cyan
W White
G Green
Airport (C) Radio Navaid (C) Y
R
226
Yellow
Red
Off-route Waypoint (C) Waypoint (active M,inactive W) M Magenta
• FULL VOR/ ILS: These displays are basically identical and show a
compass rose with heading and deviation indications that follow
conventional formats. They are used when checking aircraft track against a
VOR bearing or ILS localizer.
• EXP VOR/ILS: In the expanded mode the information displayed is the
same as in the full mode, but is in semi-map format. Only the relevant
segment of the compass rose is displayed at the top of the screen, with a
heading pointer. In either case the weather radar picture can be
superimposed upon the display, if required.
• EXP NAV/FULL NAV: These two modes display lateral and vertical
navigational information in much the same format as a conventional HSI.
Expanded NAV mode shows a compass arc, whereas full NAV mode
displays a full compass rose and does not permit the weather radar display
to be superimposed, exactly as with the expanded and full VOR/ILS modes.
227
EXP VOR Mode Displays Full VOR Mode Displays
228
EXP ILS Mode Displays Full ILS Mode Displays
D M E 27.5 H D G 139 M
D M E 34.0
HDG 308 M
10
25 75
ILS 112.2
ILS 112.2
229
Typical EFIS architecture
 Systems providing EFIS PFD and ND functions typically have three
symbol generators operating with four display units as shown in Fig In
normal operation the third symbol generator is a ‘hot spare’.
230
Engine Temperature
Powerplant instruments
Engine RPM
Engine Pressure
Torque Meter
Oil
Temperature/Pressure
231
Power Indication Instruments
232
Power Indication Instruments
233
Typical civil engine components
 Twin-shaft engines contain Low-Pressure (LP) and High-Pressure (HP) shafts.
234
Torque Meter
 The power developed by an engine driving a propeller is measured and indicated by a
torquemeter.
 Some large supercharged piston engines are fitted with these instruments.
 Torque is the turning moment transmitted through the propeller reduction gearing and
is principally considered in terms of positive torque developed by the engine when it is
driving the propeller.
 The power output of the engine is the product of rpm and torque, so clearly if both are
known the power can be calculated, either manually or by a simple computer.
 Aircraft torque meters are usually either hydro-mechanical or electronic devices.
235
The hydro-mechanical Torque Meter
The hydro-mechanical type operate on the principle of pistons that are moved in their
cylinders an amount proportional to the turning moment.
The cylinders are connected to a closed hydraulic system and so the system pressure,
due to the movement of the pistons, is directly proportional to torque and is used to
operate a pressure gauge calibrated to indicate torque in ft. lb or N m.
236
Manifold Pressure
In reciprocating engine aircraft, the manifold pressure gauge indicates the pressure of the air in the
engine’s induction manifold.
This is an indication of power being developed by the engine. The higher the pressure of the fuel air
mixture going into the engine, the more power it can produce.
For normally aspirated engines, this means that an indication near atmospheric pressure is the maximum.
Turbocharged or supercharged engines pressurize the air being mixed with the fuel, so full power
indications are above atmospheric pressure.
Most manifold pressure gauges are calibrated in inches of
mercury, although digital displays may have the option to
display in a different scale.
A typical analog gauge makes use of an aneroid described
above. When atmospheric pressure acts on the aneroid inside
the gauge, the connected pointer indicates the current air
pressure.
A line running from the intake manifold into the gauge presents
intake manifold air pressure to the aneroid, so the gauge
indicates the absolute pressure in the intake manifold.
237
Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR)
 EPR is a differential pressure between Pt2 (Compressor inlet total pressure) and Pt7,
Turbine discharge pressure).
 In an axial-flow turbine engine, an indication of the thrust may be had by measuring the
engine RPM and the Engine Pressure Ratio, EPR.
 Because of the long distances

between the engines and instrument
panel of jet aircraft, these
instruments are usually remote-
indicating.
The two pressures are fed into a
transmitter, where a ratio is
developed and converted into an
electrical signal which drives the
indicator on the instrument panel.
238
Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR)
239
Percentage Thrust Indicator
 indicates power in terms of
percentage thrust over the range 50
to 100%.
 With this compensation applied,
the instrument normally indicates
100% thrust as a minimum take-off
value under conditions least
favourable to engine performance.
 The counter is of the threedigit
display, and each number set on it
corresponds to an appropriate
ambient atmospheric condition
obtained from performance curves
plotted for specific aircraftlengine
combinations.
240
Turbine Engine Temperature
 Turbine engine temperatures are taken using a system that there are usually more than
one measuring point, and these are connected in parallel so that the average temperature
of the exhaust gas can be taken.
The leads used for turbine engine thermocouples are made of chromel and alumel wire.
The insulation on
the chromel lead is
white and that on
the alumel is green.
241
Tachometer
 An instrument that measures and indicates rotary speed is called a tachometer.
 Tachometer is used to measure the rotation speed of a crankshaft or compressor as appropriate.
 The measurement of engine speed is of considerable importance, since together with such
parameters as manifold pressure, torque pressure and exhaust gas temperature, it permits an
accurate control over the performance of the appropriate type of engine to be maintained.
 With reciprocating engines the speed measured is that of the crankshaft.
 with turboprop and turbojet engines the rotational speed of

the compressor shaft is measured.
 such measurement serving as a useful indication of the

 thrust being produced.
242
Mechanical Tachometer(magnetic drag cup tachometer)
 Mechanical tachometers, commonly
used with smaller piston engined aircraft,
are connected to the engine drive by
means of a flexible shaft, which rotates a
magnet within the indicator casing.
 The resultant rotating magnetic field

causes a spring-restrained rotor to
attempt to follow the rotating field. The
greater the speed of rotation, the more
the rotor moves against the restraining
spring force.
243
Mechanical Tachometer(Centrifugal Tachometer)
 The limited arc of movement produced is used to drive the tachometer pointer a
controlled distance around the face of the rpm gauge. This device is known as a drag cup.
244
Three-phase AC Tachometer
 A 3-phase alternator is driven by the engine accessories drive. The output of the
alternator is fed to the three phase windings in the stator of a synchronous motor, where a
rotating magnetic field is set up by the alternating current. The speed of rotation of the
generator determines the frequency of the
output alternating current, which in turn
determines the rotary speed of the
stator field in the motor.
245
Tachometer
 The rotor of the synchronous motor is a permanent magnet and so it is constrained to
follow the rotating magnetic field of the stator, turning at the same speed as the alternator.
The motor drives a drag cup similar to that described above in connection with the
mechanical tachometer.
 Piston engine rpm gauges are calibrated in revolutions per minute.
246
Servo-operated Tachometer Indicator
 a servo-operated system in which the output of the engine-driven
alternator is first converted to square waveform and thence to a series of DC
pulses at twice the frequency of the alternator AC output. The pulsed DC
powers a torquemotor that drives the rpm gauge pointer through a
potentiometer.
247
Servo-operated Tachometer Indicator
 An overspeed pointer is also fitted
concentrically with the main pointer, and is
initially positioned at the appropriate scale
graduation.
 If the main pointer exceeds this
position, the limit pointer is carried with it.
When the speed has been reduced the
main pointer will move correspondingly,
but the limit pointer will remain at the
maximum speed reached
248
Tacho Probe and Indicator System
 Tacho probe/indicator systems are made up of a flux switch, in the form of a
magnetic probe.
 has the advantage of providing separate electrical outputs additional to those required
for speed indication, e.g. flight data recording and engine control.
 there is the advantage that a probe has no moving parts.
 The probe is flange-rnounted on the engine at a station in the highpressure compressor
section of the engine so that it extends into this section.
 When in position, the pole pieces are
in close proximity to the teeth of a gear
wheel (sometimes referred to as a
phonic wheel) which is driven at the
same speed as the compressor shaft or
fan shaft as appropriate.
249
 The permanent magnet produces a
magnetic field around the sensing coils,
and as the gear wheel teeth pass the pole
pieces, the intensity of flux through each
pole varies inversely with the width of the
air gap between poles and the gear wheel
teeth.
 As the flux density changes, an emf. is

induced in the sensing coils, the amplitude
of the e.m.f. varying with the rate of flux
density change.
250
 The output signals for speed indication purposes are supplied to an indicator of the d.c.
torquer type.
 The signals pass through a signal processing module and are summed with an output
from a servo potentiometer and a buffer amplifier.
 After summation the signal passes through a servo amplifier to the torquer which then
rotates the indicator pointers to indicate the changes
in probe signals in terms of speed.
251
Engine Vibration Monitoring & Indicating System
 Vibration in a gas turbine is relatively limited since the engine is finely balanced both statically
and dynamically.
 Excessive levels of vibration are an indication of loss of dynamic balance, due perhaps to
compressor or turbine blade damage.
252
Flight Hour Meter
 Piston engine tachometers often incorporate an hour meter to record the total flight
hours of the aircraft or engine.
the hour meter is usually calibrated to record one hour of flight based upon the cruise
rpm of the engine.
For example, if the engine is designed to cruise at 2200 rpm, the meter will record one
hour of flight for every 132,000 revolutions of the crankshaft (2200 x60).
An alternative type of hour meter utilizes an electric clock powered only when the battery
master switch is closed, when the aircraft wheels leave the ground or when the engine is
running.
Indication of flight hours is usually displayed in digital form, with hours and tenths of
hours recorded.
253
Electronic Engine Display
 The conventional engine and system instrumentation display of a large multi-engine
aircraft consisted of a large panel with a mass of gauges, usually of the circular scale variety,
mounted in rows upon it. To assist the flight engineer in monitoring the display the gauges
would be arranged in a logical manner with, for example, the oil pressure gauges for the four
engines mounted side-by-side.
 Electronic "glass cockpit" engines and system displays follow this logic by only displaying
essential information to the pilots.
 Engine information of fundamental importance such as rpm, thrust and turbine
temperature (known as primary engine information) and any engine or system abnormalities.
The most widely used electronic display system is the engine indicating and crew alerting
system (EICAS), in which engine and system information is continuously recorded, and
displayed.
An intermediate electronic/conventional system is used in the early Airbus aircraft, known
as electronic centralized aircraft monitoring (ECAM), in which the engine instrumentation
display uses conventional gauging, but systems information is displayed electronically.
254
Engine indicating and crew alerting system (EICAS)
 The EICAS consists of two CRT displays, a display selection panel and two
computers.
 The computers receive inputs from engine and system sensors and generate
the analogue/digital displays of primary and secondary information, which appear
on the CRT screens.
 Only one computer is operating at a time, the other being a standby.
 The two display units are mounted one above the other, the upper unit
displaying primary engine information such as EPR, N1 spool speed and EGT.
Warning and caution messages also appear on this screen in the event of
abnormal situations.
 The lower screen displays secondary engine operating parameters such as oil
pressures, temperatures and quantities, fuel flow, vibration, N2 spool speed, etc.
 The system has two functional display modes for flight crew use, plus a third
mode for use by ground engineers only. These are known as operational, status
and maintenance modes.
255
The first two are
selected from the Display
Select Panel.
 Maintenance mode can

only be selected on the
maintenance control panel
and is not available in
flight.
256
Display Select Panel

257
Operational Mode
 The normal in-flight mode,
this displays primary engine
operating information on the
upper screen.
 The lower screen will remain
blank under normal operating
conditions.
 In the event of abnormal
conditions alert messages will
be displayed on the upper
screen with relevant secondary
information displayed in
analogue /digital form on the
lower screen.
258
Status Mode
 This display is primarily used on the ground to determine the aircraft readiness
for dispatch.
Status messages indicate system or equipment faults affecting dispatch and

cross-refer to the aircraft's Minimum Equipment List.
The status display appears on the lower (secondary) screen.
In The example on next page, system status appear at the upper left of the
screen, flying control positions lower left and status messages indicating equipment
faults on the right hand side of the screen.
259
Status Mode
260
 System Failures:
IF the lower display screen should fail whilst secondary information is being
displayed, the information is transferred to the lower half of the upper screen in
abbreviated, digital format. This is known as a compact display.
TAT -20℃
1.52 1.52
EPR
98.2 98.0
48 O IL P R ES S 50
102 O IL TEM P 108
N1
20 O IL Q TY 21
FA N 1.7 V IB 1.7 N 2 695 692
98 N2 99
7.8 FF 7.8 EG T
261
 System Failures:
IF both EICAS computers and/or CRT's fail a standby engine indicator is activated.
This provides a limited light-emitting diode (LED) display of primary engine
operating parameters.
262
Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitoring (ECAM)
This is a system that was introduced in the Airbus A310, where traditional
engine monitoring instruments are retained and the electronic displays are of
systems operation in checklist and schematic form.
 In the A320 and subsequent Airbus types the ECAM equipment has been
developed and includes engine operating data on one of its two display units, in
much the same manner as EICAS.
The system comprises two CRT display units mounted side-by-side.
The left-hand unit provides systems status information, warnings and corrective
actions in a sequenced checklist layout.
The right-hand unit provides graphic or schematic information associated with
the messages on the left display. Figure on next page shows a block schematic
diagram of the ECAM system.
 ECAM operates in one of four possible display modes. These are NORMAL,
ADVISORY, FAILURE and MANUAL. 263
264
 NORMAL mode: The normal mode of operation is flight related and the displays
are appropriate to the existing phase of aircraft operation e.g. pre-flight, take-off,
climb, cruise, descent, approach and post-landing.
 ADVISORY mode: An advisory mode may be automatically selected if a change
of system status of a non-emergency nature occurs, such as switching from APU
to main generators.
 FAILURE mode: Failure mode takes precedence over all other modes and is
automatically selected if any monitored parameter exceeds pre-determined limits.
A warning message is displayed on the left-hand screen, accompanied by a list of
the necessary corrective crew actions and an aural alert.
 MANUAL mode: The manual mode is the fourth mode of operation of ECAM
and allows the crew to call up a series of diagrams of the aircraft's systems,
accompanied by system status messages.
265
Control Panel
 The left and right display control knobs are for switching on the displays and adjusting
the display brightness.
 SGU Select: In normal operation of the system both symbol generator units (SGUs) are
functional. In the event of a fault being detected by an SGU self-test circuitry, a fault
caption is illuminated on the appropriate switch.
SGU Select Switches
LEFT D ISPLAY R IG H T D ISPL AY
SG U 1 SG U 2
FA U LT FA U LT
O FF O FF
O FF BR T
O FF BR T
CLR EN G H YD AC DC
BLEED CO N D PR ESS FU EL
STS
APU F/CTL DOOR W H EEL

R CL
266
Synoptic Display Switches
 In this example the ECAM failure mode has alerted the crew to the fact that the left
engine constant speed drive unit is experiencing low oil pressure and advised the crew
that, unless the CSDU is disconnected, it is likely to seize totally.
 Meanwhile the right-hand screen will display a schematic of the appropriate system
with, given the above example, CSDU oil pressures and temperatures displayed.
267
 When the pilots have taken the necessary corrective action, the left and right displays
will change to show the current system status, as illustrated.
268
269
Boeing 747 Analogue Flight Deck
 The pilots’ main instrument panel consists of the flight instruments on the left, (4).
 A similar panel layout for the co-pilot on the right, (6).
 The pilots’ central panel (5), holds the
main engine instruments, the standby
instruments and the central master warning
panel.
 Autopilot switching and some radio
selectors are mounted on the glare shield.
(3)
 The pilot’s overhead panels (1) contains
the circuit breakers for the whole of the
aircraft.
 (2) contains the engine control switches
and fire handles, anti-icing switching, light
switches.
 The pilot’s central console, (7), holds the
control units for the navigation and
communication systems. 270
A340 Indicating Systems
271
A340 EFIS and ECAM architecture
272
273
274
275
Aircraft Recording Systems
• CVR (Cockpit Voice Recorder) • FDR (Flight Data Recorder)
276
CVR (Cockpit Voice Recorder)
 Commercial aircraft are required to carry a cockpit voice recorder (CVR).
 This unit captures and stores information derived from a number of the aircraft’s audio channels that may
later become invaluable in the event of a crash or serious incident.
 The voice recorder preserves a continuing record of typically between 30 to 120 minutes of the most recent
flight crew communications and conversations.
 The storage medium used with the CVR fitted to modern aircraft is usually based on one or more solid state
memory devices whereas, on older aircraft, the CVR is usually based on a continuous loop of magnetic
tape.
 The storage media must be mounted in an enclosure that can withstand severe mechanical and thermal
shock as well as the high pressure that exists when immersed in deep water.
 The CVR control panel is usually fitted with a test switch, headphone jack and status light.
 the recorder itself is fitted with an underwater locator beacon (ULB) to facilitate undersea recovery
.
 The ULB is a self-contained device (invariably attached to the front of the CVR) that emits an ultrasonic
vibration (typically at 37.5 kHz) when the water-activated switch is immersed in water.
 In order to improve visibility and aid recovery, the external housing of the CVR is painted bright orange.
277
Audio Input to CVR:
 voice communication transmitted from or received in the aeroplane by radio;
 aural environment on the flight deck;
 voice communication of flight crew members on the flight deck using the aero plane's interphone
system;
 voice or audio signals identifying navigation or approach aids introduced in the headset or speaker;
and
 voice communication of flight crew members using the passenger address system, if installed.
Audio Input is derived from:

 Captain
 first officer
 observer position(s)
 from an open area microphone in the flight compartment which is usually mounted in the overhead
panel and thus collects audio input from the entire flight deck area.
Bulk erase can be performed by means of an erase switch; this is interlocked so that erasure can only
be performed when the aircraft is on the ground and the parking brake is set.
278
279
FDR (Flight Data Recorder)
 Flight data recorders are classified as Type I, Type II and Type IIA depending upon the number of
parameters to be recorded and the duration required for retention of the recorded information.
The recorder container is to:

 Be painted a distinctive orange or yellow colour;
 Carry reflective material to facilitate its location;
 Have securely attached an automatically activated underwater locating device.
 Be shock, temperature and fire proofed.
Type I Flight Data Recorder:

This recorder will be capable of recording, as appropriate to the aeroplane, at least the 32 parameters.
However, other parameters may be substituted with due regard to the aeroplane type and the characteristics of
the recording equipment.
Types II and IIA Flight Data Recorders:
These recorders will be capable of recording, as appropriate to the aeroplane, at least the first 15 parameters.
However, other parameters may be substituted with due regard to the aeroplane type and the characteristics of
the recording equipment.
280
List of FDR parameters
Time (UTC when available, otherwise

1 8 Radio transmission keying
elapsed time)
2 Pressure-altitude 9 Power on each engine
3 Indicated airspeed 10 Trailing edge flap or cockpit control selection
4 Heading 11 Leading edge flap or cockpit control selection
5 Normal acceleration 12 Thrust reverser position
6 Pitch altitude 13 Ground spoiler/speed brake selection
7 Roll altitude 14 Outside air temperature
281
Autopilot/autothrottle/AFCS mode and

15 22 Localiser deviation
engagement status
16 Longitudinal acceleration 23 Marker beacon passage
17 Lateral acceleration 24 Master warning
Pilot input and/or control surface position-

18 25 NAV 1 and 2 frequency
primary controls (pitch, roll, yaw)
19 Pitch trim position 26 DME 1 and 2 distance
20 Radio altitude 27 Landing gear squat switch status
21 Glide path deviation 28 GPWS (ground proximity warning system)
282
Navigation data (latitude/longitude, groundspeed

29 Angle of attack 31
and drift angle)
30 Hydraulics, each system (low pressure) 32 Landing gear or gear selector position
If further recording capacity is available, recording of the following additional information should be
considered:
 operational information from electronic displays systems, such as electronic flight instrument systems
(EFIS), electronic centralized aircraft monitor (ECAM) and engine indication and crew alerting system
(EICAS).
283
Recording Medium:
 Scratch foil: The technology used in first-generation flight data recorders was based on a roll of steel foil
tape embossed with five separate items of recorded data (parameters)
These parameters were: ● heading ● altitude ● air speed
● vertical acceleration ● time.
it was soon realized that five parameters did not provide sufficient data for meaningful accident investigation.
 Magnetic recording: Second-generation recorders were introduced onto aircraft during the 1960s based
on one of two recording media; steel wire or magnetic tape.
 Wire recorders have a high media density; this is made possible by the solid metal medium and relatively
fast speed (typically 24 inches per second).
284
Recording Medium:
 Solid state data recorders: Data is stored in semiconductor memory via integrated circuits. Solid-state
memory does not require any servicing, maintenance or overhaul. Furthermore, retrieval and interpretation
of the data via personal computer-based software is a more efficient process.
 The DFDR on large aircraft has to be able to retain the recorded data for a minimum of the last 25
hours of its operation.
Flight data recorder (FDR) specifications:
 The unit be able to withstand 1000 g of impact.
 The optimum location for the recorder was at the rear of the aircraft.
 are painted bright orange and are fitted with an underwater location transmitter(ULB).
 Fire protection is 1100 ° C for 60 minutes
285
Solid state recorder
286
A typical DFDR receives data from an acquisition unit in Harvard bi-phase code. This data is then processed and
stored in solid-state non-volatile memory (NVM).
The data is received at the interface card and is transferred to the power supply card.
Arinc 573 data transmitters and receivers interface with a compression/storage acquisition processor; this
processor stores the data in a buffer memory before sending it to a flash memory unit in the crash-survivable
portion of the recorder.
The compression/storage acquisition processor also monitors the system for faults via built in test routines. If any
of these tests should fail, appropriate warning lights or LEDs are illuminated on the front
of the unit.
287

Aircraft Instrument Systems

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AIR SPEED INDICATOR (ASI)

It is used to indicate the

 It registers the speed of the air

between Dynamic and

 the pressure inside the capsule consists of dynamic + static

 Dynamic Pressure (D) =

 the Servo ASI is that the mechanical

 Compressibility Error: At high air speeds the air compresses when

 Density Error: the ASI is calibrated to correctly indicate the

Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)/Rectified Airspeed (RAS): corrected for

 Equivalent Airspeed (EAS): CAS/RAS corrected for compressibility

The machmeter shows the aircraft speed as a Mach number,

The machmeter does not suffer from density error.

 It is mainly used in climbing or

This causes the capsule to contract

The movement of the capsule wall is

 Instrument Error: caused by manufacturing imperfections.

 Manoeuvre Induced Error: A change of attitude of the aircraft, especially in the

 Can be either liquid or vapour filled.

 Instrument Error: caused by manufacturing imperfections

 Position Error: a temperature probe will be affected by its location on the

 The magnitude of instrument and position errors can be determined.

 recovery factor or K value: The proportion of the stagnation temperature which is

With a Rosemount probe the K factor is normally assumed to be 1.0.

Apparent Wander: Apparent drift due to Earth rotation.

 The electrically driven artificial horizon employs different techniques to maintain

 Regardless of whether the instrument is air driven or electrically driven, artificial

(1) Turn Indicator

 The aircraft is overbanked for the TAS and

RBI (Radio Bearing

RMI (Radio Magnetic

HIS (horizontal Situation

ADI (Attitude Direction

EHSI (Electronic horizontal

EADI (Electronic Attitude

The gyro output is therefore slaved to magnetic north.

The pilot is no longer required to reset the gyro indicator periodically.

 The output of the detector is

b. The electro/mechanical output of the compass system can be used to feed

c. Turning and acceleration errors are much reduced.

d. The system can be operated as a DGI in high latitudes or in the vicinity of

Magnetic Bearing: Direction of a fixed object

 Figure indicates an RB of 135°, and

 When a needle of the RMI is

 The course deviation bar operates

The course deviation bar

 The EADI display format emulates the electromechanical instrument.

 These new PFD displays contain a

 The ND displays route information, a

 Information such as a moving

Left Center Right

TMC (ctr) (Left) (l&r) (ctr) TMC TMC (ctr) (Right)

EHSI Map Mode Selector Buttons

 Radio altitude, decision height

Slip Indicator W White

Lateral Deviation Lateral Deviation

 Aircraft torque meters are usually either hydro-mechanical or electronic devices.

 Because of the long distances

 Tachometer is used to measure the rotation speed of a crankshaft or compressor as appropriate.

 With reciprocating engines the speed measured is that of the crankshaft.

 with turboprop and turbojet engines the rotational speed of

 such measurement serving as a useful indication of the

 The resultant rotating magnetic field