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Focus on sketches (13 points) Note that the interior of the building needs to lie inside the
Part A. Ballistics (4.5 points) region where the targets can be hit with a stone thrown from
i. (0.8 pts) When the stone is thrown vertically upwards, it the top with initial speed vmin . Indeed, if we can throw over
can reach the point x = 0, z = v02 /2g (as it follows from the the building, we can hit anything inside by lowering the throw-
energy conservation law). Comparing this with the inequality ing angle. On the other hand, the boundary of the targetable
z ≤ z0 − kx2 we conclude that region needs to touch the building. Indeed, if there were a
gap, it would be possible to hit a target just above the point
z0 = v02 /2g. [0.3 pts] where the optimal trajectory touches the building; the traject-
ory through that target wouldn’t touch the building anywhere,
Let us consider the asymptotics z → −∞; the trajectory of
hence we arrive at a contradiction.
the stone is a parabola, and at this limit, the horizontal dis-
So, with v0 corresponding to the optimal trajectory, the tar-
placement (for the given z) is very sensitive with respect to the
getable region touches the building; due to symmetry, overall
curvature of the parabola: the flatter the parabola, the larger
there are two touching points (for smaller speeds, there would
the displacement. The parabola has the flattest shape when
be four, and for larger speeds, there would be none). With the
the stone is thrown horizontally, x = v0 t and z = −gt2 /2, i.e.
origin at the top of the building, the intersection points are
its trajectory is given by z = −gx2 /2v02 . Now, let us recall
defined by the following system of equations:
that z ≤ z0 − kx2 , i.e. −gx2 /2v02 ≤ z0 − kx2 ⇒ k ≤ g/2v02 .
Note that k < g/2v02 would imply that there is a gap between v2 gx2
x2 + z 2 + 2zR = 0, z = 0 − 2 .
the parabolic region z ≤ z0 − kx2 and the given trajectory 2g 2v0
z = −gx /2v0 . This trajectory is supposed to be optimal for Upon eliminating z, this becomes a biquadratic equation for x:
2 2
— page 3 of 5 —
Problem T2. Kelvin water dropper (8 points) where the droplet’s capacitance Cd = 4πε0 r; the electrical work
Part A. Single pipe (4 points) dWel = ϕmax dq = 4πε0 ϕ2max dr. Putting dW = 0 we obtain an
i. (1.2 pts) Let us write the force balance for the droplet. equation for ϕmax , which recovers the earlier result.
Since d ≪ r, we can neglect the force π4 ∆pd2 due to the excess Part B. Two pipes (4 points)
pressure ∆p inside the tube. So, the gravity force 43 πrmax3
ρg
i. (1.2 pts) This is basically the same as Part A-ii, except
is balanced by the capillary force. When the droplet separates that the surroundings’ potential is that of the surrounding
from the tube, the water surface forms in the vicinity of the electrode, −U/2 (where U = q/C is the capacitor’s voltage)
nozzle a “neck”, which has vertical tangent. In the horizontal and droplet has the ground potential (0). As it is not defined
cross-section of that “neck”, the capillary force is vertical and
which electrode is the positive one, opposite sign of the po-
can be calculated as πσd. So, tential may be chosen, if done consistently. Note that since
s the cylindrical electrode is long, it shields effectively the en-
3σd
rmax = 3 . vironment’s (ground, wall, etc) potential. So, relative to its
4ρg
surroundings, the droplet’s potential is U/2. Using the result
ii. (1.2 pts) Since d ≪ r, we can neglect the change of the of Part A we obtain
droplet’s capacitance due to the tube. On the one hand, the
1 Q
droplet’s potential is ϕ; on the other hand, it is 4πε . So, Q = 2πε0 U rmax = 2πε0 qrmax /C.
0 r
Q = 4πε0 ϕr. ii. (1.5 pts) The sign of the droplet’s charge is the same as
iii. (1.6 pts) Excess pressure inside the droplet is caused by that of the capacitor’s opposite plate (which is connected to
the capillary pressure 2σ/r (increases the inside pressure), and the farther electrode). So, when the droplet falls into the bowl,
by the electrostatic pressure 21 ε0 E 2 = 21 ε0 ϕ2 /r2 (decreases the it will increase the capacitor’s charge by Q:
pressure). So, the sign of the excess pressure will change, if q
1 2 2 dq = 2πε0 U rmax dN = 2πε0 rmax ndt ,
ε ϕ
2 0 max /r = 2σ/r, hence C
p
ϕmax = 2 σr/ε0 . where dN = ndt is the number of droplets which fall during
the time dt This is a simple linear differential equation which
The expression for the electrostatic pressure used above can
is solved easily to obtain
be derived as follows. The electrostatic force acting on a surface
charge of density σ and surface area S is given by F = σS · Ē,
s
γt 2πε0 rmax n πε0 n 3 6σd
where Ē is the field at the site without the field created by the q = q0 e , γ = = .
C C ρg
surface charge element itself. Note that this force is perpen-
dicular to the surface, so F/S can be interpreted as a pressure. iii. (1.3 pts) The droplets can reach the bowls if their mech-
The surface charge gives rise to a field drop on the surface equal anical energy mgH (where m is the droplet’s mass) is large
to ∆E = σ/ε0 (which follows from the Gauss law); inside the enough to overcome the electrostatic push: The droplet starts
droplet, there is no field due to the conductivity of the droplet: at the point where the electric potential is 0, which is the sum of
Ē − 21 ∆E = 0; outside the droplet, there is field E = Ē + 21 ∆E, the potential U/2, due to the electrode, and of its self-generated
therefore Ē = 12 E = 12 ∆E. Bringing everything together, we potential −U/2. Its motion is not affected by the self-generated
obtain the expression used above. field, so it needs to fall from the potential U/2 down to the po-
Note that alternatively, this expression can be derived by tential −U/2, resulting in the change of the electrostatic energy
considering a virtual displacement of a capacitor’s surface and equal to U Q ≤ mgH, where Q = 2πε U r
0 max (see above). So,
comparing the pressure work p∆V with the change of the elec-
trostatic field energy 12 ε0 E 2 ∆V . mgH
Umax = ,
Finally, the answer to the question can be also derived from 2πε0 Umax rmax
the requirement that the mechanical work dA done for an in- r s
finitesimal droplet inflation needs to be zero. From the en- Hσd H 3 gσ 2 ρd2
2 1 2 ∴ Umax = = 6 .
ergy conservation law, dW + dWel = σ d(4πr ) + 2 ϕmax dCd , 2ε0 rmax 6ε30
— page 4 of 5 —
q
Problem T3. Protostar formation (9 points) be sketched as follows. Substituting 2E + 2Gm
r = ξ and
i. (0.8 pts) √
2E = υ, one gets
T = const =⇒ pV = const t∞
Z ∞
dξ
=
V ∝ r3 4Gm 0 (υ − ξ 2 )
2 2
p(r1 ) Z ∞
∴ p ∝ r−3 =⇒ = 23 = 8. 1 υ υ 1 1
p(r0 ) = 3 + + + dξ.
4υ 0 (υ − ξ)2 (υ + ξ)2 υ−ξ υ+ξ
ii. (1 pt) During the period considered the pressure is negli-
Here (after shifting the variable) one can use dξ
R
ξ = ln ξ and
gible. Therefore the gas is in free fall. By Gauss’ theorem and R dξ 1
symmetry, the gravitational field at any point in the ball is ξ 2 = − ξ , finally getting the same answer as by Kepler’s laws.
iv. (1.7 pts) By Clapeyron–Mendeleyev law,
equivalent to the one generated when all the mass closer to the
center is compressed into the center. Moreover, while the ball mRT0
has not yet shrunk much, the field strength on its surface does p= .
µV
not change much either. The acceleration of the outermost
layer stays approximately constant. Thus, Work done by gravity to compress the ball is
s
4 3
2(r0 − r2 ) Z
mRT0
Z 3 πr3 dV 3mRT0 r0
t≈ W =− p dV = − = ln .
g µ 4 3 V µ r3
3 πr0
where
Gm The temperature stays constant, so the internal energy does not
g≈ ,
r2 change; hence, according to the 1st law of thermodynamics, the
r0 r compression work W is the heat radiated.
2r02 (r0 − r2 ) 0.1r03
∴t≈ = . v. (1 pt) The collapse continues adiabatically.
Gm Gm
iii. (2.5 pts) Gravitationally the outer layer of the ball is in- pV γ = const =⇒ T V γ−1 = const.
fluenced by the rest just as the rest were compressed into a ∴ T ∝ V 1−γ ∝ r3−3γ
point mass. Therefore we have Keplerian motion: the fall of r 3γ−3
3
any part of the outer layer consists in a halfperiod of an ultra- ∴ T = T0 .
r
elliptical orbit. The ellipse is degenerate into a line; its foci are
at the ends of the line; one focus is at the center of the ball (by vi. (2 pts) During the collapse, the gravitational energy is con-
Kepler’s 1st law) and the other one is at r0 , see figure (instead verted into heat. Since r3 ≫ r4 , The released gravitational en-
of a degenerate ellipse, a strongly elliptical ellipse is depicted). ergy can be estimated as ∆Π = −Gm2 (r4−1 − r3−1 ) ≈ −Gm2 /r4
The period of the orbit is determined by the longer semiaxis of (exact calculation by integration adds a prefactor 35 ); the ter-
the ellipse (by Kepler’s 3rd law). The longer semiaxis is r0 /2 minal heat energy is estimated as ∆Q = cV m µ (T4 − T0 ) ≈
m
and we are interested in half a period. Thus, the answer is cV µ T4 (the approximation T4 ≫ T0 follows from the result
equal to the halfperiod of a circular orbit of radius r0 /2: of the previous question, when combined with r3 ≫ r4 ). So,
R m m
2 r ∆Q = γ−1 µ T4 ≈ µ RT4 . For the temperature T4 , we can use
r03
2π r0 Gm 3γ−3
= =⇒ t r→0 = π . the result of the previous question, T4 = T0 rr34 . Since
2tr→0 2 (r0 /2)2 8Gm
initial full energy was approximately zero, ∆Q + ∆Π ≈ 0, we
obtain
3γ−3 1
Gm2
3γ−4
m r3 RT0 r3
≈ RT0 =⇒ r4 ≈ r3 .
r4 µ r4 µmG
— page 5 of 5 —
Problem T1. Focus on sketches (13 points)
k = g/2v02
— page 1 of 5 —
Part B. Air flow around a wing (4 points)
i. (0.8 pts)
vP = 23 m/s
ii. (1.2 pts) Mark on this fig. the point Q. Use it also for taking measurements (questions i and iii).
Formulae motivating
the choice of point Q: av = const
1
p + ρv 2 = const
2
p1−γ T γ = const
— page 2 of 5 —
Part C. Magnetic straws (4.5 points)
i. (0.8 pts)
Sketch here five
magnetic field lines.
— page 3 of 5 —
Problem T2. Kelvin water dropper (8 points)
6ε30
— page 4 of 5 —
Problem T3. Protostar formation (9 points)
i. (0.8 pts)
n=8
ii. (1 pt) r
0.1r03
t2 ≈
Gm
v. (1 pt)
r 3γ−3
3
T (r) = T0
r
vi. (2 pts)
1
3γ−4
RT0 r3
r4 ≈ r3
µmG
3γ−3
4−3γ
RT0 r3
T4 ≈ T0
µmG
— page 5 of 5 —