DEFECTS ENCOUNTERED IN MATERIALS
Discontinuity- Any break or interruption in the normal physical structure of an article
is called discontinuity or defect.
4. Casting defects -
a) Porosity ~ It is round or nearly round, and is caused by entrapped gas in the
molten material.
b) Non-metallic inclusions — These are of irregular shape and consist of slate like
impurities accidentally included in the molten metal.
©) Pipe - This is caused by shrinkage as the molten metal solidifies. It may extend
deeply into the centre of the ingot.
8) Cold-Shut - Cold shut is formed when motten metal meet with aiready solidified
oF relatively coil metal, Cold shut can also be formed by the lack of fusion
between two intercepting surfaces of molten material of different temperatures.
©) Hot-Tears — A hottear is caused by unequal shrinking of light any heavy
sections of a casting as the metal cools
f) Micto-shrinkage — This defect results from contraction during sclidification
where there is not an adequate opportunity to supply filler material to
compensate for shrinkage.
9) Shrinkage cavity — It is caused by a void left in cast metals as a result of
solidification shrinkage. It can be found any where in the cast product
h) Blow hoies - Biow holes are small holes on the surface of the casting caused by
gas which is not within the molten metal. This external gas comes from the
mold itselt.
2. Rolling Defects :-
a) Laminations ~ Defects with separation or weakness generally aligned parallel to
the worked surface of the metal, It may be the result of pipe, blisters, seams,
inclusions or segregations elongated and made directional by working.
Lamination defects may also occur in metal powder compacts.
b) Stringers ~ It is the longer and thinner configuration of non-metallic inclusions
aligned in the direction of working. Commonly, the term is associated with
elongated oxide or sulfide inclusions in metals.
c) Seams ~ It is an unwelded fold or lap which appears as a crack, usually
resulting from a defect obtained in casting or in working. Seams are always
open to the surface. ©) Explosive forming cracks ~ it is caused by the explosive force overstressing the
material while shaping it to the contour of the die. A discontinuity is most likely
to develop at a point in the die where the most extreme deforming of the stock
occurs or where the die changes contour abruptly.
¢) Fatigue cracks ~ These cracks usually start from stress-concentration points
which themselves are open to the surface in most of the cases. Nicks, grinding
cracks, forging laps, even poorly finished surfaces, are all examples of
discontinuities which might result in fatigue cracks. Some fatigue cracks are
subQsurfaces which are originating from porosity or non-metallic inclusions,
Welding defects :~
a) Crater cracks ~ Crater cracks are caused at the weld bead by improper use of
the heat source either when a weld is started or stopped. A crater crack can
also occur at the temporary stop of the weld also. There are 3 types of crater
cracks )
() Star crater crack ~ A roughly star-shaped crack,
(i) Longitudinal crater crack — Crater crack that parallels the direction of the
weld-bead
iil) Transverse crater crack ~ Crater crack that round across the weld and is,
limited to the area of the crater.
b) Stress cracks ~ Stress cracks in welds are the result of stresses created during
the cooling of a restrained (rigid) structure. Stress crack usually occurs
fransverse (across) the weld in a single pass weld and longitudinal in a multiple
pass weld.
©) Porosity ~ it is caused by the gas which remain entrapped in the weld.
d) Slag inclusion — It can occur during arc welding. As the electrode melts so does
its oxide coating and it mixes which the molten metal. This result in the weld-
bead is slag inclusions.
) Tungsten inciusions ~ Excessive current during tungsten arc welding can cause
the tungsten electrode to meit and deposit in the weld, This called tungsten
inclusions,
f) Lack of penetration ~ It results from incomplete penetration into the parent metal
or may be caused by backing, or by the molten puddle. It occurs at the root of
the weld.
9) Lack of fusion ~ It is a failure of the weld to fuse with the parent metal or may be
caused by a failure of the weld passes themselves to fuse. This particular
discontinuity occurs farther up in the weld than the root
hh) Undercut - This discontinuity occurs where the welder has melted and flushed
‘out some of the parent metal in the line of fusion. It has to be open to the
surface and can be inspected visually. It there is undercut, some of the parent
metal has been melted away. Eddy Current Testing
Arbind Kumar
Atomic Fuels Division
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
‘Trombay, Mumbai ~ 400 085
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) is a valuable tool to chéck the healthiness
of thé any components without affecting their serviceability. There are
various NDT Techniques such as Visual Testing (VT), Liquid Penetrant
Testing (LPT), Eddy Current Testing (ECT), Magnetic Particle Testing
(MPT), Radiographic Testing (RT), Ultrasonic Testing (UT), Acoustic
Emission Testing (AET), Leak Testing (LT), Thermography and Vibration
Analysis, These techniques are categorized on the basis of location of flaws
for which they are to be used. The surface examination techniques are VT,
LPT, ECT & MPT and volumetric examination techniques are UT & RT.
AET & LT are performance tests. The surface flaw is more dangerous than
volumetric flaw. ECT is one of the surface examinations to detect the
surface and subsurface flaws in a component made of conducting materials.
Scope :
. Various Terms related to ECT
. Various Laws related to ECT
}. Generation and Detection of eddy current
}. Description and Design test coil
Reference Standard Details
Test Parameters selection
. Types of ECT
|. Flow Chart of ECT Equipment
. ECT Signal Analysis and Description of Impedance Plane Diagram
10. Various usage of ECT
11. Advantages and Limitations of ECT
12.Codes & Standards retated to ECT
SRN AWARE 1. Terms Related to Eddy Current Testing
1.1 Current (1) : Rate of flow of Charge (q)
l=qit”
7 qane
Direct Current (DC)
Current —f :
Alternating Current (AC)
1.2 Potential Difference (V) : Difference in potential or emf between
two points in a cofiductor carrying
current
1.3 Resistance ® : Opposition to flow of current
DC Resistance
Resistance a
AC Resistance
‘When a wire is wound in the form of coil, one more property comes
into picture ie. Inductance
1.4 Inductance (L) : Opposition to rate of flow of current
Lo « -dl/dt
1.5 Inductive Reactance (X,) : Opposition of flow of current in the
Coil due to magnetic linkage
X= ob = 2nfL
1.6 Impedance (Z) : Opposition of the current flowing through the
coil
Z=R+iX,
= (R24 X24) 1.7 Phase : Timing relationship between two signals,
= tan-1(X;,/R)
Voltage corresponding to resistance is in same phase with the current
but Voltage corresponding to inductance lags the current by 90 degree
ve
LVR
2. Various Laws related to ECT
2.1 Ohm’s Law : Current following between two points ina
Conductor is directly proportional to the Potential
Difference between those points
loa V
V=IR
2.2. Oersted Law : Current carrying conductor always associated
With magnetic field and vice-versa
2.3 Faraday Law of Electromagnetic Induction :
When a conductor comes across the changing magnetic
field produced by a coil carrying alternating current, a
circulating alternating current i. e. eddy current induces
in the conductor
V, = -N.dp/at
V, = Induced Voltage,
N=No. of Tums &
dg/dt = Rate of change of magnetic flux
2.4. Lenz Law : Magnetic field (Hs) associated with the eddy current
opposes the magnetic field (H,Jassociated with the
current following in the coil 3.0 Generation of Eddy Current & Detection of Eddy Current Test
Signal :
When an alternating current passes through a coil, the alternating
primary magnetic field gets generated around it. When a conducting
material’ comes across this primary magnetic field, a circulating
alternating current ie, eddy current gets induced in it. Secondary
magnetic field corresponding to eddy current opposes the primary
magnetic field. The interaction of primary and secondary magnetic
fields changes the impedance of the coil. This change is seen as a
voltage signal on the CRT. The signal characteristics (phase and
amplitude) are used for test material characterization.
Coil
AZ = £ (Hy ~ Hy,
AV = LAZ
Ly Eddy Current
Flaw feee Conductor Coil
AZ= F(Hy~ Hsy
AV =LAZ
|» Eddy Current
[-p Flawed Conductor
SL fe— cro
3.1 Depth of Penetration : Distance from the surface at which the
eddy current density decreases to zero
3.2 Standard Depth of Penetration (6): Distance from the surface at
which the eddy current density became
37% or Le times of the surface eddy
current density
6=V (/npot)
1. Permeability of test material
a - Conductivity of test iMiatetial ~~
f~ Test Frequency ‘As Conductivity *
Permeability 4] Standard Depth of Penetration $
Frequency 4
: Eddy current decaying exponentially from the surface
Eddy Current Density
20 40 #60 80 100
‘Surface
hos
Inside
28
38
Hence ECT is used only for Surface and Sub-surface Examination, ‘
Once Test piece is produced for testing, Conductivity and
Permeability Can’t be change, Hence only Frequency can be change
for getting different SDP
As Frequency}, SDP | & Sensitivity
4.0 Description and Design Test Coit :
4.1. Two types on the basis of winding Orientation
(i) Absolute (ii) Differential
MLDS
ee CLARA Absolute Differential «
+
Sensitive to total Sensitive to localised
Impedance change Impedance change
Sensitive to Temp. Insensitive to Temp.
Variation & Probe variation & Probe wobbling
wobbling
4.2. Two Types on the basis of Connection with the Equipment
@ Single Coil
= Same coil used for Excitation and Detection
Gi) Double Coil or Driver-Pickup Coil
~ One Coil for Excitation & One for Detection
4.3 Three types on the basis of Shape
(i) Surface Probe :
- for Flat Products
- Lift-off~ distance between probe and object
Edge-effect
Surface Probe > Lift-off
Test Object
(ii) Bobbin Coil or ID Coil :
- for Tubular Products
- Fill-factor
+ End-effect ube. Tube Coil.
EEA
ZX
Absolute Bobbin Coil Differential Bobbin Coil
(iii) Encircting or Feed Through Coit :
~ for Tubular Product, Rod, Bar & Wire
- Fill-factor-~ ratio of X-sectional area of coil and
object
= End-effect
Tube Coil Tube Coil
in
Absolute Encireling Coil _ Differential Encireling Coil
Lift-off — Distance between probe and Test object
Lift-off should be as minimum as possible during testing.
Fill-factor — Ratio of Cross Sectional Area of Coil to test object in
case of Bobbin Coil & Ratio of Cross Sectional Area of
‘est object to Test Coil in case of Encircting Coil
Fill-factor = (d/d,)"
4, — Coil diameter
,— Object diameter
Pill-factor should be fess than and near to 1. 4.4, Coil Desiga :
- Geometry of test object
= Material of test object
= Flaw Characteristics
= Fill-factor
- Frequency”
The frequency is calculated on the basis of conductivity and
permeability of the test object considering standard depth of
penetration as a tube wall thickness for In-manufactured components
and standard depth of penetration as 80 % of tube wall thickness for
in-service inspection of tubes. Inductance of the coil is to be
calculated assuming the impedance of the coil is same as that of
equipment. Numbers of turns are calculated using the value of L and
groove dimension. Groove size and spacing between the groove in the
coil former is decided on the basis of characteristics of flaw to be
detected, Coil diameter is decided on the basis of tube diameter to get
appropriate fill factor.
A coil is used only for a particular object geometry and frequency.
5.0 Reference Standard Details :
= required for equipment sensitivity setting
= made of same material, chemical composition,
heat treatment, fabrication procedure, shape &
size of the test object
6.0 Test Parameters Selection :
6.1 Frequency
= Compromise between SDP and Sensitivity
6.2 Phase
- Adjusted to make Probe Wobbling Signal in
horizontal direction
63 Gain -
- Toattain the appreciable signal of desired
variables 7.0 Types of ECT :
~ Impedance testing
= Phase Analysis testing
© Vector Point method
+ Linear Time Base method
«Ellipse Method
- Modulation Analysis testing
8.0 Flow Chart of ECT Equipment :
Fest Coil / Test Object
Power Source [> [Oscilator |»
oT
Amplifier | »{ Phase Detector | 5[ Quadrature Sampler}
Tt
CRT Screen | { Strip Chart Recorder
9.0 ECT Signal Analysis and Description of Impedance Plane
Diagram :
9.1 ECT Signal Analysis
Tube = Coil
4:
ID Flaw Hole OD Flaw ID Flaw Hole OD Flaw 1D Flaw Signal Hole Signal OD Flaw Signal
ery
Absolute Coil Differential Coil
9.2. Description of Impedance Plane Diagram :
XUXo + n&d
Lift-off
[f o&t
R/Ro >
Impedance plane diagram is an analytically derived and
experimentally verified diagram. This diagram gives us idea about the
selection of frequency for testing as well as the basis of signal analysis,
during eddy current testing.
10.0 Application of ECT :
10.1 Flaw Detection
Gradual Thinning
- Absolute Coil
* Localised Flaw
- Differential Coil
10.2. Conductivity Measurement
‘* Absolute Coil
+ Based on total impedance measurement 10.3 Coating Thickness Measurement
* Non-conductive over conductive ~ based
on lift off measurement
* Conductive over non-conductive — based
on thickness measurement
* Conductive over conductive ~ based on
conductivity & thickness variation
10.4 Residual Stress Measurement
* based on conductivity variations
10.5 Metal Sorting
* Based on Conductivity variation,
«Based on Permeability variation
10.6 Heat Exchanger Tube Testing :
Tube Sheet Support Plate Tube
Coit
Use Two Frequencies
Prime Frequency — High Frequency - Signal contains more features
oftube & less features of Support plate
Subtraction Frequency - Low Frequency — Signal contains less
feature of tube & more features of Support
plate Phase of the support plate signal from subtraction frequency is
adjusted in opposite direction to that of signal from prime frequency
and vectorialy added in mixer ~ Mixed signal produces features of
the tube only, This technique is known as Multi Frequency Multi
Parameter testing
In-- Manufactured Inspection :
- Use Encircling Coil
= Standard Depth of Penetration is to be
considered as Wall thickness
” In-Service Inspection :
+ Use Bobbin Coil
- Standard Depth of Penetration is to be
considered as 80% of Wall thickness
Signal Analysis during ECT of Heat Exchanger Tubes
Prime Frequency Subtraction Frequency
_signal Signal
+
Flaw Signal * Bafile Plate Signal
Only Flaw Signal
No Baffle Plate Signal
a 10.7 ECT of Ferromagnetic Material :
= DC or Permanent magnet used for saturation
= Remote Field Eddy Current Testing
11.0 Advantages & Limitations:
11.1 Advantages
- Non-Contact
No couplant required
= Online & Off line data analysis
~ Post processing of data is not necessary
~ Very fast
~ Repeatable & Reliable
+ Automation is possible *
11.2 Limitations :
Only for conducting metal
~ Separate coil for separate object
~ Only for surface & Sub-Surface flaw
- Costly Equipment
- Skilled operator required for data analysis, ‘
12.0 Codes & Standards Related to Eddy Current Testing
12.1 Bureau of Indian Standard Doc. : MTD21(3534) — Glossary of
‘Terms related to ECT
12.2 IS 6398 : Codes of practice for ECT of Seamless ferrous pipes
& tubes:
12.3 IS 11612 : Codes of practice for ECT of Seamless Non-ferrous
pipes & tubes
12.4 ASTM E309 : ECT of steel tubular products using magnetic
_ saturation
12.5 ASTM E371 : ECT of Nickel & Nickel alloys tubular products 12.6 ASTM E426 : ECT of Seamless & welded tubular products,
austenitic stainless steel & similar alloys
12.7 ASTM E243 : ECT of Seamless Copper & Copper alloys tubes
12.8 ASTM E690 : In-situ ECT of non-magnetic heat exchanger
tubes.
12.9 ASME B&PV Code, Section V, Article 8 ; ECT of Non-
ferromagnetic heat exchanger tubes
12.10 ASME B&PV Code, Section XI, Article 26 : ECT of Non-
ferromagnetic heat exchanger tubes Heat Treatment of Metals & Alloys
B.K. Shah
NDT&QE Se:tion
AFD, BARC
Trombay, Mumbai — 400 085 Heat Treatment
« Definition
: - Heating & cooling operations
applied to metals & alloys in solid
state so as to obtained the desired
properties.
« Purpose
@ Mechanical Properties :
Strength * ¥, Ductility +, Toughness +
(ii) Corrosion Resistance +
(iii) Dimensional Stability —- Residual Stress +
e HT Cycle : 3 Steps
4
Temperature |
Time —>
¢ Metallurgical characteristics controlling
properties
~ Chemical Composition -~ Dislocation Density Heat Treatment of Steels
e Annealing
« Normalising
« Hardening
¢ Tempering
« Martempering
e Austempering A(C.P.)
SS
Wen
Time ———*
Annealing — Furnace cooling from y -
Coarse Pearlite (soft)
Coarse Pearlite
Normalising - Air cooling from y -
Fine Pearlite (very tough)
Hardening - Oil/Water Quenching from y -
Martensite (very hard)
Tempering - Hardened steel is tempered i.e.
heated below critical temperature —
Tempered Martensite
(Hardness ¥, Toughness#)} Tempering of Steel
* Hardening H. T. (ie. formation of martensite) is always
followed by Tempering H. T.
temper
Martensite (a ) © > Ferrite (a ) + Cementite (Fe,C)
{reheating :
below A: temp.}
¢ Aim:
‘quenching stresses developed during
- To relieve
Hardening
restore Ductility,
« Stages of Tempering
() Is Stage (RT- 200 C):
- Precipitation of ¢ carbide (FezsC : HCP) & formation
‘of low Carbon martensite (0.2% C}
(ii) 2-4 Stage (20C-300 C)
- Decomposition of Retained Austenite to Bainite
(iii) 36 Stage (250-4C9 C)
- Decomposition 07 Murtensite to Ferrite & Cementite
and dissolution of carbide
(iv) 4 Stage (406-700 C)
- Coarsening of Cementite Particle :
& Toughness with decrease in’ Quench Cracks
Cracks formed in stee! as a result of tensile stress produced
during Hardening HT ( Austenite to Martensite transformation )
we
t ¥ tai
1 Origin of Stress
Tr
s ¢ Temb. - temperature gradiant
i. Ms ~ fack of simultaneous
v Me
transformation through-
out the cross section
Aid Vol | 14%
Stage Stress condition
Surface | Centre
;
ist (Temp. Gradiant) T Cc
2nd (A>M at c T
surface }
2rd (Am m at Tr c
Crack in through cenire }
hardened steel
ist {Temp.Gradiant) r c
2nd (A+M of surface *
& A->P of centre} c T
3rd (cooling of
centre to RT} ey Tt
hardened steei
ave reu en bien ew Martempering & Austempering
- These special HT processesare adopted to
reduce residual stresses & thereby minimise
the tendency for cracking.
the tender
Temperature
ee Surface Case Hardening of Steel
» Objective
~ surface of the steel to be made hard & wear resistant
~ core to be maintained soft & tough.
» Application: Gears.
Two categories of Case Hardening H.T.
No change in sussace chemical
composition,only microstructural
change (00.35%)
Change in surface chemistr
aang with microstee with microstuctural chan pane
(C : 0.15-0,2%)
| |
. laduction Hardening . Carburising
. Flame Hardening . Nitriding ‘
. Laser Hardeni.g . Cyaniding
. Carboaitriding Mechanical Working
Plastic ‘Deformation
' Change in shape & size
* No change in votume
oe
Hot Working Cold Working
Temp. > Tye Temp. < Ti.
i [Hot Working | Cold Working, |
Forging v [ssemwnnre
Rolling Vv ] y
Extrusion | v i V
|___ Drawing | =—— ! N
* Tungsten (W) --- 1000 C ~- Cold Working
* Lead(Pb) = --- RT ---- Hot Working Property .
Temperature. —»
eo Microstructural and property changes during cold
working and subsequent annealing, with recovery,
iscrystallization and grain growth occurring at
SU-ressively higher températures. Annealing of Cold Worked Metal
Cold Work (CW) -- Strength T, Hardness T
Duetility 1; Toughness 4
(density of Point Imperfection & Dislocation 1)
+ Annealing of CW Metal --- restores Ductility
+ Three Stage of Annealing
# Recovery -- Point Defects 1 Internal Stress 4
Dislocation - Low energy * Electrical Conductivity tT
Configuration
# Recrystallization -- N & G of New Ductility T
Strain Free Grains Strength +
Dislocation Density +
#Grain Growth —--Grain Size T y.s. 4
GBareaal —~ Touganess
« For Fine Grain Size Microstructure
# Cold Work (high) — Anneal (low Temperazure) Cycle — ~~~ Precipitation Hardening
_ * H.T. for controlled precipitation to harden the alloy
+ 3 Steps
# Solutionizing — tc form a single phase solid
solution
#Quenching - to form a single phase
supersaturated solid solution (SSS)
# Ageing -- for controlled decomposition of SSS
to form two phase microstructure
« Example : Duralumin (Al - 4% Cu)
> Osa, . + (CuAl2)
‘Csupersat.
FCC FCC Tetragonal
4% Cu 0.2% Cu 52% Cu
« Precipitation process - characterized by a series
of Transition phases
GP zones > 0” > @ +9 120
GP zones
{
1
Hardness, VPN
=
6
80
60
O41 1 10 100
Ageing tune, days
The variation in hardness as a function of ageing
time at 130°C for an‘Al-4 %Cu alloy. The appearance
of various transition precipitates is indicated. superstuated solid soluion, (1D) Anneaag
isgram. (6) Schematic illutrodens of various restmens: (1) Sat
‘eisieed.
‘sohation
‘of 8 (IV) Agehardened, sbmicrescops precipita, (V) Overageay
Lu
a
Fig. 121. Age-tontening: ()
solution, ot at temperate Ts, Temperature, °C
1100
1000
Fe
QE Carburizing
temperature
anneal Process]
Anneal
SQA. Stress-relief anneal
' bt
04 0.8 12
Carbon, %
The heating temperatures, for various heat
treatment processes. - ~SIGNEFICANCE OF FLAWS IN PERFORMANCE OF
ENGINEERING COMPONENTS:
BLK Shah
Atomic Fuels Division
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
‘Trombay, Bombay 400 085,
Abstract
There is no engineering siructure, which is completely fre from flaws. Significance or severity of
4 flaw in a given material depends om its type, location, geometry (size, shape & orientation) and
interaction with adjacent flaws. Fracture mechanics provides methodologies for assessment of
flaw significance with respect to fitness -for- purpuse (FFP)-This approach is illustrated through
‘some case studies. pitas be posto
Keywords: Fracture Mechanics, Flaw Significance, Critical Flaw Size.
Fitness ~for- purpose
1.0 Introduction
There is no engineering structure, which is completely free from flaws. By
methods, one can always find flaws in any
increasing the sensitivity of dete
component, Therefore, “design codes demand flaw characterisation not only during In-
Manufacture Inspection (IM!) but also during Pre-Service Inspection (PSI) as weil as
during periodic In-Service Inspection (ISI). Flaw characterisation includes Type,
Location, Size, Shape & Orientation of flaws. Significance or severity of flaw depends.
terial in which the flaw is
not only on its characteristics but also on the properties of
‘embedded as well os the slress to which it is subjected.
In this presentation, an attempt is made to provide answers to questions like (i)
how to assess flaw
which type of flaw is more severe ?, (ii
tolerance of materiats ? (iv) at what location the flaw is more severe ? (v) how fo assess
interaction of adjacent flaws ? (vi) which NDT method to use to detect severe flaw ? and
(vii) what is the basis of flaw acceptance criteria of design codes 7. Methodology of
assessment of flaw significance is illustrated through some case studies. ase gegen = rt aS SSIES ARIS
2.0 Flaw Classification
Any interruption in normal physical structure of a component is called a
Discontinuity. A discontinuity with widesirable connotation is called a Flaw. A flaw,
which makes the component untit for service, is called a Defect. Discontinuities are
grouped inty three categories: (i) Inherent Discontinuity, typical of melting, casting &
soliditication processes, (ii) Processing Discontinuity, typical of mechanical working
(noticald), welding & heat treatment etc. and (iii) Service Discontinuity resulting due to
interaction of stress, temperature, environment etc.
‘The International Committee of Foundry Technical Associations has standardised
the romenelature and identified seven basic categories of casting defects: (i) Metallic
projections. (ii) Cavities, (iii) Discontinuities, (iv) Defects. (v) Incomplete casting, (vi)
Incorrect dimensions and (vii) Inclusions or structural anomalies. In this scheme, the
term discontinuity has the specific meaning of a planar separation of the metal, this is 2
‘crack.
An atias. published by International Institute of Welding, Commission V, lists 83,
different weld discontinuities or flaws. These are classified into six groups:
Group, Designations
I Cracks
2 Cavities
3. Solid tnelusions
4. © Lack of Fusion & Penetration
3. Imperfect Shape
6. Miscellaneous Defects not included in Group 1
Typical flaws present in forged components include Central Burst, Laps, Improper
Flow Lines and Hydrogen Flakes. ‘Typical flaws present in rolled products include
Seams, Striations and Laminations.
Most fla.s in structures may be placed in one of four classes: (1) Flaws which are too small to grow at ail
2) Flaws which will grow - but will not grow 1o failure within the life of a
structure
(3) Flaws which will grow to failure in a time period of several inspection
intervals.
(4) Flaws which will grow to failure before the next inspection.
Flaws belonging to classes (1) & (2) are less severe than classes (3) & (4) flaws.
Here comes the role of non-destructive testing (NDT). It should not place the former
category flaws into later categories, which witl result in economic penalty. It should also
not place later categories of flaws into former categories due to safety considerations.
3.0 Modes of Failure
Depending on the operating environment and the nature of the applied loading.
structure can fail by a number of different modes, including :
© Ductile fracture
+ Plastic cotlapse
+ Fatigue
* Creep
+ Corrosion
© Bucking
‘These failure modes can be broken down into the following broad categories:
+ Fracture
«Fatigue
"Environmental cracking
* High-temperature creep
Fracture includes the conventional static failure modes, such as brittle fracture, ductile
fracture, plastic collapse, buckling, as well as dynamic fracture. Fatigue failure is caused
by cyclic loading, Environmentally assisted cracking includes corrosion fatigue, stress~
corrosion cracking, hydrogen-induced cracking, and other environmentally assisted
failure modes. High temperature creep includes creep rupture and creep crack growth. 4.0 Assessing Severity of Flaws
4.1 Types of Flaws vs Severity
Flaw severity can be assessed using fracture mechanics methodology, On this
basis flaws can be classified into two groups:
(1) Planar Flaws viz cracks, lack of fusion or penetration, ‘undercut, and root
concavity.
2) Volumetric Flaws viz. solid inclusions, cavities, porosities
Planar flaws are considered more severe than volumetric flaws because of higher
stress concentration associaied with them. ‘The tip acuity of a erack type welding flaw
‘can vary greatly, depending on the cracking mechanism and on the extent to which
blunting occurs by plastic strain during cooling to room temperature. Typical examples
are given in the following table, where it may be seen that the sharpest tips are likely ©
arise with hydrogen cracking (je. relatively tow temperature form of cracking) but even
in this case, the tip radius remains comparable with that of a fatigue crack{1}.
Table Acuity of Welding Defects,
Crack tyoe Typical tip radius
in microns
Fatigue 025
+ Hydrogen 02-10
Solidification 1-200 .
Liquation 05-5
Ductitity dip 1-10
: Reheat 1-20
Lamellar Tear 5-20
A planar flaw or notcis increases the tendency to brittle fracture in four important
ways : (j) by producing high local stress, (ii) by introducing a triaxial tensile state of stress at the root or tip, (iii) by producing high local strain hardening and cracking and
(iv) by producing a local magnification to the strain rate,
4.2. Tolerable Size of Planar Flaw
‘The tolerable size (a) of planar defect can be calculated using the following
equation .
#=C (Kilov? ~
Where, C = geometry factor,
Kie + plane strain fracture toughness
-
‘oy = yield stress of the material
It is evident from the above equation that higher yield strength for a given value of Kic
leads to lowering of critical or tolerable flaw size. This is contrary to conventional design
‘concept which assumes that higher safety is provided by higher YS. For increasing the
Flaw Tolerance of a material, one should aim for increasing the Kic / oy ratio. For details
‘of methodologies for assessing seventy of flaws one should refer to :
(1) ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code Section Ill & Section XI
(2) BSI PD - 6493 "Guidance in some methods for Derivation of Acceptance Levels
for Defects in Fusion Welded Joints”
(3) IEW Guidance on “Assessment of The Fitness-for-Purpose of Welded Structures’,
IW/IS-SST - 157-90.
4.3 Flaw location vs severity
Surface flaw is much more severe than internal flaw. This is because of higher
stress intensity factor associated with surface flaw.
Kic = 1.120, ¥na, = ora, or
6) 1 © Vai /1.12Va, = 171.1292 = 0.63 @)
‘Thus we find that for the same length of surface and internal Flaws (i.e.2 a = a),
surface flaw will become critical at 63% of the stress level required to make the internal
al. The characteristic dimensional parameters of interest for surface flaw are length (2c) and depth (a) whereas for intemal flaw are length (2c), depth (2a) and distance
from nearest surface (p). .
When stress levels at surface and internal flaw locations are same i.e., 65 = On
surface flaw length / internal flaw length = a, / 2a; = % X (1.12) = 0.40. It means that
~ tolerable surface flaw size cannot exceed 40 % of the internal flaw size.
4.4 Interaction oC Adjacent Fiaws .
When two flaws are near each other, they increase the stress intensity factor
associated with cach other. The criterion generally adopted for interaction of
neighbouring flaws is that, where the presence of a second flaw would cause an elevation
of 20% in SIF at the tip of the first defect. An equivalent defect is assumed to have
effective height and length of the rectangle containing both defects. As per ASME B &
PV Code See. XI, when the spacing between two adjacent flaws is less than the average
dimension of the two flaws, effective flaw sizé is taken as the sum of the wo flaw
dimensions, plus the gap between them/2}.
4.5 NDT Methods to Detect Severe Defects
‘h component has to undergo at least one each of
Depending upon application,
non-destructive examination of the fullowing categories:
(i) Visual examination
Gi) Sueface Examination by Liquid Penetrant Test (LPT),
Magnetic Particle Test (MPT), Eddy Current Testing (ECT)
iii) Volumetric examination by Radiography Test(RT); Ultrasonic Test (UT)
(iv) _| Performance test by Hydro TesvLeak Test/Acoustic Emission test
For yolumetric examination. it may be noted that detection of planar flaws by
radiography cannot be guaranteed, it has also been emphasised that planar flaws are
much more severe than volumetric flaws. Ultrasonic testing is reported to be the
preferred method for detection and sizifig of planar flaws. Acoustic emission testing (AET) is a very promising NDT method.
Two significant applications of AET are monitoring of welding process on line for
initiation of flaws and crack growth during hydro tests. In AET, cracks growing inside the
material send out acoustic waves. which are picked up by transducers at the surface of the
component. ABT is relatively unsuccessful or variable in detecting porosity, tungsten
inclusions and slag inclusions and are quite successful for eracks, LOF and LOP. Thi
in the positive direction since the former have little or no safety significance whereas the
latter have substantial safety significance. By AE monitoring during periodic hydro tests
‘of the pressure vessels, one can indicate whether crack growth has occurred or not during
period between two hydro tests, This inference is derived based on Kaiser effect as per
which there will be no AE during subsequent loading unléss the previous SIF
exceeded. Since pressure and nominal siress levels are same during hydro tests, SIF can
increase only by increase in flaw dimension.
4.6 — Flaw Characterisation RT Vs UT
Characteristics RT Ur
Presence Miss planar defects Miss globular defects
(even large) (sat!)
Locatio» (lateral) Very good Good enovgh
Location (depth) No information Good enough
Size, Shape, Orientation Very good Very poor
Type Very good Very poor
For volumetric examination, it has been mentioned eaclier that detection of planar
flaws by radiography cannot be guaranteed, Radiography seures over Ultrasonics
in terms of imaging capability, This is attributed to the much Jower wavelength of X-rays
as compared to that of ultrasound. UT also now possesses imaging capability and
provides sectional image (B-scan) and plan view image (C-scan) of flaws. Ultrasonic
flaw image on any plane can be obtained using co-ordinate of the probe (X,Y) and flaw
depth (Z). Echo amplitude (A) based on A-scan provides contrast in the image.
7 47 iding.. ttle Fracture susceptibilit
‘The unstable fracture situation is described by the following equation
Ky =Covwa=Kic ~~)
yy to brittle fracture by (1) decreasing fracture
Welding can increase the suscepti
toughness Kjc. this is caused by micro structurst modification due to welding heat effect.
(11) Introducing discontinuities so that ‘a’ is increased. (111) introducing residual stress
og 80 that allowable service or operating stress (a) is reduced,
4.8 — Suberitical Flaw Growth by Fatigue and Stress Corrosion
While deciding flaw acceptance, one should take into consideration the possibility
of flaw growth due to fatigue and stress corrosion. When the working stress is
ial flaws can grow to a critical size. Flaw growth rate da/dN may be
fluctuating. ir
measured in terms of the increase in length per cycle. This allows prediction of the
flaw ay to the critical Naw size ae
number of cycles necessary to grow the i
‘The rate of fatigue crack propagation (da/4N) is related to stress intensity factor
(SIF) range AK by
da_=caK"
dN
. (4)
where © and n are material constants. In general, itis not possible to predict the life
betwen a, and aes unless the inital flaw is sharp. IF t has a finite radius(p), then there is
4 waiting time, or the elapse of a number of cycles, before commencement of growth
jation Ny may be calculated from the following
The number of cycles to crack in
expression :
Ni=B(AKip4)” @) ‘
where B and m are material constants.
In addition to sub critical crack growth by fatigue, growth can occur by stress
corrosion. Again, there is the problem of separating initiation and propagation, but this
can be overcome in the laboratory by testing pre-cracked samples. A stress-corrosion
place of Kic to calculate the
stress intensity fimit Kyec can be determined and. used
criticat crack size below which stress corrosion may be ignored{3}.
8 $.0 Flaw Acceptance Standard in Codes: Workmanship ys Fitness for Purpase
‘The flaw acceptance clauses in various codes give the NDT methods, to be used
and the maximum size of flaws which can be tolerated The basis of specifying acceptance
levels of flaws in codes has been
Fabrication and quality assurance experience or good workmanship ie by
‘employing a good welder & using a qualified welding procedure, flaws of size
hhigher than the critical value can be ruled out,
ii) Service and damage experience if flaw is tess-ihan the critical level, acceptable
service performance can be assured and
iii) Capability of NDT methods.
Limitations of the existing codes with respect to flaw significance can be summarized as
follows:
i) Radiographic examination of weld is called for. This method is not suitable for
detecting & sizing planar flaws which are more harmful than volumetric defects.
Specified acceptance levels for the volumetric flaws have no scientific basis, are
arbitrary and essentially based on ‘good workmanship’. This leads to unnecessary repairs
causing replacement of a harmless flaw such as slag inclusion by a potential harmful
crack, which is less easy to detect. .
(ii). Non-destructive examinations are catled for at various stages viz. In Manufacture
Inspection (IMI), Pre-Service Inspection (PSI) and In-Service Inspection (ISI). ASME
codes specify RT for IMI, whereas UT for PSI and ISI. This leads to a situation where
crack-like defects not detected during IMI are found during PST.
(iv) Codes specify allowable flaw sizes which are independent of flaw loc
(other
than surface or subsurface), orientation, loading, fracture toughness of materials etc. This
does not ensure same safety against fracture in all situations.
It has been recognised that there is need to assess the significance of flaws with
respect to fitness for purpose (FFP) which is based on fracture mechanics~ It has been
suggested that a two-tier approach shiould be utilised. Flaw levels should be set for
quality control (QC) purposes. These might be similar to existing acceptance levels.
Flaws smaller than these QC limits would be automatically accepted but larger flaws
would not be automatically repaired. The ~ause for the loss in quality would be examined
9 and rectified. Repair would only be required if quatty tell below an acceptance level
based on fitness for purpose.
6.0 Case Studies
6.1 Failure of Rocket Motor Casing during Hydro Test
‘An excellent example to explain the importance of selection of material on the.
toughness consideration is the failure of 6.0 m diameter rocket motor case during hydro-
test. The motor case failed during hydro test at a pressure 38 kg/em?, which was about
56% of proof pressure. Post failure examination showed that failure originated in a weld
defect (0.56 em deep and 3.6 cm long).
Design specification and Paifure Data
Proof pressure 63.4 kgfem2
Failure occurred at 38 kg/cm
+ Material 250 Grade maraging steel
Thickness of plate 1.85 em
Process ‘Submerged arc automatic welding
Yield strength 16.800 kg/cm?
Membrane stress at failure 7,000 ke/em*
‘The real lesson in this failure is the lack of design knowledge that went into the
‘material setection Even though the material selected (Grade 250 maraging steel) has high
yield strength of 16.800 kg/cm’, its plane strain fracture toughness is only 8,938 kg.cm'™”,
At the design stress of” 11,200 kg/om?, a critical defect of only 0.2 em in depth could
have caused catastrophic failure. Had they used grade 200 maraging steel, whose yield
strength is only 15,400 kg/em? (about 10 percent lower than Grade 250) but the toughness
is about 16,800 kg.cm™? (about double of Grade 250), the chamber would not have
failed. Ata design stress 200 kg/cm? the Grade 200 steel would take a flaw 1.42 om in
depth to cause plane strain fracture and this is a very large flaw. In all probability, a flaw
this large in this type of material would be arrested under plane stress condition anyway. ‘as soon as it grew through the thickness. Thus, the Grade 200 maraging steel would have
been & more reliable material for the chamber than Grade 250 maraging steel(4].
{In summary, using a lower strength steel with higher toughness (a large Kic/ov) even at a
design stress which was a higher percentage of the yield strength would have been better.
62 Evaluatic Jaw in Main Seam Weld of a Pressure .
‘The material used for the pressure vessel was 125 mm thick forgings of fow alloy
steel (MA-Ni-Cr-Mo). ‘The welds were examined and qualified by radiography using 6
Mev linear accelerator. When ultrasonic testing was done to generate base-line data for
in-service inspection, a flaw 185 mm long was found in the circumferential weld. It was
though to consist ofa series of slag entrapments.
For assessment purpose, the flaw was assumed fo be a seini-lliptical surface crack
(5 mm deep and 185 mm long). The criticatity of the flaw was evaluated using Failure
‘Anaiysis Diagram (FAD). The FAD is designed to atlow simultaneous consideration, of
fracture and plastic collapse. [t is plotted in terms of fracture ratio, Ke (K/Kic) and
collapse ratio, Sp (6e/ono)- The failure assessment curve interpolates between these two
limiting failure modes viz. brittle fracture (0, 1) and ductile fracture (1, 0).
For design stress as well as proof stress (hydro test) loading conditions, the flaw
was found to be within the “safe’ area of FAD providing safety factor of 4 inspite of
number of pessimistic assumptions. The vessel was certified as fit-for-service without
any repair of the flaw(5).
7.0 Summary
‘The above presentation can be summarised as follows:
a. Planar flaws.-viz cracks, LOF and LOP are more significant than
volumettic flaws viz. inclusions and porosity.
b. Radiography is not the suitable method for detecting and sizing planar
flaws. Ultrasonic test is the suitable method. €. Acceptance flaw standards in codes are based on workmanship standard
and levels specified are essentially arbitrary and not based ort fitness-for-
purpose.
4d. Fracture mechanies provides methodologies for assessing significance of
faws with respect to fitness-for-purpose.
¢. The greater the height, the longer the length and the closer to the surface or
to another discontinuity, the greater is the severity of a discontinuity in ¢
given material. Depending upon their fracture toughness and yield
strength values, materials have different flaw tolerance limits.
By modifying microstructure and introducing flaws & residual stress,
‘welding can affect the materials suscepttility to mechanical faitures viz.
brittle fracture and fatigue, and éorrasion-mechanical failures viz.
corrosion fatigue and SCC.
g. Workmanship flaw acceptance standard should be used for quality control
purpose. Fitness-for-purpose flaw acceptance criteria should be used for
‘component repair/repiacement decision.
References
1. T.G.Gooch - “Environment Sensitive Fracture : Material & Welding
Considerations", Meials Tech, 9 (1982) 210-215.
2.. British Standaed Institution, "Guidence on methods for assessing the acceptability
of flaws in fusion welded structures”, PD-6493(1991).
3. W.d.Jacksion and J.C. Wright, “Fracture Toughness approach to steel castings
quality assurance”, Metals Technology,(Sept1977) 425-433, :
4. ST Rolfe and J.M. Barson - “Fracture and Fatigue Control in Structures -
Applications of Fracture Mechanics”, Prentice-Hall, NJ,( 197).
5. E.H.AWatson,S..Webster and E.F. Walker,” Evaluation of a defect in a Main Seam |. TENSION TEST 4
MECHANICAL TESTING
B.K. SHAH
Atomic Fuels Division, BARC
INTRODUCTION
Mechanical testing refers to the test methods by which the mechanical properties of a
metal are determined. Mechanical properties include tensile propertics, hardness, bend
ductility, impact toughness etc. Tests to determine these properties are routinely done
to qualify the raw material, heat treatment and welding procedure, Fatigue, creep and
stress rupture tests are other important mechanical tests, These tests are not routine, but
carried out mostly during material development stage. In this lecture, basies of the
above méchanical tests and the applicable code requirements will be briefly covered wt
i) Tension test is cartied out to determine Stress-Strain Relation ship.
Engg, Stress, $= P/Aa, ‘True Stress, 7=P/A
Engg, Strain, ¢ = (Lr LoVLo, True Strain, E-In LOLo
Here P is the load, Ag - the original area of cross section, A, the inst
cross section, Le- original length, Le-Final length ee oe,
: ee
ii) Four important properties determined in a tension test*are Ultimate Tensile [_ase¥ex™
Strength (UTS), Yield Strength, (YS), Percentage Elongation and Percentage
Reduction of area {% RA).
UTS = Pmaw/Ao,
YS(0.2% offset) = Load for 0.2% Plastic Strain /Ao
Percentage Elongation = (L€Le/La X 100, YeRA = (Ao-AfYAc X 100
iii) Design stress is based on the minimum of either 1/3 UTS or 2/3 YS (ASME B&PV
code Sec.IlI} or 1/4 UTS or 5/8 YS (ASME B&PY Code Sec. VIII)
iv) Tension testis carried out using a Universal Testing Machine ‘UTM (a machine
designed to test specimens in tension, compression or bending mode). There are
three kinds of UTM ; Screw-driven, hydraulic and servo-hydraulic.
¥) Load calibration of UTM is done either by proving ring (elastic calibration device)
or dead weight (as per ASTM E4). Strain calibration is done using extensometer
calibrator (as per ASTM E83). Proving rings for load calibrator of UTM need to
be certified by NPL, New Delhi
vi) There are six classes of extensometer as per ASTM E83
ne
AS 6 Classification Max. Error of Strain Applications
Class A 0.0002 Precise vaiue of modulus
of elasticity (E)
Class Bt 0.0001 'B value & YS.
‘Class B-2 0.0002 YS
Class C 0.001 -
Class D 0.01 :
Class E 0.01 +
vii) During 1.1, strain rate control is important, Higher strain rate or loading rete
results in higher value of YS, Some materials show higher strain rate sensitivity
For tension testing of such material, strain rate control in a narrow range is
specified up to yield loading,
viii) Percentage elongation is a measure of ductility, But it is dependent on gauge
dimensions (viz. gauge area "A' & gauge letngth ‘L’) of the tensile specimens. To
compare elongation measurements of different sized specimens, the specimens
must be geometrically similar (i.e. YA/L constant),
ix) For detailed specification requirements on tension test related to testing machine,
test specimens, testing methods etc. one should refer to ASTM E8 and ASTM.
A370.
IL, HARDNESS TESTS
i) Hardness implies resistance to plastic deformation. For metals, itis measured in
terms of resistance to indentation, There are two general methods of classification
of indentation tests
First method of classification is based on measurement of either the depth of
indentation or the area of indentation when an indenter is forced into the material
with a specified force. Rockwell hardness test utilises depth of indentation.
Brineli, Vickers, Knoll & Ultrasonic Hardness tests are examples of indentation
tests that employ the area of the indentation,
Second method of classification of indentation hardness tests is govemed by the
oad applied to the indenter. Based on this, hardness tests can be referred to as
Macrohardness tests (load above 1 kgf) or microhardness tests (load from 1 gfto
(load above | kef
1 7
ii) Rockwell hardness testing :
It is the most widely used method for determining hardness, primarily because it is
simple to use and all readings are direct. Rockwell hardness Number is based on inverse
relationship to the measurement of the additional depth to wich an indenter is forced by
a heavy (major) load beyond the depth resulting from a previously applied (minor) load.
‘Use of a minor load greatly increases the accuracy of this test as it eliminates the effect qv.
BHN = 2P/ xD [D- V(D*-4")
where P is load (kgf), D is the ball diameter (mm) and 4 is diameter of the indentation
(mm).
‘This testing is more suitable for determining the averege hardness of materials having
constituent phases of different hardness viz. grey cast irons, Detailed specification and
requirements for Brinell Hardness Testing are covered in ASTM E10,
iv) Microhardness Testing
Microhardness testing refers to indentation hardness testing that involves forcing a
diamond, indenter of specific geometry with the surface of the test material at loads
ranging from 1 to 1000 gf There are three test methods viz. Knoop, Vickers and
Ultrasonic, In Knoop and Vickers Microhardness Testing, hardness values are
determined by measuring the size of the indentation by microscope and then dividing the
load by the surface area of the indentation, In ultrasonic hardness testing, the change in
frequency of a vibrating diamond-tipped rod applied on the specimen indicates hardness.
No microscopic examination is required, All three hardness test methods are based on
indentation depth of less than 10 pm. Vickers hardness testing is the most commonly
used and VHN is defined by
‘VHN = 2P Sin (0/2)D*
where P is the applied toad (Kg), D is the mean diagonal of the indentation (m) and 0 is
the angle between opposite faces of the square based pyramidal diamond indenter (136
degree), Detailed specification requirements of microhardness testing are covered in
ASTM E384. Microhardness testing is most suitable for measuring hardness of surface-
hardened components viz. carburised, nitrided and hard chrome plated. Ultrasonic
hardiness testing can be used for determining hardness of test surfaces on any plane,
v) Hardness Conversion Tables
Sometimes hardness specified is in one scale and hardness measured is in different scale
This may be done due to non-availability of the particular testing machine, In such
situation, i is required to convert hardness from one scale to another. ASTM E140
provides hardness conversion tables. One should refer to table specific to the material
under consideration as such conversion is dependent on the material
BEND TESTS
Bend tests are conducted to determine the ductility or strength of a material, Bending
ductility tests are more commonly used. These tests are generally quantitative (pass/fail
type) and are done to qualify strips, sheeV/plate or weldments for weld procedure or
weld performance qualification ASTM E190 and E290 cover the details of these tests.
There are two parameters in bend ductility tests viz. bend angle (X) and bending radius
(R). As X increases or R decreases, test becomes severe. Bending radius is expressed
in multiples of specimen thickness A materia! with a minimum bend radius of 3t would mean that it can be bent without cracking through radius equal to 3 times the
thickness. Welding procedure qualification (as per ASME See IX) for casbon steel and
stainless steel welds calls for 180 degrees bend over a roller of diameter 4 times the
thickness. Bend test specimens should have width to thickness ratio greater than 8:1 to
avoid geometric effects
Flattening and flaring tests are done on tubes and pipes for checking ductility and
soundness. In flaring tests, the parameters are percentage diameter expansion and the
taper angle of the expanding mandrel. In flattening tests, the controlling parameter is
the gap between the flattened platens. These tests are suitable for qualifying tubes for
heat exchanger, condenser etc.,. Details of the tests are covered in ASTM A 450.
V. TOUGHNESS TESTS
Toughness of a material is the ability to absorb energy in the'plastic range. Fracture of
material can either be ductile or brittle. Tough material is more resistant for brittle
fracture, Even a normally ductile material can exhibit brittie fracture if test or service
temperature is lowered, loading rates are higher (impact loading) or a notch is present
(triaxial stress). Notched bar impact tests (Charpy V-notch, CVN Tests) are done for
determination of toughness in term of absorbed energy or lateral expansion and also for
determining ductile-britte transition temperature(DBTT). Nil Ductility Transition
‘Temperature (NDTT) is determined by Drop weight Test. ASTM B&PV code Section
UT calls for DWT as well as CVN tests to qualify ferritic steels for reactor components,
NDTT is determined by DW tests and at NDTT + 60°F, CVN test is done to determine
absorbed energy and lateral expansion {min 50 f.lb & 35 mils). Detailed specification
requirements for impact tests are covered in ASTM E23 and for drop weight test in
ASTM E 208,
Glogs oon bbe pope Basic Metallurgy for NDT
B. K. Shah ASNT NDT Level II
~~~ ~ Basic Course
I” Materials & Processes .for NDT Technology
Processing of Materials | Characterisation of
Materials
Casting -
Nature of Materials
Mechanical Working .
Forging, Rolling, Mechanical Properties
Extrusion
Corrosion Properties
Welding
Microstructure
Heat Treatment
Flaw Characterisation
Powder Metallurgy
Modes of Failures
| Surface Finishing
Le
II Fundamentals of Various (10) NDT Methods
¢ VI, PT, MT, ECT, UT, RT, AET, IRT, NRT,
LT
TH Qualification & Certification of NDT
Personnel
© @
Benet oly SOQ ee Rpeny Come @
SER Ba |e ton Gitte tee | Cae
Ee ef we Mewtd sim | go
abut DT be pte ! —
aa ° -
TL Be Ra ‘$20 —— wr ae
ae oe tet
eer ee
Fagarg Pays
Importance-of ——___._
_ BASIC METALLURGY for NDT Professionals —
I No Engg. Structure Free From Flaws.
Flaw Tolerance depends on Metallurgical
Characteristics
Il Flaw Characteristics
(Type, Location, Size, Shape & Orientation)
depends on Nature of Material Processing.
Knowing Flaw Characteristics helps in
« Selection of appropriate NDT Method
e Selection of Test Parameters
© ° Interpretation of Relevant/False
Indications
Jil Quality Requiremen‘s include
© Metallurgical Characteristics
« NDT
e Metrology Quality Requirements
Metallu-gical _NDT | Dimensional Dimensional
i !
| . “a |
* Chemical Composition | Freedom from | Stress:
* Microstructure unacceptable Magnitude,
* Mechanical Properties | Flaws affecting { Concentration,
Structural & Distribution
* Corrosion Properties
| Integrity NDT Methods & Material Characteristics
Method Characteristics
Ler Flaw must intercept Surface
| TPT Material must be Magnetic
| ECT - Material must be Electrically Conductive
RE Change in Thickness, Density and/or
| Composition
it 7 Change in Acoustic Impedance Basic Metallurgy for NDT
I. Basic Principles of Metallurgy
© Metallurgical Characteristics controlling properties >
* Toois for Microstructural Characterization
« Ferrous & Non Ferrous Alloys
Il. Heat Treatment of Metal & Alloys
« HT of Ferrous Alloys: Fe-C Diagram & TTT Diagram
-Annealing, Normalizing, Hardening, Tempering
Case Hardening
« HT of Non-Ferrous Alloys:
-Annealing, Precipitation Hardening
III. Mechanical Properties & Testing
« Strengthening Mechanisms
© Tensile, Hardness, Bend, Impact & Toughness Tests
* Ductile Vs. Brittle Fracture
IV. Welding Metallurgy
« Effects of Welding Heat on Microstructure
© Requirements of Preheat and PWHT
© Weld Defects
V. Defects in Metals
* Inherent, Processing & Service Discontinuities
e Cast Vs. Wrought Products
VI. Metallurgical Failure Analysis
* Modes of failure
¢ Finger Printing: Fractography Engineering Materials———_______
I Metals & Alloys
1) Ceramics & Glasses
it Polymers
IV Composites
V_— Semiconductors
¢ Structural Materials: Ito IV> bed oy
¢ Electronic Materials : V Characteristics of Metal
e Chemist : Metal — Oxide dissolved in water —
Alkaline solution
e Physicist : Metal — High electrical conductivity
ot & pt as TT
° Metallurgist : Metal — Unique Characteristics
- High Thermal &
Electrical Conductivity
- Ductile & Malieable
- Optical Lusture
|
Metallic Bonding . NATURE OF METALLIC BONDING
e@ IONIC BOND : ELECTRON TRANSFER -
- NONDIRE CTIONAL
e@ COVALENT BOND: ELECTRON SHARING ~
DIRECTIONAL
@ METALLIC BOND :
ELECTRON SHARING - NONDIRE CTIONAL
DELOCALISED VALENCE ELECTRONS
ARRAY OF POSITIVE IONS WITH A
COMMON POOL OF ELECTRONS
(ELECTRON CLOUD)
RESPONSIBLE FOR UNIQUE METALLIC
CHARACTERISTICS —
@ HIGH ELECTRICAL & THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
@ HIGH DUCTILITY & MALLEABILITY
(NONDIRECTIONAL BOND)
@ OPTICAL PROPERTY - LUSTROUS Matairgiet Charecterttics ASlrting Properties
© Chemical Com
. - Batk / Local / Surface
¢ Microstructare
- Grain Size, Inclusions
« — Crystal Structure
- FCC / BCC / HCP, Textur
© Dislocation Density Compl )
- Degree of Cold Work CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
Bcc Fee.
Fe Cr Cu AUN
SS 304
FCC METALS &ALLOYS MOST TOLERANT TO FLAWS
~. 7 EASY: TO DEFORM PLASTICALLY
— NG OUCTILE TO BRITTLE TRANSITION
CH = dtd IMPERFECTIONS IN CRYSTALS
® POINT DEFECTS: ZERO'D'- Vv; 1
® LINE DEFECTS: 1'D’- DISLOCATIONS
© SURFACE DEFECTS: 2D’ - GRAIN
BOUNDARIES.
@ VOLUME DEFECTS: 3‘D' VOIDS.
Nacancye
YF terstitial Dislocation
ee
Grain boundary CONCEPT OF GRAIN SIZE: ASTM G.S. No.
N22" 1
WHERE N = No. OF GRAINS IN AN AREA OF
inZ
ing, AT 100x
n = ASTM GRAIN SIZE NUMBER
EXAMPLE:
@ ASTM G.S. No. 4, ne2' tee
e ASTMGS. No. 6, N=z261 =32
* ASTM G.S. No. GRAIN_SIZE (um)
2 . 160
4 80
56
6 Pure Metal ( Solvent A }
Add Solute B ( Metal or Non metal)
' ~
I .
1
1
t
|
Alloy
FO ee me me
, '
i
' 1
Solid Solution intermediate Phases
i . '
' ¥
5 ' .
Crystal scructure same Crystal stucture different
as fcr solvent A _ from Solvent A
t
po SS ee meent
' !
Substitutizna! S.s. interstitial S.S.
1 :
:
Atomic size Difi.< 15% Atomic size Diff. > 59%
e.g. Monel (Ni-Cu) eg. See! ‘Fe-e STRUCTURE OF ALLOYS
SOLID SOLUTIONS . INTERMETALLIC
: COMPOUNDS
© CRYSTAL STRUCTURE e CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
-SAME AS SOLVENT A -DIFFERENT FROM
A&B
® EXTENSIVE SOLUBILITY ¢ LIMITED SOLUBILITY
————
SUBSTITUTIONAL S.S. INTERSTITIAL S.S.
Example |
Steel
(Fe-C)
SIZE DFFERENCE <15% ° SIZE DIFF. >59%
e CRYSTAL STRUCTURE SAME
e VALENCY SAME
« ELECTRO NEGATIVITY DIFF. SMALL Structure Vs Properties
+ Physical make up * Ability of materials that are of practical
of materials interest to Manufacturing & Design
+ Atomic Structure + Chemical Prorerties
( Fe- 18'28'2p%3s"3psa%4s2) (corrosion properties)
+ Crystal Structure + Physical Properties
(density, melting point)
* Microstructure + Mechanical Properties
(tensile ,hardness toughness)
> Crystal Defects + Processing Properties
(castability, weldabitity, machinability
bendability) ___.. Phase Diagram of Pure Iron (Fe)
(MP)
1539 G
5 - Ferrite (BCCY
+
1400 d
yy - Egetite (FCC)
Austenite
910
a - Ferrite (BCC) /
Room Temperature INVARIANT REACTIONS
(a) EUTECTIG REACTION
“ COOLING
| Sere OS + B
(b) EUTECTOID REACTION
COOLING
su
es HEATING
ew + ye
(c) PERITECTIC REACTION
COOLING
= f
HEATING
L ol
(d) PERITECTOID REACTION
COOLING
HEATING B
Yrot
Y= +P
Yeo
atRp
L tot
yitot Fe-C PHASE DIAGRAM
Bee o pow exes 20
BAL tbat 2 heel 2 De ,
PERITECTIC Re (15006) Sf +L —~r
a
EUTECTIC Re. (1146 T) L—oytFes€
EUTECTOIR Re, CF#23T) Yorot Ae3C)
4
a
at
STEELS C42
CAST /RON: C>2 METALLIC MATERIALS
FERROUS NON-FERROUS
METALS & ALLOYS METALS & ALLOYS
— EX: Cu, At, Nz
STEELS - CAST IRON [BRASS (Cu-Zn)
fa DURALUMIN. (At-Cu)
“MONEL (Ni-Cu)
_B ~{
PLAIN CARBON ALLOY STEEL Ces &)
STEEL Ge
¥
LOW MEDIUM HIGH
CARBON CARBON CARBON
STEEL STEEL STEEL
CZ0-3% 03-06% >06%
‘LOW MEDIUM HIGH
ALLOY STEEL ALLOY STEEL ALLOY STEEL
LLOYING ; 5% 5-10% >10%
ELEMENT
STAINLESS STEELS
(Cr >12 %)
@ CAST .IRONS
Fe-c(>2%)
WHITE CL. GREY_Cl.- MELLEABLE C1. ——-NODULAR cy.
CASFe,C CAS GRAPHITE H.T. WHITE C1. ¢ AS SPHERI-
FLAKES CAL GRAPHITE
cas
AGGREGATE NODULES
(TEMPER CARBON)
NICKEL BASE ALLOYS
MONEL: Ni Cu
70 30
INCONEL 600:. Ni Cr Fe
7% 18 8
INCOLOY 800: Ni Fe Cr
32 46 2I
Cvrle Fewile se
cr ttay Korbenty $s Gus
«VN batter guy
fen 45 vag
ey. Nonferrous Metals & Alloys ---.-—~
eT
Light ‘Alloys , Heavy Alloys
* Al,.Mg,Ti,Be * Cu,Zn,Ni,Sn,Pb
* Al alloys : Conductivity,Strength,Density,S/d.
Duralumin ( Al- 4% Cu )
* Ti alloys : High strength to weight ratio
~ space vehicles
High corrosion resistance against
sea water - Marine applications
Ti-6 Al- 4 Cu
+ Cu alloys : Electrical & Thermal conductivity,
Gorrosion Resistance
Brasses & Bronzes
(Cu - Zn) (Cu ~
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