I.

Introduction
1.1 History of Reinforced Concrete
Although the Romans made cement, Pozzolana, by mixing slaked lime with a volcanic
ash and used it to make concrete for building, the art was lost during the 5th to 15th century and
was not revived until 18th to 19th century.
In the United States, the pioneering were made by Thaddeus Hyatt, who conducted
experiments on reinforced concrete beams in 1850s. Ernest L. Ransome was the first to use
and patent the deformed bar in 1884.
During 1891-1894, various investigators in Europe published theories and test results.
Among them were Josef Melan from Austria who invented the Melan system, the German
engineer Gustav Adolf Wayss who first made theory and furnish formulas and methods for
design, the French engineer Francois Hennebique who integrated separate elements such as the
column and beams into a single monolithic element, and another Frenchman, Francois Coignet,
published a book in 1861 describing many applications and uses of reinforced concrete.
One of the first publications that might be classified as a textbook was that
of Armand Considere in 1899. In 1903, uniform applications of knowledge to design were
initiated. The earliest textbook in English was that of Frederick E. Turneaure and Maurer
published in 1907 entitled “Principles of Reinforced Concrete Construction”. Extensive testing
to determine beam behaviour, compressive strength of concrete, and modulus of elasticity was
conducted by Arthur N. Talbot at the University of Illinois, by Frederick E. Turneaure and
Morton O. Withey at the University of Wisconsin, and by Bach in Germany, C.A.P Turner US,
among others.
From about 1916 to the mid – 1930s, research centred on axially loaded column
behaviour. In the late 1930s and 1940s, eccentrically loaded columns, footings, and the
Ultimate Strength of beams received special attention. With the interest in and understanding
of the elastic methods of analysis in the early 1900s, the elastic Working Stress method was
adopted almost universally by codes as the best for design.
In the 1930s, Charles S. Whitney, an American civil engineer, proposed the use of a
rectangular compressive stress distribution. In 1942, Charles S. Whitney presented a paper
emphasizing this fact and showing how a probable stress-strain curve with reasonable
accuracy, a parabola be replaced with an artificial rectangular stress block.
Since the mid-1950s, reinforced concrete design practice has made the transition from
that based on elastic methods to the one based on strength.

1.2 Related Article/Structure

The multipurpose building is to be built with three storey that hosts multiple functions
per floor. It has a total floor area of 531.25 square meter. The 3 storey building finishes off
with a roof deck. It will be built with reinforced concrete, using reinforcement steel to aid the
concrete in tension, and also to resist sheer and seismic forces. It will be using the ultimate
strength design method, under the provision of the ACI Code and NSCP 2010.
An existing building in Jordan, constructed by the Al-Diyar Consultant, the Terra
Santa School Building in the Terra Santa College Amman consists of three floors and a total
floor area of 3,866.5 square meter. It uses the same method of design, under the provision of
the ACI Code as well as the ASCE Code.

1.3 Advantage, Disadvantage, Materials Used and Properties of Reinforced Concrete

Reinforced concrete, as an economic building material, is very popular nowadays. It
is widely used in many types building around the world. Along with many advantages,
reinforced concrete also poses some disadvantages also.
1.3.1 Advantages of Reinforced Concrete

 Has a high compressive strength compared to other building materials.

 Due to the provided reinforcement, it can also withstand a good amount of tensile
stress.
 Fire and weather resistance is fair.
 The building system is more durable than any other building system.
 Reinforced concrete, as a fluid material, in the beginning, can be economically
moulded into a nearly limitless range of shapes.
 The maintenance cost is very low.
 In structures like footings, dams, piers etc. reinforced concrete is the most
economical construction material.
 It acts like a rigid member with minimum deflection.
 As it can be moulded to any shape required, it is widely used in precast structural
components. It yields rigid members with minimum apparent deflection.
 Compared to the use of steel in structure, it requires less skilled labour for the
erection of the structure.

1.3.2 Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete

 The tensile strength is about one-tenth of its compressive strength.

 The main steps of using reinforced concrete are mixing, casting, and curing. All
of this affects the final strength.
 The cost of the forms used for casting RC is relatively higher.
 For multi-storied building the RCC column section for is larger than steel section
as the compressive strength is lower in the case of RCC.
 Shrinkage causes crack development and strength loss.

1.3.3 Materials Used in Reinforced Concrete

1.3.3.1 Reinforcing Steel

Rebar (short for reinforcing bar), is a steel bar or mesh of steel wires used
as a tension device in reinforced concrete and reinforced masonry structures to
strengthen and aid the concrete under tension. Concrete is strong under
compression, but has weak tensile strength. Rebar significantly increases the
tensile strength of the structure. Rebar's surface is often deformed to promote a
better bond with the concrete. The most common type of rebar is carbon steel,
typically consisting of hot-rolled round bars with deformation patterns. Other
readily available types include stainless steel, and composite bars made of glass
fiber, carbon fiber, or basalt fiber. The steel reinforcing bars may also be coated in
an epoxy resin designed to resist the effects of corrosion mostly in saltwater
environments, but also land based constructions.

1.3.3.2 Portland Cement

The most common use for Portland cement is in the production of
concrete. Portland cement is also used in mortars (with sand and water only), for
plasters and screeds, and in grouts (cement/water mixes squeezed into gaps to
consolidate foundations, road-beds, etc.).
When water is mixed with Portland cement, the product sets in a few
hours, and hardens over a period of weeks. These processes can vary widely,
depending upon the mix used and the conditions of curing of the product, but a
typical concrete sets in about 6 hours and develops a compressive strength of 8
MPa in 24 hours.
 These are the five types of Portland cement:
 Type I – Known as common or general-purpose cement, it is generally
assumed unless another type is specified. It is commonly used for general
construction, especially when making precast, and pre-stressed concrete that
is not to be in contact with soils or ground water.
 Type II – Provides moderate sulfate resistance, and gives off less heat during
hydration. This type of cement costs about the same as type I.
 Type III – Has relatively high early strength. This cement is similar to type I,
but ground finer.
 Type IV – Is generally known for its low heat of hydration. This type of
cement has not been made for many years, because Portland-Pozzolana
cements and ground granulated blast furnace slag addition offer a cheaper and
more reliable alternative.
 Type V – Is used where sulfate resistance is important. This type is used in
concrete to be exposed to alkali soil and ground water sulfates which react with
tricalcium aluminate (C3A) causing disruptive expansion.

1.3.3.3 Aggregates
Construction aggregate, or simply "aggregate", is a broad category of
coarse to medium grained particulate material used in construction, including
sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates.
Aggregates are a component of composite materials such as concrete and asphalt
concrete; the aggregate serves as reinforcement to add strength to the overall
composite material.
Aggregates are also used as base material under foundations, roads, and
railroads. In other words, aggregates are used as a stable foundation or road/rail
base with predictable, uniform properties (e.g. to help prevent differential settling
under the road or building)

1.3.3.4 Admixtures
These are natural or manufactured chemicals which are added to the
concrete before or during mixing. The most often used admixtures are air-
entraining agents, water reducers, water-reducing retarders and accelerators.
Admixtures are used to give special properties to fresh or hardened
concrete. Admixtures may enhance the durability, workability or strength
characteristics of a given concrete mixture.

1.3.3.5 Water
Water is the key ingredient, which when mixed with cement, forms a paste
that binds the aggregate together. The water causes the hardening of concrete
through a process called hydration.
Hydration is a chemical reaction in which the major compounds in cement
form chemical bonds with water molecules and become hydrates or hydration
products. The water needs to be pure in order to prevent side reactions from
occurring which may weaken the concrete or otherwise interfere with the
hydration process. The role of water is important because the water to cement ratio
is the most critical factor in the production of "perfect" concrete. Too much water
reduces concrete strength, while too little will make the concrete unworkable.
1.3.4 Properties of Reinforced Concrete

1.3.4.1 Compressive Strength

The compression strength of concrete is a measure of the concrete's ability
to resist loads which tend to compress it, is measured by crushing cylindrical
concrete specimens in compression testing machine, and can be calculated by the
failure load divided with the cross sectional area resisting the load and reported in
pounds per square inch in US customary units and mega pascals (MPa) in SI units.
Concrete's compressive strength requirements can vary from 2500 psi (17 MPa)
for residential concrete to 4000psi (28 MPa) and higher in commercial structures.
Higher strengths up to and exceeding 10,000 psi (70 MPa) are specified for certain
applications.

1.3.4.2 Static Modulus of Elasticity

Modulus of elasticity of a material is a number which is defined by the
ratio of the applied stress to the corresponding strain within the elastic limit.
Physically it indicates a material’s resistance to being deformed when a stress is
applied to it. Modulus of elasticity also indicates the stiffness of a material. Value
of elastic modulus is higher for the stiffer materials.

1.3.4.3 Poisson’s ratio

Poisson's ratio is the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain in a
material subjected to loading. Poisson's ratio varies between 0.1 for high strength
concrete and 0.2 for weak mixes. It is normally taken as 0.15 for strength design
and 0.2 for serviceability criteria.

1.3.4.4 Shrinkage
Shrinkage is a loss of moisture content in concrete, due to hydration of
cement and temperature. The volumetric changes in the concrete structures due to
the loss of moisture through evaporation is generally known as shrinkage in
concrete. Changes in the volume of concrete are one of the most detrimental
properties, which affects the strength and durability of concrete. Shrinkage in
concrete is a time-dependent deformation which reduces the volume of concrete
without the impact of external forces. The volumetric changes that occur in the
concrete due to the effect of shrinkage will lead to the cracking of concrete.

1.3.4.5 Creep
Creep is a deformation of structure under sustained load. Basically, long
term pressure or stress on concrete can make it change shape. This deformation
usually occurs in the direction the force is being applied. Like a concrete column
getting more compressed, or a beam bending. Creep does not necessarily cause
concrete to fail or break apart. When a load is applied to concrete, it experiences
an instantaneous elastic strain which develops into creep strain if the load is
sustained.

1.3.4.6 Tensile Strength

The ability of the concrete to withstand the pulling force without breaking
is called tensile strength. The tensile strength of concrete is measured by the units
of force per cross sectional area (MPa). The concrete is good in compression force
and weak in tension force. So the reinforcement has been provided in concrete to
prevent the crack formation.
1.3.4.7 Shearing Strength
Shear strength is a material's ability to resist forces that can cause the
internal structure of the material to slide against itself. Shear strength is the
strength of a material or component against the type of yield or structural failure
where the material or component fails in shear and it is the load that an object is
able to withstand in a direction parallel to the face of the material, as opposed to
perpendicular to the surface.