CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The central nervous system consists of the brain, which is protected by the skull
or the cranial cavity, and the spinal cord. It is referred to as "central" because it
combines information from the entire body and coordinates activity across the
whole organism.

Fast facts on the central nervous system

 Here are some key points about the central nervous system. More detail
and supporting information is in the main article.

 The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord.

 The brain is the most complex organ in the body and uses 20 percent of
the total oxygen we breathe in.

 The brain consists of an estimated 100 billion neurons, with each

connected to thousands more.

 The brain can be divided into four main lobes: temporal, parietal, occipital
and frontal.

THE BRAIN
The brain is the most complex organ in the human body; the cerebral cortex (the
outermost part of the brain and the largest part by volume) contains an
estimated 15–33 billion neurons, each of which is connected to thousands of
other neurons.

In total, around 100 billion neurons and 1,000 billion glial (support) cells make up
the human brain. Our brain uses around 20 percent of our body's total energy.

The brain is the central control module of the body and coordinates activity. From
physical motion to the secretion of hormones, the creation of memories, and the
sensation of emotion.

To carry out these functions, some sections of the brain have dedicated roles.
However, many higher functions — reasoning, problem-solving, creativity —
involve different areas working together in networks.
The brain is roughly split into four lobes:

Temporal lobe (green): important for processing sensory input and assigning it
emotional meaning.

It is also involved in laying down long-term memories. Some aspects of language

perception are also housed here.

Occipital lobe (purple): visual processing region of the brain, housing the
visual cortex.

Parietal lobe (yellow): the parietal lobe integrates sensory information

including touch, spatial awareness, and navigation. Touch stimulation from the
skin is ultimately sent to the parietal lobe. It also plays a part in language
processing.

Frontal lobe (pink): positioned at the front of the brain, the frontal lobe
contains the majority of dopamine-sensitive neurons and is involved in attention,
reward, short-term memory, motivation, and planning.
SPINAL CORD
The spinal cord, running almost the full length of the back, carries information
between the brain and body, but also carries out other tasks.

From the brainstem, where the spinal cord meets the brain, 31 spinal nerves
enter the cord.
Along its length, it connects with the nerves of the peripheral nervous system
(PNS) that run in from the skin, muscles, and joints.

Motor commands from the brain travel from the spine to the muscles and
sensory information travels from the sensory tissues — such as the skin —
toward the spinal cord and finally up to the brain.

The spinal cord contains circuits that control certain reflexive responses, such as
the involuntary movement your arm might make if your finger was to touch a
flame.
The circuits within the spine can also generate more complex movements such
as walking. Even without input from the brain, the spinal nerves can coordinate
all the muscles necessary to walk. For instance, if the brain of a cat is separated
from its spine so that its brain has no contact with its body, it will start
spontaneously walking when placed on a treadmill. The brain is only required to
stop and start the process, or make changes if, for instance, an object appears in
your path.
Classification of the 12 pairs of Cranial Nerves
Each cranial nerve is paired and is present on both sides. There are twelve
cranial nerves pairs, which are assigned Roman numerals I–XII, sometimes also
including cranial nerve zero. There are XII cranial nerves on the left hemisphere
of the brain and exactly the same on the right hemisphere.
The cranial nerves numbering is based on the order in which they emerge from
the brain and the function they perform.

I- Olfactory Nerve
It’s the first of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves. It’s a sensory nerve, in charge of
transmitting olfactory stimuli from the nose to the brain. Its actual origin is given
by the cells of the olfactory bulb. It is the shortest cranial pair of all.

II- Optic Nerve

This cranial pair is the second of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves and it is
responsible for conducting visual stimuli from the eye to the brain. It is made of
axons from the ganglion cells of the retina, that take the information of the
photoreceptors to the brain, where later it will be integrated and interpreted. It
emerges in the diencephalon.

III- Oculomotor
This cranial nerve is also known as the common ocular motor nerve. It is the
third of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves. It controls eye movement and is also
responsible for pupil size. It originates in the midbrain.

IV- Trochlear
This nerve has a motor and somatic functions that are connected to the superior
oblique muscle of the eye, being able to make the eyeballs move and rotate. Its
nucleus also originates in the mesencephalon as well as the oculomotor nerve. It
is the fourth of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves.

V- Trigeminal
It is a mixed cranial nerve (sensitive, sensory and motor), being the largest of all
cranial nerves, it is the fifth of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves. Its function is to
carry sensitive information to the face, to convey information for the chewing
process. The sensory fibers convey sensations of touch, pain, and temperature
from the front of the head including the mouth and also from the meninges.

VI- Abducent
It is also known as the external ocular motor cranial nerve and it is the sixth of
the 12 pairs of cranial nerves. It is a cranial motor pair, responsible for
transmitting the motor stimuli to the external rectus muscle of the eye and
therefore allowing the eye to move to the opposite side from where we have the
nose.

VII- Facial or Intermediate

This is another mixed cranial pair since it consists of several nerve fibers that
perform different functions, like ordering the muscles of the face to create facial
expressions and also send signals to the salivary and lacrimal glands. On the
other hand, it collects taste information through the tongue. It is the seventh of
the 12 pairs of cranial nerves.

VIII- Vestibulo-Cochlear
It is a sensory cranial nerve. It is also known as the auditory and vestibular
nerve, thus forming vestibulocochlear. He is responsible for balance and
orientation in space and auditory function. It is the eighth of the 12 pairs of
cranial nerves.

IX-Glossopharyngeal
It is a nerve whose influence lies in the tongue and pharynx. It collects
information from the taste buds (tongue) and sensory information from the
pharynx. It leads orders to the salivary gland and various neck muscles that help
with swallowing. It also monitors blood pressure. It is the ninth of the 12 pairs of
cranial nerves.

X-Vagus
This nerve is also known as pneumogastric. It emerges from the medulla
oblongata and supplies nerves to the pharynx, esophagus, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, heart, stomach and liver. Like the previous nerve, it influences the
action of swallowing but also in sending and transmitting signals to our
autonomous system, to help the regulate activation and control stress levels or
send signals directly to our sympathetic system. It is the tenth of the 12 pairs of
cranial nerves.

XI-Accessory
This cranial pair is named the spinal nerve. It is a motor nerve and could be
understood as one of the most “pure”. It governs movements of the head and
shoulders by supplying the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles in the
(anterior and posterior) regions of the neck. The spinal nerve also allows us to
throw our heads back. Thus, we would say that it intervenes in the movements of
the head and the shoulders. It is the eleventh of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves.

XII-Hypoglossal
It is a motor nerve which, like the vagus and glossopharyngeal, is involved in
tongue muscles, swallowing and speech. It is the twelfth of the 12 pairs of cranial
nerves.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system, and
the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system is under voluntary
control and transmits signals from the brain to end organs such as muscles. The
sensory nervous system is part of the somatic nervous system and transmits
signals from senses such as taste and touch (including fine touch and gross
touch) to the spinal cord and brain. The autonomic nervous system is a 'self-
regulating' system which influences the function of organs outside voluntary
control, such as the heart rate, or the functions of the digestive system.

SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The somatic system includes the sensory nervous system and the
somatosensory system and consists of sensory nerves and somatic nerves, and
many nerves which hold both functions.

In the head and neck, cranial nerves carry somatosensory data. There are twelve
cranial nerves, ten of which originate from the brainstem, and mainly control the
functions of the anatomic structures of the head with some exceptions. The
nuclei of the olfactory nerve and the optic nerves lie in the forebrain and
thalamus, respectively, and are thus not considered to be true cranial nerves.
One unique cranial nerve is the vagus nerve, which receives sensory information
from organs in the thorax and abdomen. The accessory nerve is responsible for
innervating the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles, neither of which
being exclusively in the head.

For the rest of the body, spinal nerves are responsible for somatosensory
information. These arise from the spinal cord. Usually these arise as a web
("plexus") of interconnected nerves roots that arrange to form single nerves.
These nerves control the functions of the rest of the body. In humans, there are
31 pairs of spinal nerves: 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1
coccygeal. These nerve roots are named according to the spinal vertebrata which
they are adjacent to. In the cervical region, the spinal nerve roots come out
above the corresponding vertebrae (i.e., nerve root between the skull and 1st
cervical vertebrae is called spinal nerve C1). From the thoracic region to the
coccygeal region, the spinal nerve roots come out below the corresponding
vertebrae. It is important to note that this method creates a problem when
naming the spinal nerve root between C7 and T1 (so it is called spinal nerve root
C8). In the lumbar and sacral region, the spinal nerve roots travel within the
dural sac and they travel below the level of L2 as the cauda equina.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary responses to regulate

physiological functions. The brain and spinal cord from the central nervous
system are connected with organs that have smooth muscle, such as the heart,
bladder, and other cardiac, exocrine, and endocrine related organs, by ganglionic
neurons. The most notable physiological effects from autonomic activity are pupil
constriction and dilation, and salivation of saliva. The autonomic nervous system
is always activated but is either in the sympathetic or parasympathetic state.
Depending on the situation, one state can overshadow the other, resulting in a
release of different kinds of neurotransmitters. There is a lesser known division of
the autonomic nervous system known as the enteric nervous system. Located
only around the digestive tract, this system allows for local control without input
from the sympathetic or the parasympathetic branches, though it can still
receive and respond to signals from the rest of the body. The enteric system is
responsible for various functions related to gastrointestinal system.
SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The sympathetic system is activated during a “fight or flight” situation in

which great mental stress or physical danger is encountered. Neurotransmitters
such as norepinephrine, and epinephrine are released, which increases heart rate
and blood flow in certain areas like muscle, while simultaneously decreasing
activities of non-critical functions for survival, like digestion. The systems are
independent to each other, which allows activation of certain parts of the body,
while others remain rested.

PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

Primarily using the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) as a mediator, the

parasympathetic system allows the body to function in a “rest and digest”
state. Consequently, when the parasympathetic system dominates the body,
there are increases in salivation and activities in digestion, while heart rate and
other sympathetic response decrease. Unlike the sympathetic system, humans
have some voluntary controls in the parasympathetic system. The most
prominent examples of this control are urination and defecation.