CHAPTER THREE

CROP WATER REQUIREMENTS

3.1 Duty-Delta Relationship

Crop period and Base period

The time period that elapses from the instant of its sowing to the instant of its harvesting is
called the crop period. The time between the first watering of a crop at the time of its sowing
to its last watering before harvesting is called the base period. Crop period is slightly more
than the base period, but for all practical purposes, they are taken as one and the same thing
and both are expressed in days.

Duty and Delta of Crops

Duty (D): is defined as the area of the land which can be irrigated if one cumec (m3/sec) of
water was applied to the land continuously for the entire base period of the crop.

It is expressed in hectares / cumecs.

Delta ( ): is the total depth of water required by a crop during the entire base period. If the
entire quantity of applied water were spread uniformly on the land surface, the depth of water
would have been equal to delta. Thus the delta (in m) of any crop can be determined by
dividing the total quantity of water (in ha-m) required by the crop by the area of the land (in
ha)

Delta ( ) = Total quantity of water (ha-m)

Total area of land (ha)
The relation between duty, base period and delta, can be obtained as follows:-
Considering the area of land of D-hectares, if Duty is expressed in ha/cumecs the total
quantity of water used in the base period of B days is equal to that obtained by a continuous
flow of 1 cumec for B days.

1
Quantity of water= 1*B*24*60*60*, m3 …. 3.21

If Delta ( ) is the total depth of water in meters supplied to the land of D- hectares, the
quantity of water is also given by:

Quantity of water = ( D *104)* , m3 .…3.22

Equating the volumes of water given in egn_s 3.1 and 3.2:

1*B*24*60*60* = (D*104)* …..3.23
8.64 B
D …..3.23a

8.64 B
… 3.23b
D

Where D = in ha/cumec
= in m
B = in days

Different forms of Duty

1. Flow duty: the duty of water in hectares /cumec is convenient in the case of flow
irrigation from canals and duty and the area of land to be irrigated are known, the
required discharge in the canal can be determined.

Area (ha)
Disch arg e, m3 / s = …3.24
Duty (ha / cumec)

2. Quantity of Duty
- For Tank /pond irrigation, the duty is usually expressed as the total area of land which
can be irrigated per million m3 of water stored in the tank. If the duty and the area to
be irrigated are known, the volume of water to be stored in the tank can be
determined.
Area(ha )
Volume of water (Mm3) = … 3.25
Duty (ha / Mm 3 )

2
 3. Duty in the form of total depth ( or Delta ):
-It can be expressed in terms of the total depth (i.e. delta) of water required for a crop.
It is another form of the quantity duty because the total depth is equal to the volume
divided by the area of land.

Volume(ha m)
Delta = ,m … 3.26
Area(ha )
Delta is the quantity of water actually supplied to the crop. Delta included not only
consumptive use of water for a crop but also the water lost by evapotranspiration and
seepage from canals, and deep percolation in the field.
Duty of water varies from head regulator to the canal out let because of various losses. The
duty of water goes on increasing as the water flows from the head to the tail of the canal
system. Thus, in order to specify duty two things must be stated clearly: Base of duty and
position of measurement of duty.

Factors affecting Duty

- Duty of water depends up on different factors. In general, the smaller the losses, the greater
is duty because one cumec of water will be able to irrigate larger area.
Type of soil
Type of crop and base period
structure of soil
Slop of ground
Climatic condition
Method of application of water
Salt content of soil
- Duty of water may be improved by counter – acting all the factors that decrease it (by
decreasing various losses).

3
3.2 Reference Evapotranspiration

The combination of two separate processes whereby water is lost on the one hand from the
soil surface by evaporation and on the other hand from the crop by transpiration is referred to
as evapotranspiration (ET).

Evaporation

Evaporation is the process whereby liquid water is converted to water vapor (vaporization)
and removed from the evaporating surface (vapour removal). Water evaporates from a
variety of surfaces, such as lakes, rivers, pavements, soils and wet vegetation.

Energy is required to change the state of the molecules of water from liquid to vapour. Direct
solar radiation and, to a lesser extent, the ambient temperature of the air provide this energy.
The driving force to remove water vapor from the evaporating surface is the difference
between the water vapor pressure at the evaporating surface and that of the surrounding
atmosphere. As evaporation proceeds, the surrounding air becomes gradually saturated and
the process will slow down and might stop if the wet air is not transferred to the atmosphere.
The replacement of the saturated air with drier air depends greatly on wind speed. Hence,
solar radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind speed are climatological parameters to
consider when assessing the evaporation process.

4
Figure 1. The partitioning of evapotranspiration into evaporation and transpiration over the
growing period for an annual field crop

Transpiration

Transpiration consists of the vaporization of liquid water contained in plant tissues and the
vapor removal to the atmosphere. Crops predominately lose their water through stomata.
These are small openings on the plant leaf through which gases and water vapor pass. The
water, together with some nutrients, is taken up by the roots and transported through the
plant. The vaporization occurs within the leaf, namely in the intercellular spaces, and the
vapor exchange with the atmosphere is controlled by the stomata aperture. Nearly all water
taken up is lost by transpiration and only a tiny fraction is used within the plant.

Transpiration, like direct evaporation, depends on the energy supply, vapor pressure gradient
and wind. Hence, radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind terms should be
considered when assessing transpiration. The soil water content and the ability of the soil to
conduct water to the roots also determine the transpiration rate, as do water logging and soil
water salinity. The transpiration rate is also influenced by crop characteristics, environmental
aspects and cultivation practices.

5
Evapotranspiration (ET)

Evaporation and transpiration occur simultaneously and there is no easy way of

distinguishing between the two processes. Apart from the water availability in the topsoil, the
evaporation from a cropped soil is mainly determined by the fraction of the solar radiation
reaching the soil surface. This fraction decreases over the growing period as the crop
develops and the crop canopy shades more and more of the ground area. When the crop is
small, water is predominately lost by soil evaporation, but once the crop is well developed
and completely covers the soil, transpiration becomes the main process. In Figure 1 the
partitioning of evapotranspiration into evaporation and transpiration is plotted in
correspondence to leaf area per unit surface of soil below it. At sowing nearly 100% of ET
comes from evaporation, while at full crop cover more than 90% of ET comes from
transpiration.

Factors affecting evapotranspiration

Weather parameters, crop characteristics, management and environmental aspects are factors
affecting evaporation and transpiration. The related ET concepts presented in Figure 2 are
discussed in the section on evapotranspiration concepts.

Figure 2. Factors affecting evapotranspiration with reference to related ET concepts

Weather parameters

The principal weather parameters affecting evapotranspiration are radiation, air temperature,
humidity and wind speed. Several procedures have been developed to assess the evaporation

6
rate from these parameters. The evaporation power of the atmosphere is expressed by the
reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo). The reference crop evapotranspiration represents the
evapotranspiration from a standardized vegetated surface. The ETo is described in detail later
in this Chapter.

Crop factors

The crop type, variety and development stage should be considered when assessing the
evapotranspiration from crops grown in large, well-managed fields. Differences in resistance
to transpiration, crop height, crop roughness, reflection, ground cover and crop rooting
characteristics result in different ET levels in different types of crops under identical
environmental conditions. Crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc) refers to
the evaporating demand from crops that are grown in large fields under optimum soil water,
excellent management and environmental conditions, and achieve full production under the
given climatic conditions.

Evapotranspiration concepts

Distinctions are made (Figure 3) between reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo), crop
evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ET c) and crop evapotranspiration under non-
standard conditions (ETc adj). ETo is a climatic parameter expressing the evaporation power of
the atmosphere. ETc refers to the evapotranspiration from excellently managed, large, well-
watered fields that achieve full production under the given climatic conditions. Due to sub-
optimal crop management and environmental constraints that affect crop growth and limit
evapotranspiration, ETc under non-standard conditions generally requires a correction.

7
Figure 3. Reference (ETo), crop evapotranspiration under standard (ETc) and non-standard
conditions (ETc adj)

3.3 Crop Water Requirements/Consumptive Use

Determination of Reference Crop Evapotranspiration (ETo)

The evapotranspiration rate from a reference surface, not short of water, is called the
reference crop evapotranspiration or reference evapotranspiration and is denoted as ET o. The
reference surface is a hypothetical grass reference crop with specific characteristics. The use
of other denominations such as potential ET is strongly discouraged due to ambiguities in
their definitions.

The only factors affecting ETo are climatic parameters. Consequently, ETo is a climatic
parameter and can be computed from weather data. ETo expresses the evaporating power of

8
the atmosphere at a specific location and time of the year and does not consider the crop
characteristics and soil factors.

ET measurement

Evapotranspiration is not easy to measure. Specific devices and accurate measurements of

various physical parameters or the soil water balance in lysimeters are required to determine
evapotranspiration. Although the methods are inappropriate for routine measurements, they
remain important for the evaluation of ET estimates obtained by more indirect methods.
Direct Measurement of ET include:
A) Lysimeter experiment
B) Field experimental plots
C) Soil moisture studies
D) Water balance method

A) Lysimeter experiment:

By isolating the crop root zone from its environment and controlling the processes that are
difficult to measure, the different terms in the soil water balance equation can be determined
with greater accuracy. This is done in lysimeters where the crop grows in isolated tanks filled
with either disturbed or undisturbed soil. In precision weighing lysimeters, where the water
loss is directly measured by the change of mass, evapotranspiration can be obtained with an
accuracy of a few hundredths of a millimeter, and small time periods such as an hour can be
considered. In non-weighing lysimeters the evapotranspiration for a given time period is
determined by deducting the drainage water, collected at the bottom of the lysimeters, from
the total water input.
A requirement of lysimeters is that the vegetation both inside and immediately outside of the
lysimeters be perfectly matched (same height and leaf area index). This requirement has
historically not been closely adhered to in a majority of lysimeter studies and has resulted in
severely erroneous and unrepresentative ET c and Kc data.

B) Field experimental plots

9
This is most suitable for determination of seasonal water requirements. Water is added to
selected field plots, yield obtained from different fields are plotted against the total amount of
water used. The yield increases as the water used increases for some limit and then decreases
with further increase in water. The break in the curve indicates the amount of consumptive
use of water.

C) Soil moisture studies

In this method soil moisture measurements are done before and after each irrigation
application. Knowing the time gap b/n the two consecutive irrigations, the quantity of water
extracted per day can be computed by dividing the total moisture depletion b/n the two
successive irrigations by the interval of irrigation. Then a curve is drawn by plotting the rate
of use of water against the time from this curve, seasonal water use of crops is determined.

D) Water balance method

Evapotranspiration can also be determined by measuring the various components of the soil
water balance. The method consists of assessing the incoming and outgoing water flux into
the crop root zone over some time period (Figure 4). Irrigation (I) and rainfall (P) add water
to the root zone. Part of I and P might be lost by surface runoff (RO) and by deep percolation
(DP) that will eventually recharge the water table. Water might also be transported upward
by capillary rise (CR) from a shallow water table towards the root zone or even transferred
horizontally by subsurface flow in (SFin) or out of (SFout) the root zone. In many situations,
however, except under conditions with large slopes, SFin and SFout are minor and can be
ignored. Soil evaporation and crop transpiration deplete water from the root zone. If all
fluxes other than evapotranspiration (ET) can be assessed, the evapotranspiration can be
deduced from the change in soil water content ( SW) over the time period:

ET = I + P - RO - DP + CR ± SF ± SW (2)

Some fluxes such as subsurface flow, deep percolation and capillary rise from a water table
are difficult to assess and short time periods cannot be considered. The soil water balance

10
method can usually only give ET estimates over long time periods of the order of week-long
or ten-day periods.

Figure 4. Soil water balance of the root zone

Climatic Approaches to estimate evapotranspiration

Some empirical and theoretical equations are derived on the basis of regional relationship
between measured ET and climatic factors. The following methods are the combination of
some empirical, analytical and theoretical approaches.

1. FAO Balnney-Criddle Method

2. FAO Radiation Method
3. FAO Penman Method
4. Hargreave's Class A Pan Evaporation Method
5. FAO Pan Evaporation Method
6. FAO Penman-Monteith Method

7. Thornthwaite Method

1. ET0 = C P (0.46T + 8)
2. ET0 = C (W Rs)
Rs = (0.25 + 0.50 n/N) RA
3. ETo C W Rn 1 w f u es ea

11
 (Radiation term) (Aerodynamic term)
4. ET0 = 0.0023 Ra (T + 17.8) TD0.50
5. ET0 = kp Epan
900
0.408 Rn G V2 es ea
T 273
6. ET0
1 0.34V2
a
10Tm
7. ETo 1.62 R f
Te

Where:
C in (1) = adjustment factor which depends on the min relative humidity, sunshine hours
and daytime wind estimates
C in (2) = Adjustment factor which depends on mean humidity and daytime wind
condition
C in (3) = Adjustment factor to compensate for the effect of day and night weather
conditions
T = Mean daily temperature in oC over the month considered
P = Mean daily percentage of total annual day time hours obtained from the relevant
table for a given month and latitude
Rs = Solar radiation in equivalent evaporation mm/d
W in (2) = the temperature and altitude dependant weighing factor
W in (3) = Temperature related weighing factor for the effect of radiation on PET
(1-w) = a temperature and elevation related weighing factor for the effect of wind and
humidity on PET
Rn = Net radiation in equivalent evaporation mm/d
f (u) = Wind related function
(es - ea) = Difference between the saturated and actual vapour pressure, in mbar
Ra = Extraterrestrial radiation in mm/d
TD = Difference in max and min mean temperature in oC
Epa = Pan evaporation in mm/d and presents the mean daily value of the period considered
kp = Pan coefficient
Rn in (6) = Net radiation at crop surface (MJ/ m2day)

12
G = Soil heat flux (MJ/ m2day)
V2 = Wind speed measured at 2m height (m/s)
(es - ea) = Vapour pressure deficit (kPa)
= Slope of vapour pressure curve (kPa oC-1)
= Psychometric constant (kPa oC-1)
900 = a conversion factor
Rf = reduction factor
a 0 . 4923 0 . 01792 Te 0 . 0000771 T e2 0 . 000000675 T e3
1.514
Tm
In (7) Te
5

1. FAO Blaney-Criddle Method

Blaney and Criddle (1962) proposed an empirical relation which is used largely by irrigation
engineers to calculate crop water requirement of various crops. Estimation of potential
evapotranspiration (consumptive use) is carried out by correlating it with sunshine
temperature. Sunshine at a place is dependent on latitude of the place and varies with month
of the year.

Table 1: Monthly day light hours percentage (P) to be used by Blaney-Criddle Formula

Lat. Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
o
N
0 8.50 7.66 8.49 8.21 8.50 8.22 8.50 8.49 8.21 8.50 8.22 8.50
10 8.13 7.47 8.45 8.37 8.81 8.60 8.86 8.71 8.25 8.34 7.91 8.10
15 7.94 7.36 8.43 8.44 8.98 8.80 9.05 8.83 8.28 8.26 7.75 7.88
20 7.74 7.25 8.41 8.52 9.15 9.00 9.25 8.96 8.30 8.18 7.58 7.66
25 7.53 7.14 8.39 8.61 9.33 9.23 9.45 9.09 8.32 8.09 7.40 7.42
30 7.30 7.03 8.38 8.72 9.53 9.49 9.67 9.22 8.33 7.99 7.19 7.15
35 7.05 6.88 8.35 8.83 9.76 9.77 9.93 9.37 8.36 7.87 6.97 6.86
40 6.76 6.72 8.33 8.95 10.02 10.08 10.22 9.54 8.39 7.75 6.72 6.52
42 6.63 6.65 8.31 9.00 10.14 10.22 10.35 9.62 8.40 7.69 6.62 6.37
44 6.49 6.58 8.30 9.06 10.26 10.38 10.49 9.70 8.41 7.63 6.49 6.21

13
46 6.34 6.50 8.29 9.12 10.39 10.54 10.64 9.79 8.42 7.57 6.36 6.04
48 6.17 6.41 8.27 9.18 10.53 10.71 10.80 9.89 8.44 7.51 6.23 5.86
50 5.98 6.30 8.24 9.24 10.68 10.91 10.99 10.00 8.46 7.45 6.100 5.65

ETo K .F ...3.11

Where: F ( 0 . 0457 T m 0 . 8128 ) P ...3.2

Here K is the monthly crop coefficient to be determined from experimental data, F the
monthly consumptive use factor, ETo the potential evapotranspiration in cm; T m the mean
monthly temperature in 0C, P is the monthly percentage of hours of bright sunshine in the
year (Table 1).
For any month considered the ETo can be calculated by the following equation and by the
help of figure- below.
ET0 = C P (0.46 T + 8) ...3.3
Where the parameters are as defined in previous section.
Figure 3.5 can be used to estimate ETo using calculated values of p(0.46T+8) for
i) three levels of minimum humidity (RH min)

ii) three levels of the ratio of actual to maximum possible sunshine hours (n/N)
and
iii) three ranges of daytime wind conditions at 2m height (Uday).
Note:
Minimum humidity refers to minimum daytime humidity
Wind refers to daytime wind. Generally Uday/Unight =2 and mean 24 hr wind data should be
multiplied by 1.33 to obtain mean daytime wind.

1
This equation is used to determine the seasonal crop evapotranspiration

14
Figure 5. ETo determination from Blanney Criddle's F factor for different condition of
relative humidity, sunshine duration and day-time wind

15
2. Hargrave's Class A Pan Evaporation Method1
ETo is related to pan evaporation (EP) by a constant Kc, called consumptive use coefficient.

ETo = Kc * Ep ...3.4

Determination of Ep can be by:

(a.) Experiment
(b.)Christiansen formula
Ep = 0.459R * Ct*Cw*Ch*Cs *Ce ...3.5

Ct = Coefficient for temperature

Ct = 0.393 +0.02796Tc+0.0001189Tc2 ...3.6
Tc= mean temperature, 0c
Cw = Coefficient for wind velocity
Cw= 0.708+0.0034w-0.0000038w2 ...3.7
w=mean wind velocity at 0.5m above the ground, km/day.
Ch= Coefficient for relative humidity.
Ch= 1.250-0.0087H-0.75*104H2 –0.85*10-8H4 ...3.8
H= mean percentage relative humidity at noon
Cs= Coefficient for percent of possible sunshine
Cs= 0.542+0.008S-0.78*10-4S2+0.62*10-6S3 ...3.9

S= mean sunshine percentage

Ce= Coefficient of elevation
Ce= 0.97+ 0.00984E ...3.10

E= elevation in 100 meters

3. FAO Pan Evaporation Method

Pans provide a measurement of the integrated effect of radiation, wind, temperature and
humidity on the evaporation from an open water surface. Although the pan responds in a

1
Refer to "Irrigation: Theory and Practice" by A.M. Michael, pp-533-535 for more detailed example on
this method.

16
similar fashion to the same climatic factors affecting crop transpiration, several factors
produce significant differences in loss of water from a water surface and from a cropped
surface.

The pan evaporation is related to the reference evapotranspiration by an empirically derived

pan coefficient:

ETo = Kp Epan ... 3.11

Where ETo reference evapotranspiration [mm/day],

Kp pan coefficient [-],
Epan pan evaporation [mm/day].

Pan coefficient (Kp)

In selecting the appropriate pan coefficient, not only the pan type, but also the ground cover
in the station, its surroundings as well as the general wind and humidity conditions, should be
checked. Two cases are commonly considered: Case A where the pan is sat on a short green
(grass) cover and surrounded by fallow soil; and Case B where the pan is sat on fallow soil
and surrounded by a green crop (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Two cases of evaporation pan sitting and their environment

17
4. Penman1 Method

Penman developed a theoretical formula based on the principles of both energy budget and
mass-transfer approaches to calculate potential evapotranspiration. A simple energy budget
neglecting all minor losses can be written as:

( H Ea )
ET … 3.12
( )
Where H is the heat budget of an area with crops which is the net radiation in mm of
evaporable water per day, ET the daily evaporation from free water surface in mm/day, is a
constant (called psychometric constant whose value is 0.49 mmHg/0C or 0.66 mb/0C, the
slope of the saturated vapor pressure vs. temperature curve at mean air temperature given
from table 3.4, Ea is the drying power of air which includes wind velocity and saturation
deficit and is estimated form the relation:

Ea 0.002187 (160 u 2 ) ( e s ea ) … 3.13

where u2 is the mean wind speed in km/day measured 2 m above the ground, es is saturation
vapor pressure at mean air temperature in mm Hg (given in Table 2)
Table 2. Saturation vapor pressure of water
Temperature Saturation vapor Slope of
(oC) pressure es plot
mmHg) mbar between
(1) and (2)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
0.0 4.58 6.11 0.30
5.0 6.54 8.72 0.45
7.5 7.78 10.37 0.54
10.0 9.21 12.28 0.60
12.5 10.87 14.49 0.71
15.0 12.79 17.05 0.80

1
Is sometimes also called 'Modified' Penman Method

18
 17.5 15.00 20.00 0.95
20.0 17.54 23.38 1.05
22.5 20.44 27.95 1.24
25.0 23.76 31.67 1.40
27.5 27.54 36.71 1.61
30.0 31.81 42.42 1.85
32.5 36.68 48.89 2.07
35.0 42.81 57.07 2.35
37.5 48.36 64.46 2.62
40.0 55.32 73.14 2.95
42.5 62.18 84.23 3.25
45.0 71.20 94.91 3.66
ea is actual vapor pressure in the air in mm of mercury and H is the daily net radiation in mm
of evaporable water and is estimated from the energy budget theories using the relation
H H a (1 r ) (0.29 cos 0.55n / N ) Ta4 (0.56 0.092 ea ) (0.10 0.9 n / N ) ...3.14

Where Ha is the extraterrestrial solar radiation received on a horizontal surface in mm of

evaporable water per day (whose value for different latitudes are given in Table 3.5), the
latitude of the place where ETo is to be computed, r is the reflection coefficient whose values
for close crops may be taken as 0.15-0.25, for barren land 0.05-0.45 and for water surface
0.05, n is the actual duration of bright sunshine which is a function of latitude and is an
observed data at a place, N is the maximum possible hours of bright sunshine available at
different location (given in Table 1), is the Stefan-Boltzman constant = 2.01 x 10-9
mm/day, Ta is the mean air temperature in oK = (273 + 0C) and ea is the actual vapor pressure
in mm of Hg. The relation that can reduce the wind speed measured at any other height z to 2
m height is given by:

0.143
2
u2 u … 3.15
z
Equation (3.15) is known as (1/7)th power law. Knowing all other data from the table and
measuring n, ea u2, at the place, ETo can easily be calculated from the relation given by

19
Penman. This method is finding its increasing application for crop water estimation by
various countries.

Table 3. Mean daily maximum duration of bright sunshine hour N for different month and
latitudes (Doorenbos & Pruitt, 1977)

N Lat Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
S Lat July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April May June
50 8.5 10.1 11.8 13.6 15.4 16.3 15.9 14.5 12.7 10.8 9.1 8.1
48 8.8 10.2 11.8 13.8 15.2 16.0 15.6 14.3 12.6 10.9 9.3 8.3
46 9.1 10.4 11.9 13.5 14.9 15.7 15.4 14.2 12.6 10.9 9.5 8.7
44 9.3 10.5 11.9 13.4 14.7 15.4 15.2 14.0 12.6 11.0 9.7 8.9
42 9.4 10.6 11.9 13.4 14.6 15.2 14.9 13.9 12.9 11.1 9.8 9.1
40 9.6 10.7 11.9 13.3 14.4 15.0 14.7 13.7 12.5 11.2 10.0 9.3
35 10.1 11.0 11.9 13.1 14.0 14.5 14.3 13.5 12.4 11.3 10.3 9.8
30 10.4 11.1 12.0 12.9 13.6 14.0 13.9 13.2 12.4 11.5 10.6 10.2
25 10.7 11.3 12.0 12.7 13.3 13.7 13.5 13.0 12.3 11.6 10.9 10.6
20 10.0 11.5 12.0 12.6 13.1 13.3 13.2 12.8 12.3 11.7 11.2 10.9
15 11.3 11.6 12.0 12.5 12.8 13.0 12.9 12.6 12.2 11.8 11.4 11.2
10 11.6 11.8 12.0 12.3 12.6 12.7 12.6 12.4 12.1 11.8 11.6 11.5
5 11.8 11.9 12.0 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.3 12.3 12.1 12.0 11.9 11.8
0 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1

20
Table 4. Mean Monthly Solar Radiation Incident on Earth's Outer Space (Extra Terrestrial
Radiation) in mm of Evaporable Water per day.

North Latitude in Degrees

Month 0o 100 200 300 400 500 60o 70o 800 90o
Jan. 14.5 12.8 10.8 8.5 6.0 3.6 1.3 - - -
Feb. 15.0 13.9 12.3 10.5 8.3 5.9 3.5 1.1 - -
Mar. 15.2 14.8 13.9 12.7 11.0 9.1 6.8 4.3 1.8 -
Apr. 14.7 15.2 15.2 14.8 13.9 12.7 11.1 9.1 7.8 7.9
May 13.9 15.0 15.7 16.0 15.9 15.4 14.6 13.6 14.6 14.9
Jun. 13.4 14.8 15.8 16.5 16.7 16.7 16.5 17.0 17.8 18.1
Jul. 13.5 14.8 15.7 16.2 16.3 16.1 15.7 15.8 16.5 16.8
Aug. 14.2 15.0 15.3 15.3 14.8 13.9 12.7 11.4 10.6 11.2
Sep. 14.9 14.9 14.4 13.5 12.2 10.5 8.5 6.8 4.0 2.6
Oct. 15.0 14.1 12.9 11.3 9.3 7.1 4.7 2.4 0.2 -
Nov. 14.6 13.1 11.2 9.1 6.7 4.3 1.9 0.1 - -
Dec. 14.3 12.4 10.3 7.9 5.5 3.0 0.9 - - -

5. Thornthwaite Method

Thornthwaite (1948) developed an exponential relationship between mean monthly

temperature and mean monthly consumptive, given as
a
10Tm
ETo 1.62 R f ... 3.16
Te

Where Rf is the reduction factor (See Table 2.5), Tm the mean monthly temperature in 0C, a is
a constant which can be computed from the relation
… 3.17
a 0.4923 0.01792 Te 0.0000771 Te2 0.000000675 Te3

Where Te is the annual temperature efficiency index given by

12 1.514
Tm
Te …3.18
j l
5

21
For one period, say for one month, Te is calculated as
1.514
Tm
Te …3.19
5

The above calculations are made for a month of 30 days and for each day 12 h of
evapotranspiration is considered. Since the two factors vary from 28 to 31 days and with
latitude, the values of 12 h a day is not constant, it can be multiplied with factors from (Table
5) depending on the month and latitude of the place.

Table 5. Reduction Factor Rf for ETo to be used in Thornthwiate's equation.

Month
Latitude J F M A M J J A S O N D
00N 1.04 0.94 1.04 1.01 1.04 1.01 1.04 1.04 1.01 1.04 1.01 1.04
100N 1.00 0.91 1.03 1.03 1.08 1.06 1.08 1.07 1.02 1.02 0.98 0.99
200N 0.95 0.90 1.03 1.05 1.13 1.11 1.14 1.11 1.02 1.00 0.93 0.94
300N 0.90 0.87 1.03 1.08 1.18 1.17 1.20 1.14 1.03 0.98 0.89 0.88
400N 0.84 0.83 1.03 1.11 1.24 1.25 1.27 1.18 1.04 0.96 0.83 0.81
500N 0.74 0.78 1.02 1.15 1.33 1.36 1.37 1.25 1.00 0.92 0.76 0.70

6. Penman Monteith1 Method

From the original Penman-Monteith equation and the equations of the aerodynamic and
canopy resistance, the FAO Penman-Monteith equation has been given by:

...3.20

where all parameters are as defined in previous sections

The FAO Penman method was found to frequently overestimate ETo while the other FAO
recommended equations, namely the radiation, the Blaney-Criddle, and the pan evaporation

1
Procedural steps for calculating ETo by this method are given in detail in FAO Irrigation and
Drainage Paper-56 (New Version of FAO-24)

22
methods, showed variable adherence to the grass reference crop evapotranspiration. As a
result, the FAO Penman-Monteith method is recommended as the sole method for
determining reference evapotranspiration. The method has been selected because it closely
approximates grass ETo at the location evaluated, is physically based, and explicitly
incorporates both physiological and aerodynamic parameters. Moreover, procedures have
been developed for estimating missing climatic parameters.

Determination of Crop Evapotranspiration (ETc) Under Standard Condition

This part examines crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc). This is the
evapotranspiration from disease-free, well-fertilized crops, grown in large fields, under
optimum soil water conditions and achieving full production under the given climatic
conditions.

The effects of various weather conditions on evapotranspiration are incorporated into ETo.
The effects of characteristics that distinguish the cropped surface from the reference surface
are integrated into the crop coefficient. Multiplying ETo by the crop coefficient, ETc is
determined.

Two calculation approaches are outlined: the single and the dual crop coefficient approach.
In the single crop coefficient approach, the difference in evapotranspiration between the
cropped and reference grass is combined into one single coefficient. In the dual crop
coefficient approach, the crop coefficient is split into two factors describing separately the
differences in evaporation and transpiration between the crop and reference surface.

The single crop coefficient approach is used for most applications related to irrigation
planning, design, and management.
The crop evapotranspiration differs distinctly from the reference evapotranspiration (ETo) as
the ground cover, canopy properties and aerodynamic resistance of the crop are different
from grass.

23
The effects of characteristics that distinguish field crops from grass are integrated into the
crop coefficient (Kc). In the crop coefficient approach, crop evapotranspiration is calculated
by multiplying ETo by Kc.

Calculation procedure by the crop coefficient approach:

In the crop coefficient approach the crop evapotranspiration, ETc, is calculated by
multiplying the reference crop evapotranspiration, ETo, by a crop coefficient, Kc:

ETc = Kc * ETo … 3.27

Where:
ETc crop evapotranspiration [mm d-1],
Kc crop coefficient [dimensionless],
ETo reference crop evapotranspiration [mm d-1]

Most of the effects of the various weather conditions are incorporated into the ETo estimate.
Therefore, as ETo represents an index of climatic demand, Kc varies predominately with the
specific crop characteristics and only to a limited extent with climate.
The crop coefficient, Kc, is basically the ratio of the crop ETc to the reference ETo, and it
represents an integration of the effects of four primary characteristics that distinguish the
crop from reference grass. These characteristics are:
Crop height
Albedo (reflectance) of the crop-soil surface
Canopy resistance
Evaporation from soil

Factors determining the crop coefficient:

Crop type
The crop coefficient integrates the effect of characteristics that distinguish a typical field crop
from the grass reference, which has a constant appearance and a complete ground cover.

24
Consequently, different crops will have different Kc coefficients. The changing
characteristics of the crop over the growing season also affect the Kc coefficient. Finally, as
evaporation is an integrated part of crop evapotranspiration, conditions affecting soil
evaporation will also have an effect on Kc.

Figure 7. Typical Kc for different types of full grown crops

Climate
The effect of the difference in aerodynamic properties between the grass reference surface
and agricultural crops is not only crop specific. It also varies with the climatic conditions and
crop height. Because aerodynamic properties are greater for many agricultural crops as
compared to the grass reference, the ratio of ETc to ETo (i.e., Kc) for many crops increases
as wind speed increases and as relative humidity decreases. More arid climates and
conditions of greater wind speed will have higher values for Kc. More humid climates and
conditions of lower wind speed will have lower values for Kc.

Soil evaporation
Differences in soil evaporation and crop transpiration between field crops and the reference
surface are integrated within the crop coefficient. The Kc coefficient for full-cover crops
primarily reflects differences in transpiration as the contribution of soil evaporation is
relatively small. After rainfall or irrigation, the effect of evaporation is predominant when the
crop is small and scarcely shades the ground. For such low-cover conditions, the Kc
coefficient is determined largely by the frequency with which the soil surface is wetted.

25
Where the soil is wet for most of the time from irrigation or rain, the evaporation from the
soil surface will be considerable and Kc may exceed 1. On the other hand, where the soil
surface is dry, evaporation is restricted and Kc will be small and might even drop to as low as
0.1 (figure 3.8)

The horizontal line represents Kc when the soil surface is kept continuously wet. The curved
line corresponds to Kc when the soil surface is kept dry but the crop receives sufficient water
to sustain full transpiration.

Figure 8. The effect of evaporation on Kc.

Crop growth stages

As the crop develops, the ground cover, crop height and the leaf area change. Due to
differences in evapotranspiration during the various growth stages, the Kc for a given crop
will vary over the growing period. The growing period can be divided into four distinct
growth stages: initial, crop development, mid-season and late season. Figure 3.9 illustrates
the general sequence and proportion of these stages for different types of crops.

26
Figure 9. crop Growth stages.

Initial stage
The initial stage runs from planting date to approximately 10% ground cover.

Crop development stage

The crop development stage runs from 10% ground cover to effective full cover. Effective
full cover for many crops occurs at the initiation of flowering.
Mid-season stage
The mid-season stage runs from effective full cover to the start of maturity. The start of
maturity is often indicated by the beginning of the ageing,

Late season stage

The late season stage runs from the start of maturity to harvest or full senescence.

27
Figure 10. Typical ranges expected in Kc for the four growth stages.

Crop evapotranspiration (ETc)

Crop evapotranspiration is calculated by multiplying ETo by Kc, a coefficient expressing the
difference in evapotranspiration between the cropped and reference grass surface.

Crop coefficient curve

From the determination of the lengths for the crop growth stages and the corresponding crop
coefficients, a crop coefficient curve can be constructed. The curve represents the changes in
the crop coefficient over the length of the growing season.

28
Figure 11. Generalized crop coefficient curve

The calculation procedure for crop evapotranspiration, ETc, consists of:

1. Identifying the crop growth stages, determining their lengths, and selecting the
corresponding Kc coefficients;

2. Adjusting the selected Kc coefficients for frequency of wetting or climatic conditions

during the stage;

3. Constructing the crop coefficient curve (allowing one to determine K c values for any
period during the growing period); and
4. Calculating ETc as the product of ETo and Kc.

Length of growth stages

FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 24 provides general lengths for the four distinct
growth stages and the total growing period for various types of climates and locations.

Kc Values
Typical values for Kc ini, Kc mid and Kc end for various agricultural crops are found in
tabulated form.

29
STEPS for Constructing the crop coefficient curve:
1. Divide the growing period into four general growth stages that describe crop phonology or
development (initial, crop development, mid-season, and late season stage), and identify the
three Kc values that correspond to Kc ini, Kc mid and Kc end from Table.

2. Adjust the Kc values to the frequency of wetting and/or climatic conditions of the growth
stages.

3. Construct a curve by connecting straight line segments through each of the four growth
stage.

Figure 3.12: crop coefficient curve

The Kc coefficient for any period of the growing season can be derived by considering that
during the initial and mid-season stages Kc is constant and equal to the Kc value of the
growth stage under consideration. During the crop development and late season stage, Kc
varies linearly between the Kc at the end of the previous stage (Kc prev) and the Kc at the
beginning of the next stage (Kc next), which is Kc end in the case of the late season stage:

… 3.28
Where:
i day number within the growing season [1.. length of the growing season],

30
Kc i crop coefficient on day i,
L stage length of the stage under consideration [days],
(Lprev) sum of the lengths of all previous stages [days]

Irrigation requirement of Crops

The irrigation water requirement of crops is defined as the part of water requirement of crops
that should be fulfilled by irrigation. In other words, it is the water requirement of crops
excluding effective rain fall, carry over soil moisture and ground water contributions.
WR=IR + Peff + S + GW
IR= WR-(Peff + S+ GW) … 3.29

Effective Rainfall (Peff)

Effective rainfall can be defined as the rainfall that is stored in the root zone and can be
utilized by crops. All the rainfall that falls is not useful or effective. As the total amount of
rainfall varies, so does the amount of useful or effective rainfall. Some of the seasonal
rainfall that falls will be lost as unnecessary deep percolation; surface runoff and some water
may remain in the soil after the crop is harvested. From the water requirement of crops point
of view, this water, which is lost, is ineffective.
There are four methods for calculating the effective rainfall from entered monthly total
rainfall data.
1 Fixed Percentage Effective Rainfall
The effective rainfall is taken as a fixed percentage of the monthly rainfall;
Effective Rainfall = % of Total Rainfall … 3.30

2 Dependable Rain
An empirical formula developed by FAO/AGLW based on analysis for different arid and
sub-humid climates. This formula is as follows:
Effective Rainfall = 0.6 * Total Rainfall - 10 ... (Total Rainfall < 70 mm)
… 3.31a&b
Effective Rainfall = 0.8 * Total Rainfall - 24 ... (Total Rainfall > 70 mm)

31
3 Empirical Formula for Effective Rainfall
This formula is similar to FAO/AGLW formula (see Dependable Rain method above) with
some parameters left to the user to define. The formula is as follows:
Effective Rainfall = a * Total Rainfall - b ... (Total Rainfall < z mm)
…3.32a&b
Effective Rainfall = c * Total Rainfall - d ... (Total Rainfall > z mm)
Where a, b, c, and z are the variables to be defined by the user.

4 Method of USDA Soil Conservation Service (default)

The effective rainfall is calculated according to the formula developed by the USDA Soil
Conservation Service which is as follows:

Effective Rainfall = Total Rainfall / 125 * (125 - 0.2 * Total Rainfall)

...(Total Rainfall < 250 mm)
Effective Rainfall = 125 + 0.1 * Total Rainfall …3.33
... (Total Rainfall > 250 mm)

Ground water contribution (Gw):

Some times there is a contribution from the groundwater reservoir for water requirement of
crops. The actual contribution from the groundwater table is dependent on the depth of
ground water table below the root zone & capillary characteristics of soil. For clayey soils the
rate of movement is low and distance of upward movement is high while for light textured
soils the rate is high and the distance of movement is low. For practical purposes the GW
contribution when the ground water table is below 3m is assumed to be nil.

Carry over soil moisture(S):

This is the moisture retained in the crop root zone b/n cropping seasons or before the crop is
planted. The source of this moisture is either from the rainfall that man occurs before sowing
or it may be the moisture that remained in the soil from past irrigation. This moisture also
contributes to the consumptive use of water and should be deducted from the water
requirement of crops in determining irrigation requirements.

32
3.4 Irrigation Requirements and Irrigation Efficiencies

Gross irrigation requirement (GIR)

Usually more amount of water than the NIR is applied during irrigation to compensate for the
unavoidable losses. The total water applied to satisfy ET and losses is known as Gross
irrigation requirement (GIR)
NIR
GIR
Ep

where Ep=project Efficiency

Irrigation Scheduling

Scheduling of irrigation application is very important for successive plant growth and
maturity. Water is not applied randomly at any time and in any quantity. Irrigation
scheduling is the schedule in which water is applied to the field. It is an important aspect of
an efficient operation of an irrigation system. The scheduling of irrigation can be field
irrigation scheduling and field irrigation supply schedules.

Field irrigation Scheduling

This scheduling of irrigation is done at field level. The two scheduling parameters of field
irrigation scheduling are the depth of irrigation and interval of irrigation.

Depth of irrigation (d):

This is the depth of irrigation water that is to be applied at one irrigation. It is the depth of
water that can be retained in the crop root zone b/n the field capacity and the given depletion
of the available moisture content. All the water retained in the soil b/n FC and PWP is not
readily available to crops. The readily available moisture is only some percentage of the total
available moisture. Thus, depth of irrigation is the readily available portion of the soil
moisture. In other words, it is the depth of irrigation water required to replenish the soil
moisture to field capacity.

The depth of irrigation (d) is given by :

d (net) = As *D *(FC – PWP)*P, m ... 3.46

33
Where As = Apparent specific gravity of soil

D = Effective root zone depth in m

FC = water content of soil at FC

PWP = Water content of soil at PWP

P = depletion factor
Because of application losses such as deep percolation and runoff losses, the total depth of
water to be applied will be greater than the net depth of water.

d (gross) = As*D(FC-PWP)*P ,m ...3.47

Ea
Where Ea = Field application efficiency and other parameters as defined above

Interval of irrigation (i):

The interval of irrigation is the time gap in days between two successive irrigation
applications. It depends on the type of the crop, soil type and climate conditions. Thus
interval of irrigation depends on the consumptive use rate of the crop and the amount of
readily available moisture (RAM) in the crop root zone. The consumptive use rate of the
crop varies from crop to crop and also during different stages of the crop. The RAM moisture
also varies from soil to soil depending on soil water constants.

The interval (frequency) of irrigation is given by:

As .D FC PWP . P
i (days) = , ... 3.48
ETcrop peak

Where: ETcrop (peak) is the peak rate of crop evapotranspiration in m/day.

For the same crop and soil type the ETcrop (peak) goes on increasing from the initial stage to the
development and mid season stage the interval of irrigation will go on decreasing and
increasing during late season stage.
Field Irrigation Supply Schedules (Irrigation Scheduling in a Command Area)

34
This is the schedule of water supply to individual fields or command area. This is a schedule
of the total volume of water to be applied to the soil during irrigation. It depends on crop and
soil characteristics.
It is expressed as: -
10
q.t AS .D ( Fc pwp .P. A , m3
Ea
...3.49
Where: q= Stream size (application rate) lit/sec
t = Application time in sec
Ea = Application efficiency
As = Apparent specific gravity
D = Effective root zone depth, m
P = Depletion factor
A = Area of the command (field) in ha
From the above equation, if either of the application time or the stream size fixed, one of
them can be determined.
In the above equation q.t indicates the total volume of water applied to the field during
irrigation at the head of the field. But the total volume of water diverted at the headwork will
obviously be greater than this value, because there is loss of water during conveyance and
distribution canals. The total volume of water to be diverted is given by:
10
Q.t = As .D. FC PwP , p. A. , m3
Ep
...3.50
Where: Q = flow rate at the head work, lit/sec.
Ep = project efficiency and others as defined above.

1. Water Conveyance efficiency ( Ec)

This term is used to measure the efficiency of water conveyance system associated with
the canal network, water courses and field channels. It is also applicable where the water
is conveyed in channels from the well to the individual fields. It is expressed as follows:

35
 Wf
* 100
Ec = Wd
Where Ec = water conveyance efficiency , %
Wf = Water delivered to the irrigated plot ( At the field supply channel)
Wd = Water diverted from the source.
2. Water application Efficiency (Ea)

After the water reaches the field supply Channel , it is important to apply the water as
efficiently as possible. A measure of how efficiently this is done is the water application
efficiency.
Ws
* 100
Wf
Ea =
Where Ea = application efficiency, %
Ws = water stored in the rot zone of the plants.
Wf = Water delivered to the irrigated plot ( At the field supply channel)
Water application efficiency below 100 percent are due to seepage looses from the field
distribution channels, deep percolation below the crop root zone and runoff loses from
the tail end of borders and furrows ( in very long fields).

3. Water storage efficiency (Es)

Small irrigation may lead to high water application efficiencies, yet the irrigation practice
may be poor. The concept of water storage efficiency is useful in evaluating this problem.
This concept relates how completely the water needed prior to irrigation has been stored in
the root zone during irrigation.

Ws
Es * 100
Wn
where Es = Water storage efficiency , %
Ws= water stored in the rot zone of the plants.
Wn = Water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation

36
 Water storage efficiency becomes important when water supplies are limited or when
excessive time is required to secure adequate penetration of water in to the soil. Also,
when salt problems exist, the water storage efficiency should be kept high to maintain
favorable salt balance.

4. Field Canal Efficiency (Eb)

This ratio between water received at the field inlet and that received at the inlet of the block
of fields.
Wp
Eb *100 where Ef = Field canal efficiency
Wf

Wp = water received at the field inlet

Wf = water delivered to the field channel

5 Distribution Efficiency (Ed)

This shows how uniformly water is applied to the field along the irrigation run. In sandy soils
there is generally over irrigation at upper reaches of the run when as in clayey soils, there is
over- irrigation at the lower reaches of the run.

y
Ed 1 x 100 Where Ed = water distribution efficiency , %
d

d = average depth of water penetration.

y = average deviation from d.

6. Water Use Efficiency

This shows the yield of the crop per unit volume of water used. It may be expressed in
Kg/ha.cm or q/ha.cm

A. Crop Water Use Efficiency: is the ratio of the crop yield (Y) to the amount of water
consumptively used by the crop.

37
 Y
Ew
CU
B. Field Water Use Efficiency: is the ratio of the crop yield (y) to the total water
requirement of crops including Cu losses and other
needs.

Y
Et
WR

7. Project Efficiency (Ep)

This shows how efficiently the water source used in crop production. It shows the percentage
of the total water that is stored in the soil and available for consumptive requirements of the
crop. It indicates the overall efficiency of the systems from the head work to the final use by
plants for Cu. The Overall project efficiency must be considered in order to fix the amount of
water required at the Diversion head work.

38