Botany:

 Botany is defined as the study of plant morphology and physiology. Botany is the
study of plants and all facets of their structure and behaviour is the science of botany
(Wilson et al., 1971).
Taxonomy:
 This is the identification, classification and naming of plants. A taxonomist is
concerned with more than identification and classification of plants and their
speciality embraces problems of evolution and plant geography.
Cytology:
 This is the study of structure, function and life history of cells. It also involves the
study of small chambers or compartments that make up the plant.
Phytotomy/anatomy/morphology
 This is the study of the internal and external organs of plants. It is concerned with the
structure of plants and involves the arrangement and relationships of the various organs
such as the roots, stems, leaves and flowers.
Physiology:
 This is the study of the life processes of the internal and external organs of plants and
the study of mechanisms, processes in plants and the interpretation of behaviour and
chemical laws
Organism:
 This is a living entity composed of cells. In nature, there are two classes of organisms
i.e. plants and animals
Chlorophyllous plant
 This is a plant that is photosynthetic. It is termed an autotrophy and it constitutes the
producer in every plant community. It is the largest plant group and it includes crops,
algae and some mosses.
Non- chlorophyllous plant
 This is a plant that is non-photosynthetic. It is termed heterotrophy. A good example
is fungi.
1.4 Reasons for studying botany
Let us now look at the reasons for studying botany.
 It is important to study Botany because plants are part of the environment and we
must study them, we must know how to grow them and encourage farmers to produce
more. We must also learn new uses for a variety of plants and grow them in the far
corners of the world.
 Plants are food producers (as we will see in the Physiology module). Food is
necessary for the provision of energy, which is important for growth, development
and good health.

0
  Plants are a source of industrial raw materials. Examples of such raw materials are
cotton, which is used in the textile industry for the manufacture of clothes, blankets,
tobacco for cigarettes, sugar-cane for sugar, grapes for wines, oilseeds for margarine
and soap.

 Plants are a source of foreign currency earner. By exporting crops such as flowers,
tobacco, cotton, timber, vegetables, maize and paprika, just to name a few, brings
foreign currency to the country.

 Plants provide employment. During the production and processing of such crops like
tobacco, cotton, sugar-cane, tea and coffee, there is a large demand for labour.

1.5 Contribution of botany to agriculture

 The study of Botany provides knowledge about plants for improvement of crop
growth, development and high yielding cultivars.

 This knowledge led to production of disease and pest resistant crops or high protein
content crops. In this case, the plant breeder needs to know the structure of the crop
flower in order to be successful in the technique of cross pollination; he needs to
know the structure of leaves for disease resistance and the structure of the kernel for
milling purposes.

 Botanists developed methods for the control of many diseases caused by viruses,
bacteria and fungi that limit crop production.

 Botanists are engaged and participate in weed research, including herbicides and
cultural control.

 They are also involved in the study of poisonous plants to man and his domestic
animals.

 Botany study investigates the effect growth regulators on plant development and they
seek ways of using inorganic fertilizers to increase crop production and soil fertility.

 Botany study contributed to solutions of problems of storage and transportation of

vegetables, fruits and grains.

 Botanists search for new drug plants and antibiotics and they study the plant pollen
that causes human diseases.

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  They search for new sources of fibres, tannins, essential oils, gums and resins used in
certain pharmaceutical industries.

 Botanists play an important role in environmental pollution and proper utilization and
conservation of soil, water, grassland and forests in the face of the accelerated growth
of the world’s population.

 Botany study contributed to plant identification, naming and grouping. This is

important to know which plants are dealt with, their scientific names and their
relationship with other plants.

 Botany has led to the identification of plants with aesthetic value. This is the beauty
of many plants in many industries such as landscape design and management.
Pleasure is provided by plants grown in lawns, parks, streets, botanical gardens and
golf courses.

 The environment of crop plants has been improved through the study of Botany.

 New varieties and species of plants have been introduced.

 Drought resistant crops of maize, sorghum, wheat and alfalfa have brought many
hectares of semi arid regions under cultivation.

1.6 General description of organisms

We now want to look at how organisms can be described for purposes of manipulating them
in plant breeding and crop improvement. It has been observed that all organisms exhibit all or
most of the following characteristics:
 Feeding habit
This is consumption of food so as to live.
 Reproduction
This is the formation of a new individual and the appearance of differences
(variability) among off-springs. It can be sexual or asexual reproduction.
 Growth
This is irreversible increase in volume and it is associated with synthesis of new
biological materials by the organism.

 Movement

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 This is a reaction to the environment i.e. response to temperature, light, gravity,
length of touch. Generally plants have limited responses, for example, opening and
closing of flowers, twinning of tendrils and movement of leaves.
 Body confirmation
This is the shape and appearance of the organism
 Respiration
This is the accumulation and transformation of energy which is derived directly or
indirectly from the sun and is stored as organic compounds.
 Excretion,
This is the removal of unwanted material from the body.
 Death
This is when respiration and other processes stop and the organism decomposes.

Table 1: Differences between plant and animal structure

Factor Plants Animals

Feeding habit Green plants are autotrophic Animals are heterotrophic
i.e. they manufacture their i.e. they depend on green
own food through plants for food
photosynthesis

Movement Movement in plants is Movement in animals

tropic i.e. movement in involves the entire body
response to external stimuli
e.g. geotropism,
phototropism,
hydrotropism.

Growth Growth in plants is Growth in animals occurs

restricted to meristematic throughout the body and
regions at root and stem tips growth ceases with
and in vascular bundles. maturity.

Body confirmation Plants have irregular Animals have compact

spreading form bodies.

Irritability Very slow reaction in Very fast reaction in

plants, usually in the form animals, which display a

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 of tropisms. fast toxic response to
stimuli.
Reproduction Plants exhibit pollination
and fertilization. Asexual Pollination is absent.
reproduction is much Asexual reproduction only
common in higher plants takes place in amphibians.

Excret Plants generally make

ion insoluble wastes which are Plants have elaborate
easily stored in cells until excretion system.
that part of the plant is lost.

CYTOLOGY

2.0 Introduction
This unit deals with the topic Cytology. Cytology has been defined already in Unit One.
Robert Hook first discovered the cell in 1665 using his primitive microscope on dead cork
cells.

2.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 Define cytology and a cell.
 Draw and label a diagram of a plant cell.
 Differentiate the plant cell from an animal cell.
 Describe the form and the functions of the plant cell organelles.
 Explain tissues, organs and systems.

2.2 The plant cell

A plant cell is a unit structure of the plant. The cell is the basis of life and it performs all the
functions of life. In nature, there are living cells, which are metabolically active and some
metabolically inactive. Those that are metabolically inactive are involved in mechanical
support and in conducting fluid contents throughout the plant. Different parts of the cell are
called organelles and they include cell membranes, nucleus, cytoplasm and other organelles
inside the cytoplasm.

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Figure 1: The Plant cell

2.3 Functions of plant cell components and organelles

a) The cell wall

The cell wall components are cellulose, pectin, hemicelluloses, lignin, suberin and cutin.
Cellulose gives the structural framework of the cell wall. Cellulose consists of carbohydrates
and simple sugars, mainly the glucose and sucrose and polysaccharides. In wood, the
cellulose content ranges from 41% to 48%.

Lignin is a complex organic compound and not a carbohydrate. It only occurs in cell walls of
vascular plants and only where secondary walls are present. Lignin starts its formation in the
intercellular layers and spreads inwards so that the primary wall contains more lignin than the
secondary wall.

Pectin is found in the cell wall and in some plant juices. The pectin content of the cell wall
varies greatly and is much higher in some plants or plant parts than others. Pectin is much
higher in cell walls of potatoes, beets, apples and peels of citrus fruits. Pectin is used as a set
agent as it solidifies to form a clear solid jelly on cooling. The formation of this jelly from
natural pectin contained fruit juices is the basis for tinned fruit jam making process.

Suberin is a waxy substance associated with cellulose in the cell walls. Since neither water
nor gases can pass through suberin, cork tissue is an excellent protection against excessive
loss of water.

5
Cutin is a fatty substance usually found as an external coating on the outer cellulose wall of
the epidermal cells of leaves and stems.

The functions of cell wall are:

 It provides mechanical support to the cell contents
 It gives the shape of the cell
 It protects the cell contents from bursting when pressure builds up inside the cell
 It allows water and other substances to pass through freely
 It is impermeable to solid substances and therefore gives protection to the cell against
pathogen infection.

b) The Cell membrane

This is sometimes known as the plasma membrane or plasmalemma. It forms the outer layer
of the cytoplasm and therefore it surrounds the cytoplasm, nucleus and other organelles. It
also lies against the cell wall.

 Function:
It selectively allows some substances to pass through and therefore it regulates the passage of
substances in and out of the enclosed protoplasm. It is therefore a barrier to passive
movement of ions into and out of the cell.

c) The Ribosomes
These small particles which are usually attached to the surfaces of portions of the
endoplasmic reticulum or they occur in the chloroplasts or they lie freely in the cytoplasm.

 Function
They consist of RNA (ribonucleic acid) and protein and therefore they are involved in the
protein synthesis.

d) The Nucleus
The nucleus is spherical in shape. Its size and location vary with age of the plant and also the
type of the cell e.g. young cells have their nucleus located centrally while in older plants its
located on one side against the cell wall. This consists of nuclear pores which allow
substances such as DNA and RNA, chromosomal and ribosomal proteins to pass into the
nucleus and also allows messenger RNA and ribosomal subunits to be exported out of the
nucleus.

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  Function
It is essential for the maintenance of the life of the cell and it is a specialised structure that
determines the inheritance of characters of individuals i.e. it contains genes which transmit
characters from the parents to the offspring. It also contains information for protein synthesis
in the body.

e) The Nucleolus
This is the region in the nucleus which is the site for the formation ribosomal subunits and it
houses the chromosomes. A nuclear membrane bounds the nucleolus.

f) The Mitochondria
They consist of an inner and outer membrane. The inner membrane forms folds called
cristae.

 Function
They are sites of enzymatic reactions in respiration. Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic
respiration in the cell.
g) Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
This is a network of membranes forming vesicles and tubules that interconnect throughout
the cytoplasm. It may be tubular in shape or it can be composed of flattened sheets of cells.
There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum i.e. the rough ER and the smooth ER. The
rough ER has ribosomes attached to their surfaces while no ribosomal attachments found on
smooth ER.

The functions of the endoplasmic reticulum are:

 They are involved in the attachment and transportation of ribosomes.
 They are involved in protein synthesis.
 They isolate different metabolic activities in different regions of the cell.

h) The Tonoplast
This is a membrane which separates the cytoplasm and the vacuole. It is similar to the
plasmalemma but it is slightly thinner.

i) Vacuole
This is found both in mature and immature cells. In immature cells, vacuoles are small and
many and they are scattered throughout the cytoplasm. A vacuole is filled with a watery,
non-living sap, a fluid containing many substances in solution. The reserve protein in the
plant is stored in the vacuole.

The functions of the vacuole are:

7
  Contains storage material and waste products and therefore acts as a water reservoir.
In this case, water moves into the sap which stores concentrated inorganic ions such
as phosphorus, sodium, potassium, calcium, chlorine, sulphur, carbohydrates, organic
acids, phenolic compounds and nitrogenous compounds.

 Maintenance of cell turgidity, the above substances draw up water into the cell to
keep it turgid. The pressure inside the cell caused by the sap maintains the cell
structure and gives structural integrity of the crop.

 It stores waste products such as insecticides, herbicides and other artificially applied
chemicals which when left inside the cytoplasm can destroy it. In addition, food
reserves can also be stored.

 It acts as a recycling storage part for products of metabolism and broken down
products of other organelles.

j) The Golgi bodies

These are flat vesicles that consist of an aggregation of two to seven curved disk like
structures. Each disk tends to be enlarged at the margins.

 Function
It is involved in the synthesis of cell wall.

k) Protoplasm
This is a fluid, semi-transparent, viscous and elastic material. It contains about 75-90% water
and some components that are largely proteins.

l) Cytoplasm
This is packed with organelles.

Table 2: Differences between a plant and an animal cell

Plant cell Animal cell

1. presence of cellulose Cellulose cell wall absent

2. presence of middle lamella which No middle lamella, animal cells occur

binds cells together singly

3. many contains chloroplasts Chloroplasts absent

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 4. presence of large vacuoles which Cell vacuoles, if present are of minute size
contain excreted material
Nucleus located at the centre of the
5. nucleus usually displayed from the cytoplasm
centre by expanding vacuoles
Starch granules absent
6. starch granules present

2.4 Cellular organisation in higher plants

The cells of higher plants are specialized to perform specific functions. The cells are
therefore functionally and structurally grouped into tissues, organs and systems.

2.4.1 Tissues
Cells of higher plants are grouped into tissues. Tissues may be simple, composed of only one
kind of cell or they can be complex, i.e. made up of several kinds of cells. Wood for
example, is a complex tissue. The most common type of a simple tissue is the parenchyma
and it is the chief tissue of fruits, flowers and other unspecialised parts of stems and roots. An
important factor to note is that tissues are identical cell performing similar functions.

2.4.2 Organs
These are different tissues grouped together for a common objective e.g. the leaf, ovary,
stamen, seed, stem, and root.
PLANT TAXONOMY
3.0 Introduction
Plant taxonomy is sometimes known as systematic botany. It deals with plant identification,
classification and naming of plants. A specialist in this field of study is called a plant
taxonomist. There are several groups of plants in the world. Each group possesses unique
features and characteristics normally identified by numbers of the group. After identification,
the plant groups can then be arranged in some hierarchical relationships on the basis of their
similarities of their characteristics.

3.1 Objectives
By the time you go through this unit, you should be able to:
 State the reasons for classifying plants.
 Compare and contrast artificial and natural classification.
 Describe the taxonomic hierarchy.
 Write scientific /botanical names of common crops.
 State the origin of major crops in Zimbabwe.
 State families of crops grown in Zimbabwe.

9
3.2 Reasons for classifying plants
 It provides fairly accurate base of identifying plants and easy communication
throughout the world.
 Plant classification could provide satisfactory knowledge of propagation of plants.
 It makes summarization of our knowledge of plants possible hence saves time, one
always remembers all the characteristics of each plant in a big group
 It may eventually be possible to construct the evolutionary history of the present flora
based on a broad knowledge of their taxonomy. Plant taxonomists do hope that it will
be possible to determine which plant characteristics are most reliable in showing
pathways of evolution.
 By knowing the classes and families of a particular plant of importance, it would be
possible to find out other plants belonging to similar classes or families and therefore
plant taxonomy allows for predictions.

3.3 Plant classification

a) Natural classification or Biological classification
A natural classification classifies plants on the basis of the sum total of their characters. This
type of classification is based on the genetic constitution of plants or on the natural affinity.
Plants are classified as similar and therefore they belong to the same fundamental group
called species. The plants have the same number and type of genes and they can interbreed.
This classification puts together those plants that are similar in most respect. This system is
accurate and is presently used by taxonomists. It is least affected by environment.

b) Scientific or Botanical system of classification

This system of classification was started by a Swedish botanist named Carl Linnaeus. The
system was adopted in the 18th century when Latin was the written language of science. This
explains why the classification is in Latin. The botanical system of classification is shown
below from the kingdom to the variety for two crops i.e. maize and soyabeans respectively.
The advantage of this system is that there is no repetition as seen in other classification
systems.

Kingdom………..........Plantae

Division………………Tracheophyta (vascular plants)

Class…………………Angiospermopsida

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Monocotyledonae Subclass Dicotyledonae
(One seed leaf) (Two seed leaf)

Cyperales Order Rosales

Graminae Family Leguminosae (Fabaceae)

Zea Genus Glycine

mays Species max

SC701 Variety Solitare

Figure 2: Taxonomic hierarchy

In scientific classification, plants are normally classified in hierarchical order. This is
essential so as to organise knowledge of plants in a systematic order. The hierarchy is shown
below:

Kingdom
Division
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Variety
Form
Individual
Figure 3: Hierarchy of Classification
c) Binomial system of naming plants
Linnaeus is said to have established a system of binomial nomenclature for plants. In this
system, the genus and the species form the scientific name for any plant. The generic is

11
always capitalized while the species is not. Both names are always italicised or underlined.
The name of the person making the classification follows the species name. This scientific
name is unique for that particular type of plant and aids in identification of plants when
different languages are used e.g. Zea mays is called “corn” in the USA, but is “maize” in
many other parts of the world. Cultivar or variety is used to designate a group of plants
within a species which have the same genetic background.

Let us define the terms that distinguish levels in the hierarchy of classifying plant/organisms.
 Genus
A genus is a group of different but genetically related species. Interbreeding may occur
between different species of the same genus. Genera names are often those of Botanists or
the family name of the plant.

 Species
This is a group of similar plants that normally breed freely among themselves. They do not
normally cross pollinate with dissimilar groups of plants. This is a group of a homogenous
population of plants with similar, sometimes identical genetic constitution. Members of the
same species can reproduce themselves. A species has remained the fundamental unit of
classification for taxonomists.
 Variety
This is when one or more populations of plants that make up a species are different in
appearance from other members of the species. A variety can be a subdivision of a species,
i.e. a group of individuals within a species which are distinct in form and or function from
other similar groups of individuals.

 Form
This is a group of plants which do not deviate enough to be a variety.

 Family
This contains different genes with similar traits. Plants of the same family are genetically
related but less closely than they are in genera or species. Their common characteristics
indicate plants of the same ancestor. Family names usually end in aceae. However, there are
exceptions, you may check through the list.

d) Artificial classification
This system of classification is based upon a few convenient morphological characters.
Plants are classified arbitrarily on the basis of flower colour, time of blooming, habitat, form
or arrangement of leaves, whether woody or herbaceous, the classification is an artificial one.

e) Classification based on superficial resemblances in structure

12
Plants are classified on whether they are dicotyledons or monocotyledons. Their structures
could be those of woody species or herbaceous species

f) Classification on the basis of crop place of origin

The art and science of plant origin was done by Russian professor, Nikolai Vavilov. He
postulated that any geographical area with a wide diversity of plants within a species would
likely to be the centre of origin of that plant. It is important to know the centres of diversity
for a crop species as they contain genetic material that could be used to improve crop
varieties in future. Below is a list of centres of origin as identified by Vavilov:-

g) Classification based on life cycle

All higher plants can be classified as annuals, winter annuals, biennials and perennials.
 Annuals complete their entire life cycle in a single season and then die. The growth
duration is less than a year and they always reproduce by seeds.
 Winter annuals utilize parts of the two growing seasons in completing their life
cycles. They live through the winter, usually in dormant state and then mature and
produce seed in late spring and die in summer. Examples of such plants are winter
wheat, winter barley and oats. You can tell that these crops are of the temperate
regions.
 Biennials are crops that require two years to complete their life cycle. Vegetative
growth occurs in the first year (note that vernalization occurs in winter) and then they
flower and produce seed and die in the next year. Examples are sugar beet, carrot and
sweet clover.

 Perennials have an indefinite life period ranging from a few years to many years.
They do not die after reproduction. Some have herbaceous stems which die back to
the soil surface every year in winter so that they resume growth from the crown or
taproot in spring. Trees and shrubs are other examples of perennials which add new
growth every year from woody stems

h) Classification on the basis of types of seed

Higher plants are normally divided into monocots and dicots. Monocots have one seed leaf
in the embryo and they include grasses and sedges while dicots have two leaves in the
embryo and these include legumes and other broadleaved plants.
i) Classification based on water use requirements or adaptation
Hydrophytes are plants adapted to live in water or in soil saturated with water. Paddy rice
or lowland rice is the only major hydrophyte. Mesophytes are those plants intermediate in
water use. They can tolerate water- saturated soil conditions briefly and are also sensitive to
extremely dry soil conditions. Xerophytes require little water and can survive in dry soil for
a long period. The plants have special features which enable them to conserve water such as

13
fleshy leaves, stomata that open only at night, or extremely short life span that allows them to
produce seed before the soil is dry. Examples of such plants are cactus species and some
desert plants.

j) Classification based on agronomic use

Cereal or grain crops

 These are crops grown for their edible seeds e.g. maize, wheat, rice, oats, barley and
grain sorghum.
Small grains
 This is a collective term used to include sorghum and millets in the tropics and wheat,
oats, barley in the temperate regions. This is just a relative term.
Grain legumes
 These are legumes grown for their seed e.g. ground nuts, dry beans, cowpeas,
soyabeans and pigeon peas.

Pulse crops
 These are large seeded legumes that are used as a source of protein for human beings
or livestock e.g. dry beans, ground nuts, soyabeans, lime beans.
Oil crops
 These are crops grown primarily for their oil. They mainly used for food processing
and in vegetable oils and shortenings. They are also used as lubricants and in
industrial processing e.g. soyabeans, groundnuts, sunflower, castor beans, maize palm
oil.
Root crops
 These include such as crops as carrot, radish, sweet potatoes cassava, yam and
sugarbeet, their true roots are harvested for human food or livestock feed.
Tuber crops
 These are grown for their underground tubers. A tuber is not a true root but is a
modified and thickened underground stem e.g. Irish potato
Sugar crops
 These are grown for their sweet juices from which sucrose is extracted and refined
e.g. syrup from sweet sorghum, sugar cane and sugar beet.
Fibre crops
 These are grown for their fibre for making textiles; ropes, twines, bags; cotton and
flax for example, are used for making linen from fibres contained in lint and stems
respectively.
Forage crops
 These are those grown for their vegetative matter to feed livestock, especially
ruminants e.g. pastures, hay crop, silage crop and a soiling crop.

14
Horticultural crops
 These are crops that require very intensive cultural practices as compared to field
crops such as maize and dry beans e.g. vegetable crops, orchard crops, small fruits,
ornamental plants and flowers.

k) Classification based on special use

Cover crops
 These are grown to protect the soil from soil erosion e.g. star grass and rapoko.
Catch crops,
 These are sometimes known as emergency crops are grown to fill in when the regular
crop has failed or when planting has been delayed too long for regular crop to mature
e.g. sunflower and dry beans in late summer.
Companion crop
 This is a crop grown with a main crop, normally perennial to aid it during
establishment e.g. spring oats seeded with alfalfa.

Green manure
 This is a crop that is grown and then ploughed into the soil while it is still green and
succulent to improve soil fertility. This is achieved by providing additional organic
matter which improves soil structure or through increased nutrient availability.
Trap crop
 The crop is planted to attract certain insects and or parasites. Trap crop crops are
ploughed under or destroyed once they have served their purpose e.g. cotton to
control Striga ssp. (witch weed).

STRUCTURE, FUNCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE ROOT

4.0 INTRODUCTION
The roots of a plant are collectively known as root system. Roots are important because the
plants depend on them for the uptake of mineral nutrients and water. The nature of the root
system of a plant and the depth to which it extends vertically and laterally depend on such
factors like the soil moisture, the soil air, temperature and the physical nature of the soil.

4.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this practical you must be able to:-
 Explain the development of the root system.
 Draw the external structure of the tap root.

15
  Draw and label the monocot and the dicot root.
 Describe the internal structure and state the functions of the internal parts of the root.
 State the importance of root hairs in plants.
 Describe different types of roots.
 State the functions of roots in plants

4.2 The roots

Figure 4: Development of a root system in monocots

We will see from Fig. 2 that when the seed germinates, the radicule or the rudimentary
root is the first structure to appear. It becomes the first root and is called the primary root. It
branches and sub-branches, all of which are called secondary roots. In plants such as carrot
and beetroot, the primary root remains the main root throughout the life of the plant. In the
seed of cereals such as wheat and barley, a primary root is evident. When the grain
germinates, this root takes the lead and is soon followed by two pairs of threadlike roots
called seminal (seed) roots.

4.2.1 Classification of roots according to origin

Let us look at simple classification of root based on origin with reference to the plant:-
4.2.1.1 Primary roots
 These originate from the radical. In dicots we find tap roots and monocots we find
fibrous roots.
4.2.1.2 Secondary roots
 These are branches of the primary root.
4.2.1.3 Adventitious roots
 These originate from the stem nodes and occasionally from leaves.

16
Below is a diagram that shows the internal and external parts of a root.

Figure 5: Cross section of the root and the various parts.

Let us look at the various parts of the root indicated in Figure 4 above.

Root cap
 This is found at the tip of the root. The root cap protects the root apex from mechanical
injury. The cells of the root cap are constantly cast off at the very tip. The root cap is only
present in all common land plants but is lacking in many aquatic plants.

Root apex/meristem
 This is where cell division and cell elongation takes place. This part consists of a
column of actively dividing cells and it is primarily a region of tissue initiation. The
root apex cells have thin walls. Root apex has a dense cytoplasm and a conspicuous
nucleus i.e. has characteristic embryonic cell features. In addition, it has no
intercellular spaces.

Region of elongation
 This is a region where cell elongation occurs. It consists of cells derived from the
meristematic region and its cells enlarge longitudinally. It is the growth of these cells that
causes the elongation of the root. Cell elongation occurs simultaneously with cell

17
 differentiation. Some types of cells such as the xylem and phloem begin or complete
differentiation in this region.

Region of maturation
 This is found just behind the region of cell elongation. This is where cells differentiate
into primary tissues. The cells display their mature structure in relation to their positions
and functions in the root.

1. Monocot root 2. Dicot root

Figure 6: Cross section of monocot and dicot root

Let us now get into the details of the internal structure of the root. The internal structure of
the root consists of three meristematic tissues.
 Epidermis consists of root hairs. It is the third and outer most region of the root. The
outer walls of epidermal cells usually lack a cuticle.
 The cortex is a region relatively thicker in roots than in stems.
 The endodermis is the inner most layer of the cortex. It is a single row of cells. In the
primary state, the endodermal walls are thin. In older roots, the inner radial and
transverse walls are thickened and the endodermal walls are distinguished by
specialised thickenings of the cell wall called the casparian strip.
 The stele is a central cylinder bounded on the outside by the pericle and on the inside
by a primary vascular tissue (xylem and the phloem).
 The primary xylem consists of a central mass or core of xylem elements, with
several radiating arms, between which are groups of phloem elements. With

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 secondary growth, the primary xylem gives rise to vascular cambium. In roots
without secondary growth, the cells mature into schlerenchyma.
 Primary phloem consists of sieve tubes, companion cells and parenchyma cells. The
pith may be present or absent in roots.
 In dicots and conifers, the cells in the centre of the root mature into xylem and the
pith is absent.
 In monocots and other herbaceous plants, the xylem fails to differentiate in the centre
of the root and the pith may be present.

4.2.2 Functions of the root

 Anchorage, the root anchors the plant in the soil
 Absorption of water and minerals from the soil
 Storage of food e.g. in plants such as sugar beet, sweet potatoes for a short time.
 Roots may serve as food accumulating organs.
 In some plants the foods so accumulated are used only by the roots; in others a part of
the food is trans-located and used by the above ground parts such as the developing
shoots of herbaceous perennials.
 Used for plant propagation.
 Used for control of erosion by binding the soil.
 Conduction, water and mineral salts absorbed from the soil and foods that maybe
stored in roots are conducted by roots to the stems, then to the leaves and other
organs above the ground.
 Roots transport materials from the region of absorption to the base of the stem.

STRUCTURE, FUNCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE STEM

5.0 INTRODUCTION
This is the portion above the growing media. The components of the stem are leaves, flowers,
branches, fruits and buds. The stem consists of a variety of tissues of specialized cells.

5.1 OBJECTIVES
 Explain the development of the shoot system
 Draw the external structure of a woody stem
 Draw and label the monocot and the dicot stem
 Describe the internal structure and state the functions of the internal parts of the shoot
 Describe different types of stems
 State the functions of stems in plants

5.2 Structure of the stem

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Figure 7: Cross section of a stem

5.2.1 External structure of woody stems

The external structure consists of buds, leaf scars, leaf axil, node, internode, bud scales, bud
scars and lintels. Buds are visible structures of stems during the winter time. New stems will
grow from buds and these stems may bear leaves or flowers or both. A leaf scar is found
below the base of each lateral bud. A leaf scar is made when a leaf falls from the twig. A
node is a region to which buds and leaves are attached. An internode is a region found
between any two adjacent nodes.

5.2.2 Internal structure of the stem

Internal tissues of the stem are the epidermis, cortex, primary phloem (sieve tube elements,
companion cells), primary xylem, and the pith.

5.3 Functions of the stem

Let us look at the functions of the stem in relation to other plant parts:-
 The stem connects the root and the shoot system.
 Other stems are used as vegetative propagation material.
 It supports and displays leaves for photosynthesis, flowers and seeds. The flowers are
raised into a position that will facilitate pollination and dispersal of seeds. Leaves are
brought into a favourable position to receive air and light.
 Some stems store food e.g. yams, potatoes, sugar-cane
 Some stems photosynthesise e.g. asparagus
 Stems give strength and rigidity to the plant

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  Stems conduct minerals and water between leaves and the roots. The food
manufacturing organs (leaves) and the reproductive organs (flowers) are not in
immediate contact with water and minerals salts of the soil.

5.4 Types of stems

5.4.1 Woody stem
 These include stems of trees such as oaks, palms, apple, pines, shrubs, and woody
vines. They hard and thick, they are long lived i.e. they are perennial, they have rough
and corky outer surface (bark) and the bulk of it consists of tough woody tissue called
xylem. Almost all of them are dicotyledons.

5.4.2 Herbaceous stems

 Examples of such plants are beans, peas, cabbage, tomato and sunflowers. They have
very little wood tissue and very little growth in diameter. They are usually short lived
i.e. they are annuals or biennials. They are usually green and therefore they
photosynthesis. Structural support of herbaceous stems is achieved through the
turgidity of individual cells. Herbaceous stems may be dicots or monocots but all
monocots have herbaceous stems.
5.4.3 Stems of monocots
 Examples are maize, wheat, oats, rice, onions, lily and asparagus just to name a few.
5.4.4 Modified stems
These are found in all classes of seed plants. Below we will look at the modified stems that
commonly occur in cultivated crops.
 Bulb
A bulb is a modified stem and contains a short disc-shaped underground stem. Examples are
onion, tulip. A bulb has a very short stem (basal plate) and fleshy storage leaves.

 Corm
A corm is a short, solid, swollen, vertical underground stem. A corm consists of the swollen
base of a stem surrounded by protective scale leaves; there are no fleshy leaves, unlike bulbs.

 Rhizome
A rhizome is a slender and horizontally growing underground stem rich in stored food
material. Examples are fern, ginger, couch grass and many improved grasses, mint, bamboo.
It is usually an organ of perennation as well as vegetative propagation.

 Stolon
A stolon is a creeping, long slender stem growing horizontally along the surface of the
ground and produces a sprawling mass of stems growing along the ground. It has long
internodes. Examples are blackberry, gooseberry, black currant and redcurrant. It is not an
organ of perennation.

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  Runner
This is a type of stolon that elongates rapidly, as in strawberry and creeping buttercup. It is a
specialised stem that develops from the axil of a leaf at the crown of a plant, grows
horizontally along the ground, and forms a new plant at one of the nodes.

 Sucker
A sucker is a stem that arises on a plant from below the ground. The new shoot arises from
an adventitious bud on a root. Examples are raspberry and banana.

 Tuber
A tuber is an enlarged and compressed underground storage organ formed from a stem or a
root, swollen with food and capable of staying underground waiting to grow in the next
season. Tubers survive only one year, and shrivel as their contents are used during the
growing season. Examples are the Irish potato.
UNIT SIX
STRUCTURE, FUNCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEAF
6.0 INTRODUCTION
The leaf is the portion of the shoot system concerned with the manufacture of complex food
compounds. Green plants play an important role in the world by absorbing energy of
sunlight which is changed into a form that can be utilized in the life processes by both the
plants and animals.
6.1 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you must be able to:-
 State the uses of leaves.
 Describe the external and internal structure of the leaf.
 State the functions of the different parts of the leaf.
 Explain the development of the leaf.
 Describe the leaf features as used in plant identification.
 Differentiate a simple leaf from a compound leaf.
 Describe the process of leaf abscission and state the importance of leaf abscission in
agriculture.

6.2 Importance and uses of the leaf

The leaf is important in various ways depending on the plant, we will look at some of the
functions/uses of leaf:-
 Transpiration i.e. loss of excess water in vapour form from the plant through the
stomata.
 For food: man utilizes leaves as vegetables e.g. lettuce, kale, cabbage, spinach.
 Pasture: many grasses and legume leaves are important pastures for livestock.

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  Beverages: leaves of tea and sages are used as stimulants.
 Commercial value: leaves are used in dye and tobacco industries.
 Aromatics: leaves of marjoram, peppermint, spearmint, parsley are used for
flavouring.
 Medicinal use: leaves are used as drugs e.g. aloe spp is used for stomach pains
 Ornamentals: certain leaves are used for their aesthetic value
 Plant identification: leaves are used by taxonomists in identifying plants.

6.3 External structure of the leaf

Figure 8: General leaf structure

A typical leaf has two parts which are the lamina or blade and the petiole. The lamina is the
thin expanded portion. It consists of the midrib veins and soft tissues. The midrib is the
extension of the petiole. The petiole is the slender stem that holds the blade. Some leaves in
the Leguminosae family, e.g. peas and beans have two small outgrowths at the base of the
petiole known as stipules. When the petiole is absent and the blade is mounted directly on
the stem, the leaf is called a sessile. Vascular bundles run from the stem out through the
petiole into the blade, where they branch to form a network of veins. The function of veins is
to transport water, minerals and food. They also form a supporting framework for the softer
tissues of the blade. The arrangement of veins on the lamina is called venation. There are

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two types of arrangements, parallel and scattered or net venation. We may want to note
that parallel venation is found in monocots leaves such as all cereals, and other grasses like
onions, lily, and banana.
Whilst still describing the leaf structure, we want to look at the various leaf shapes used in
identifying them. Below is a figure showing most of the leaf shapes.

Figure 9: Various leaf shapes

6.4 Types of leaves

6.4.1 Simple leaf
 The leaf blade is all in one piece. The best example is the monocot leaf. The leaf is a
sessile. The place of a petiole is taken over by the leaf sheath, which is an extension
of the leaf base which wraps round the stem. It consists of a ligule which is a
distinctive membrane at the junction between the leaf sheath and the blade. The
function of the ligule is to prevent deposition of water and dirt inside the sheath axil.
The other part of the monocot leaf is the auricle, which is a projection of the ligule.
Other examples of simple leave include dicots such as tomatoes, tobacco and cotton.
6.4.2 Compound leaves
 A compound leaf consists of a number of separate leaflets (leaflets).e.g. groundnut,
Jacaranda, Acacia spp, Brachystagia, Julbernadia.

6.5 Internal structure of the leaf

The main parts of the internal structure of the leaf are the epidermis, the mesophyll, the
vascular bundles (phloem and xylem) and the meristems. The epidermis is composed of a
single layer of interlocked cells that contain no chloroplasts. The epidermis is perforated by

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stomata (small openings) at frequent intervals. The stomata are responsible for gaseous
exchange between the mesophyll and the atmosphere. Let us note that there are more stomata
on the lower side than the upper epidermis. Stomata are randomly distributed in dicots and
they are arranged in rows parallel to long axis of the leaves in monocots. Guard cells contain
chloroplasts and they occur in pairs.

Figure 10: Cross section of the leaf

6.6 The functions of the epidermis

 It protects the underlying mesophyll tissues of the epidermis.
 Since it is waxy, it reduces water loss through transpiration.
 It also maintains leaf turgidity due to the resistance offered by the swelling
mesophyll.

6.7 Development of the leaf

The mesophyll is the photosynthetic tissue found between the upper and the lower epidermal
layers. It contains parenchyma cells that contain numerous chloroplasts. In ordinary dicots,
it is made up of two tissues i.e. the palisade mesophyll and the spongy mesophyll. The
palisade mesophyll is located on the upper side of the leaf. Spongy mesophyll contains fewer
chloroplasts than the palisade layer. Vascular bundles of the leaf blade are branches of the
vascular bundles of the petiole. These are the xylem and the phloem which are important in
support and conduction of water and food material respectively. There are three main types
of meristems in leaves which are the marginal meristem, the plate meristem and the
intercalary meristem. The cells of the marginal meristem are located on the edges of the leaf
primordial. These cells divide actively and rapidly to initiate the formation and the shape of
the lamina. The plate meristem is responsible for the increase in surface area of the lamina.

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The cells of intercalary meristem are located at the base of the leaf and this meristem is
responsible for leaf lengthening.

6.8 Leaf Abscission

This is the process of leaf shedding from the branch without any injury to the branch. It is
sometimes a natural process or it can be induced (use of artificial chemicals). It takes place in
the abscission zone. The abscission zone is an area which is a section at the base of the
petiole. Leaf abscission takes place in woody dicots, herbaceous dicots and gymnosperms.

6.8.1 Importance of leaf abscission

 Leaf abscission is important in crops like cotton and soyabean, where early leaf fall
makes hand and machine picking of the lint.
 Leaves are organs of transpiration and when they fall, water is conserved in plants by
reducing transpiration.
 When leaves fall, accumulated metabolic waste products are disposed through
excretion.
 Leaf abscission also eliminates weakened and diseased leaves.
 Leaf fall is a mechanism for frost protection.
STRUCTURE, FUNCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE FLOWER
7.0 INTRODUCTION
The structure of the reproductive organs that makes it possible for the combination of the
hereditary characters of two parents is called a flower. In this unit, we shall discuss the
structure, function and development of organs of the flower.
7.2 The Flower
This is the reproductive shoot system. When the vegetative organs are fully developed, the
plant becomes mature and the reproductive phase sets in. Floral buds are formed which are
either apical or axillary. In some annual plants the starting of flowering occurs just before
the plant dies. A flower is a shoot system (i.e. it consists of an axis and laterally borne
leaves) specialised for sexual reproduction. It differs from a vegetative shoot system in that:
 it has no buds in the axils of the leaves.
 the internodes remain short, so that the vertical distance between successive leaves is
very small.
 it shows limited growth, i.e. once the apical meristem has formed a flower, it stops to
grow any further.

7.2.1 Structure of a flower

The receptacle is the top and enlarged part of the flower stalk which bears the floral leaves.
There are four possible types of floral leaves: sepals, petals, stamens and carpels. The last
two (stamen and carpels) are described as the essential floral leaves because they contain the

26
sexual organs. The first two (sepals and petals) are described as the accessory floral leaves.
The floral leaves are arranged in spirals, ore more usually, in circles (whorls) on the
receptacle, with the accessory leaves outside and/or below the essential leaves.

Figure 11: General structure of the leaf

7.2.2 Structural modifications of flowers

Types
 Complete flower
A flower, which has all four whorls of floral members’ i.e. sepals, petals, stamens and pistils
is said to be complete.

 Incomplete flower
A flower with one or more of the whorls is missing the flower is incomplete.

 Perfect flower
A flower with both stamens and carpels is perfect

 Imperfect flower
A flower which lacks either or both of these is imperfect.

N.B A perfect flower is bisexual or hermaphrodite (e.g. bean, citrus, sunflower), but an
imperfect one is unisexual (when it lacks both stamens and carpels).

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A unisexual flower can be staminate (only stamens present, e.g. tassel of maize) or
pistillate/ carpellary (only carpels, e.g. axils of maize leaves). Both kinds of unisexual
flowers may be present on the same plant, as in maize, squash, pumpkin, cucumber, and
many woody plants like oaks and walnuts. Such plants are called monoecious plants (one
house accommodates both sexes).
If, on the other hand, male and female flowers develop on separate plants, so that the plants
are either male or female, the plant is called dioecious (two houses required to accommodate
the sexes), e.g. papaw.

7.2.3 Importance of the flower

 Some flowers are consumed as vegetables e.g. Broccoli and Cauliflower
 The flower is important in reproduction. It is a sexual organ, a fertilised ovule
develops into seed and a fertilised ovary is a fruit.
 Flowers of different plants exhibit variations in floral architecture and therefore are
used in plant identification and classification.
 The flower is important for its aesthetic (beautifying) value i.e. its beautiful colours
and sweet aroma.
 It is also important as it provides industrial dye for dying cloth materials.
REPRODUCTION

8.0 INTRODUCTION
All living organisms, both plant and animal, need to reproduce themselves if the variety or
species is to survive and continue to exist. Reproduction is another physiological process of
plants just like photosynthesis, respiration and transpiration (that you will learn in the Plant
physiology module). Higher plants can reproduce themselves in two different ways. The most
common method is by the production of seeds, and this is called the sexual reproduction.
The other method makes use of various parts of the parent plant for propagation. This way is
called the vegetative or asexual reproduction or vegetative propagation.

8.2 Sexual Reproduction

We have looked at the structure of the flower in the previous section and now we want to get
to see its involvement in sexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction is involves fertilization,
which is the union of male and female sex cells or gametes, forming a zygote, or fertilized
egg. The zygote grows into an embryo within the seed. Note that this embryo gives rise to the
new plant when the seed germinates. In flowering plants, male and female gametes may be
produced in the same plant or in separate plants (remember the structural modifications of
flowers!).

8.2.1 Development of pollen grains

As we have seen that sexual reproduction involves the fusion of the male and female
gametes, let us look at the development of the two gametes. First we will look at the

28
development of pollen. But before we do that, look at Figure x (next page) and re-visit the
various parts of a flower.

Figure 12: The flower with the reproductive parts

Let us note the following from Figure 12 in relation to the male parts of a flower:
 Each stamen consists of an anther and a filament.
 The anther contains four pollen sacs, which produce pollen.
 The filament contains a vascular bundle supplying food and water to the anther.
 Each pollen sac contains several pollen mother cells, which are diploid.
Below is an outline of the steps involved in the formation pollen:-
 Each pollen mother cell undergoes meiosis (a process that reduces the number of
chromosomes in a cell by half) to form four haploid pollen grains.
 Each grain develops a thick wall, often with a clear sculptured pattern characteristic
of the species or genus.
 The pollen grain nucleus divides into two by mitosis to form a generative nucleus
and a pollen tube nucleus.
 The generative nucleus divides later to form two male gametes.
Now when the pollen is mature, the cells in the walls of the anthers dry and the anther splits
and releases the pollen.

8.2.2 Development of the ovule

Looking at Figure 12 again, let us note the following in relation to the female parts of
flower:-
 Each carpel consists of a stigma, style and ovary.

29
  Within the ovary one or more ovules develop.
 The main body of the ovule is called the nucellus and is enclosed and protected by
two sheaths called integuments.
 A small pore is left in the integuments at one end of the ovule, the micropyle.
Now let us go through the steps and stages involved in the formation of ovules:-

 Inside the nucellus one cell becomes enlarged and is known as the embryo sac
mother cell.
 This diploid cell divides by meiosis to form four haploid cells.
 One of the haploid cells develops to form the embryo sac, while the other three
degenerate.
 The embryo sac grows and its nucleus divides three times by mitosis to form eight
nuclei, four at each end /pole of the embryo sac.
 One nucleus from each end migrates to the centre of the embryo sac and these two
nuclei fuse to form a diploid nucleus.

The diploid nucleus formed at the end of the process of forming the ovule is the one that will
later fuse with the nucleus of one of the male gametes (pollen). We will go through the
process of pollination shortly.

8.3 Pollination
Pollination refers to the process of transferring pollen grains from an anther to a stigma. If an
ovule is to develop into a seed, the female gametic nucleus must first be fertilised by a male
gametic nucleus (these we have discussed their formation in the previous sections). But
before fertilisation can occur, however, pollen grains from a mature anther must be
transferred to a receptive stigma. If this process of pollination does not take place the ovules
die and the flower fails to set seed. Let us note that the transfer of pollen occurs in two forms:
1) Self pollination and
2) Cross-pollination

8.4 Self-pollination
We will go through the process of self-pollination and note the importance of pollinating
agents in pollination. Transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma of the same flower, or the
stigma of another flower on the same plant, is called self-pollination. Self-pollination
occurs in many plants, e.g. wheat, barley, oats, rice, soybeans, cotton, tomato. Below are
some the advantages of self-pollination.
 Self-pollination greater reliability, particularly when members of the species are
uncommon and are separated by large distances.
 It is not dependent on an external factor, such as wind or insects, to deliver the pollen.

30
  It is also useful in harsh climates where insects are less common, such as high up on
mountains.

8.4.1 Features favouring self-pollination

For plants to be efficient in self-pollination they must be adapted in some way. Let us look at
some adaptations by plants that favour self-pollination:-
 In cereals like wheat, barley and oats, the anthers shed their pollen on to the surface
of the ripe stigmas before the flower opens.
 Other plants have flowers which never open. These closed or cleistogamous flowers,
which are produced at or below the surface of the soil, are small and budlike and can
form seeds from their own pollen. This type of flowers is found in groundnut.

8.5 Cross-pollination
In the previous section we discussed self-pollination; now let us go through cross-pollination.
You will need to note similarities and be able to make comparison between the two types of
pollination. Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther of one plant to the
stigma of another plant of the same species. Cross pollination is more common than self-
pollination; it leads to cross-fertilisation.

Let us now briefly look at some of the disadvantages and advantages of cross-pollination
 It increases the amount of genetic variation, resulting in a greater adaptability of
plants to new environments.
 It is a form of 'out-breeding'. However, it is also more wasteful of pollen than self-
pollination.

8.5.1 Features favouring cross-pollination

Again as earlier highlighted, plants must adapt well for cross-pollination. Let us go through
some adaptations of plants to cross-pollination.
a) Separation of the sexes in space.
 This is separation of male and female flowers with respect to position on the plant.
Some flowers have either stamens or carpels and are unisexual.
 In dioecious plant species, such as papaw (Carica papaya), where an individual plant
is either male or female; cross-pollination is the only possible method.
 In monoecious plants, such as pumpkin, castor oil plant and maize, where separate
male and female flowers occur on the same plant, the separation of the sexes into
different flowers favours but does not ensure cross-pollination.
b) Separation of the sexes in time.
 In this case male and female parts mature at different stages hence the male gametes
cannot fertilise the female gamete on the same plant. Examples are avocado and
carrot.

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  This separation in time of maturity is known as dichogamy, of which there are two
kinds:
1) Protandry, where the stamens ripen first and
2) Protogyny where the stigmas ripen first.

c) Self-incompatibility or self-sterility
 In other plants with perfect flowers (e.g. almonds, passion flower, red clover),
fertilization does not occur when the stigma is pollinated by pollen of the same flower
or by another flower of the same plant.
 In all such cases there is a specific inhibition of pollen penetration of the stigma, or
of pollen tube growth down the style, and this is genetically determined.
8.6 Agents of pollination
In order for pollination to be successful, pollen grains must be transferred to the female parts
of the flower. The chief important agents of pollination are wind and insects.

Table x: Differences between wind pollinated and insect pollinated flower

Typical wind-pollinated flower Typical insect-pollinated flower
Small petals not brightly coloured, Large coloured petals; flowers
usually green or petals absent; flowers conspicuous. If flowers relatively
therefore inconspicuous inconspicuous they may be gathered
together in inflorescences
Not scented Scented
Nectaries absent Nectaries present
Large branched and feathery stigma Small stigma, sticky to hold pollen and
hanging outside flower to trap pollen enclosed within flower
Stamens hanging outside flower to Stamens enclosed within flower
release pollen
Large quantities of pollen owing to high Less pollen produced
wastage
Pollen grains relatively light and small, Pollen grains relatively large and heavy.
dry and powdery. Spiny walls and stickiness help
attachment to insect body
Flower structure relatively simple Complex structural modifications for
particular insects often occur
Flowers born well above foliage on long Position and time of appearance variable
stalks (grasses) or appear before leaves in relation to foliage, though often borne
(many trees) above it for increased conspicuousness

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8.7 Fertilisation
Let us now look at the processes that follow after pollution. The process that follows after
pollution is fertilisation as mentioned in some sections before. This will lead to formation of
seed and fruit in some plants. The process is as follows:-
 Pollen lands on a stigma
 The pollen grain germinates by pushing out a pollen tube which grows through the
style to the ovary.
 The vegetative nucleus or pollen tube nucleus lies near the tip of the growing pollen
tube, followed by the generative nucleus.
 The pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle,
 The tube nucleus degenerates and the tip of the tube bursts, releasing the two male
gametes near the embryo sac, which they enter.
 One nucleus fuses with the female gamete or ovum to form the diploid zygote,
 The other male gamete fuses with the diploid nucleus at the centre of the embryo
sac to form a triploid nucleus.
 The involvement of both male gametes in the fusion process is called double
fertilization. This double fertilisation is unique to flowering plants. It leads
eventually to the two structures found in the seed, namely the embryo and the
endosperm or food reserve.

8.8 Asexual reproduction in plants

We have seen in sexual reproduction that the products of fertilization produce seed and the
seed has an endosperm and the embryo. This seed produced is used in to produce a plant and
hence multiplication. In asexual reproduction various plant part are used in producing new
plants and multiplication. No seed is used in this case. Examples of such plant parts include
bulbs, corms, rhizomes, stolons, cuttings and tubers. Some of these also store food and are
means of surviving adverse conditions, such as cold periods or drought. Below is a brief
outline of some plant parts used in asexual propagation:-
a) Cuttings
 A cutting is essentially a piece of vegetative tissue that, when placed under the proper
environmental conditions will regenerate the missing parts (roots, shoots or both) and
develop into a new plant.
Cuttings can be classified according the part of the plant from which they are obtained these
are stem (e.g. grape, pear, citrus,), leaf (e.g. African violet), and root cuttings (e.g. apple,).

8.8.1 Advantages of asexual reproduction

 Only one parent is required.
 It takes place without flower production and is therefore more rapid than sexual
reproduction.
 Produces genetically identical offspring. Useful characteristics are preserved.
 Asexual reproduction preserves successful combinations of genes.

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 No wastage of gametes. Production of gametes requires materials and energy.
 Once an organism has established in a particular habitat, it may be able to spread more
effectively in that habitat by asexual rather than sexual means.

8.8.2 Disadvantages of asexual reproduction

Let us go through some the disadvantages of asexual reproduction.
 The major disadvantage of asexual reproduction and probably the reason why sexual
reproduction evolved is that no genetic variation occurs among the offspring.
 Some plant species may require specially prepared rooting media for them to develop
into a new plant
 There is also build up of diseases especially viruses.

8.9 Tissue culture or micro-propagation

‘Micro’ refers to the small size of the material used in the process of propagation. Micro-
propagation or tissue culture refers to the ability to establish and maintain plant organs
(embryos, shoots, roots, flowers) and plant tissues (cells, callus, protoplasts) in aseptic
culture and to regenerate new plants from them. Tissue culture is now widely used for the
rapid propagation of desired varieties. The most common method is to use meristematic
tissue from apical or axillary buds. Another method is to produce a callus (undifferentiated
mass of cells) from non-meristematic tissue. Roots or shoots can be stimulated to grow from
a callus or from non-meristematic tissue by adding auxins or cytokinins.

8.9.1 Advantages of micro-propagation

 Mass propagation of specific clones. The objective of commercial propagation is to
reproduce copies of an original parent plant. Micro-propagation permits the rapid
propagation of individuals from a parent plant.
 Production of pathogen-free plants.
 It provides a year-round nursery production.
THE SEED AND SEED GERMINATION
9.0 Introduction
The development of the seed occurs immediately after fertilisation of the ovule, which
becomes the storage of the genetic material required to produce a new plant. In this unit you
will go through the structure of the seed, the types of seed for monocots and dicots. You will
also cover aspects of germination. This unit also covers aspects of seed dormancy and seed
viability.

9.2 Development of the Seed

Remember what we have learnt from the previous section on fertilisation. Now we want to
take over from the process of fertilization to look at how the seed develops after fertilization.
Fertilisation occurs as double fertilisation. The diploid zygote grows by mitosis to become a

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multi-cellular embryo. The multi-cellular consists of a plumule, a radicle and either one or
two cotyledons. Below is an outline of the steps in the development of the seed:-
 The triploid primary endosperm nucleus undergoes repeated mitosis to form the
endosperm.
 In endospermic seeds the endosperm persists to become the storage tissue, as in
cereals such as wheat and maize,
 In non-endospermic seeds the endosperm dwindles and the cotyledons become the
storage tissue, as in the legumes e.g. soyabean and sugarbean.
 As growth of the embryo and food store continues, the surrounding nucellus breaks
down supplying nutrients for growth.
 The testa or seed coat develops from the integuments.
 While the seeds develop, the ovary becomes a mature fruit, its wall being known as
the pericarp or fruit wall. Generally the fruit is adapted to protect the seeds and to
help in their dispersal.
 The final stages in development of the seed involve a reduction in the water content
of the seed from the normal levels for plant tissues of about 90% by mass to about 10-
15% by mass. This greatly reduces the potential for metabolic activity and is an
essential step in ensuring seed dormancy. We will discuss seed dormancy in the
coming sections.

9.3 Structure of the Seed

We have seen in previous sections that crop plants can be classified as either monocots or
dicots. This classification purely compares the two seed structures of the monocots and the
dicots. Below is a Figure x showing the structure of the monocot and the dicot seed.

Figure 13: Cross section of a monocot and a dicot seed

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Let us now look at the parts of a seed making reference to the figure above.
 Every mature seed has a seed coat or testa, which has developed from the
integuments.
 Inside the seed coat are the embryo and a supply of food (endosperm).
 In monocots, the embryo consists of a young first root (radicle), an epicotyls and a
cotyledon.
 In dicots, the embryo consists of hypocotyls, epicotyls and a cotyledon.
9.4 Types of Seeds
We will now briefly look at some common types of seeds below:-
 Dicotyledonous non-endospermic seeds : e.g. pea, sunflower, broad bean
 Dicotyledonous endospermic seeds : e.g. castor bean, pawpaw, cotton, coffee
 Monocotyledonous endospermic seeds : e.g. rice, wheat, maize, coconut, onion
 Monocotyledonous non-endospermic seeds :e.g. water plantain

9.5 Germination
Germination is the activation of the embryo leading to the emergence of a new seedling
plant. For germination to be initiated, three conditions must be fulfilled:
 The seed must be viable, so the embryo must be alive and capable for germination.
 The seed must be subjected to the appropriate environmental conditions like available
water, proper temperature, a supply of oxygen and sometimes light.
 Any primary dormancy condition present within the seed must be overcome.

We will now go through the stages and processes involved in germination. The outline is as
follows:-
 The first stage is the absorption of water by the seed (imbibition). Imbibition takes
place through the micropyle.
 After water is absorbed, various enzyme systems are re-activated. These enzymes
convert complex food storage molecules into simpler chemicals that can be used for
growth.
 The third stage is the growth and development of the embryo.
 The first visible evidence of germination is the emergence of the radicle.
 The radicle comes out and penetrates the soil.
 After the radicle, the plumule/epicotyl grows out of the soil, often in a hooked
position to help protect the growing point.

There are two types of germination, epigeal and hypogeal germination

a) Epigeal germination

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  Cotyledons are carried above the soil surface as growth proceeds. This is called
epigeal germination.
 It is characteristic of non-endospermic seeds e.g. beans, squash, apple, cowpeas.
 The plumule and the cotyledon will appear above the ground.
 The plumule will be protected by the cotyledon.
 In some plants, the cotyledons will become photosynthetic and increase in size.
 Such cotyledons will remain alive for a long time even after the seedling has grown
leaves e.g. castor beans and soyabeans.
 Other cotyledons are normally full of large quantities of stored food reserves which
support the seedling until it can make its own food

b) Hypogeal germination
 The cotyledons remain below the soil surface.
 It is characteristic of some dicotyledonous plants (pea, broad bean, and mango) and
by most of the monocotyledonous plants (rice, maize, wheat, coconut).
 The cotyledon and the seed coat are left behind in the ground.
 These seeds have large food reserves in the endosperms and will nourish the seedling
until the first green leaves appear.
 In cereals, the plumule is protected by a coleoptile, which is a tough sheath. The
coleoptile bursts open with emergence of the first leaf.

9.6 Dormancy in Seeds

Let us go through a condition known as seed dormancy. Seed dormancy is the failure of the
viable seed to germinate when exposed to conditions that are favourable for germination
because of the internal status of the seed. The period of dormancy varies from a few days to
several months or years.
Seed dormancy is an evolutionary adaptation to delay germination after the seed has been
shed from the plant. There are numerous advantages to a delay in germination. Below are
some of the advantages for seed dormancy:-
 It permits germination only when environmental conditions favour seedling survival.
 It creates a 'seed bank'. In nature, a seed bank ensures that not all the seeds for a species
germinate in a single year. Although this is a wonderful ecological adaptation, it is also
the basis for persistent weed problems in agricultural fields.
 Dormancy can also synchronize/match germination to a particular time of the year. This
ensures that seeds like weed seeds will only germinate at the appropriate conditions in
summer and in winter.

Now that you have seen the behaviour of seeds under dormancy, let us now briefly look at
the types of dormancy so that we understand how to overcome them.

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a) Physical dormancy (seed coat dormancy)
 Physical dormancy is produced by seed coverings that are impervious to water. This type
of dormancy can preserve the dry seed for many years, and germination can be induced
by any method that can soften or scarify the covering.
b) Mechanical Dormancy
 Some seed-enclosing structures, such as shells of walnut, pits of stone fruits, and stones
of olive are too strong to allow the dormant embryo to expand during germination. This
has been shown in both herbaceous (lettuce, pepper and tomato) and woody plants.
 In nature, impervious seed coats and hard seed coats are softened by action of micro-
organisms in the soil during warm periods of the season or by passage through the
digestive tracts of birds and mammals.
 They may be broken through mechanical abrasion, alternate freezing and thawing and in
some species by fire.
 In cultivation, scarification is used to overcome dormancy. Scarification is any process
of breaking, scratching, mechanically altering, or softening the seed coverings.

c) Chemical dormancy
 Chemical dormancy occurs in citrus, cucurbits, stone fruits, apples, pears, grapes, and
tomatoes.
 Chemicals accumulate in fruit and seed-covering tissues during development and remain
with the seed after harvest act as germination inhibitors.
 Some of the substances associated with inhibition are various phenols, coumarin and
abscisic acid.
 Germination can sometimes be improved by prolonged leaching with water, removing the
seed coverings, or application of growth promoters like gibberellins/cytokinines to
overcome the effect of the growth inhibitors
d) Endogenous dormancy
Endogenous dormancy is related to dormancy factors within the embryo itself. It includes the
following:
 Some seeds have an embryo which is not fully developed at the time of seed
dissemination. Examples include seed of crops like carrot.
 The embryos, although appearing fully formed and viable, remain dormant even
when the seed coats are removed and conditions are suitable for growth.
 Seeds require light or dark conditions to germinate. It is interesting to note that seeds
of maize and many legumes such as cowpea germinate equally well in light and in
darkness. But crops like onion are inhibited by exposure to light, whereas the
germination of lettuce, many weed species and many grasses is stimulated by light.
 Seeds that require a period of one to three months of chilling before germination.
This is most common in seeds of trees and shrubs and some herbaceous plants of the
temperate zone.

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9.6.1 Methods for overcoming seed dormancy
1) Mechanical scarification:
 This involves chipping hard seed coats by rubbing with sandpaper, cutting with a file, or
cracking with a hammer.
 For large-scale mechanical operations, special scarifiers are used.

2) Acid scarification:
 Dry seeds are placed in containers and covered with dilute or concentrated sulphuric acid.
The mixture should be stirred cautiously at intervals during the treatment to produce
uniform results.
 At the end of the treatment period the acid is poured off, and the seeds are washed to
remove the acid.
 The acid-treated seeds can either be planted immediately when wet, or dried and stored
for later planting.

3) Hot water scarification:

 Seeds are dropped into four to five times their volume of hot water (77 oC to 100 oC).
 The heat source is immediately removed, and the seeds soaked in the gradually cooling
water for 12 to 24 hours.
 The seeds should be planted immediately after the hot-water treatment.

9.7 Seed Viability and Germination Tests

We have mentioned it before that one of the three requisites for seed to germinate is viability.
Let us look at seed viability. Seed viability refers to the status of the seed with regards to
having potential to germinate immediately or in the future. It is advisable before planting
seeds to test the viability of a representative sample of the seed lot to be planted. A viable
seed is a seed which is alive and can either germinate readily when exposed to favourable
conditions for germination, or when its dormancy is broken. All seeds gradually lose their
viability with the lapse of time. In order to check whether seeds are viable or not, we
conduct seed tests or viability tests. Below are some of the commonly used methods for seed
tests.

9.7.1 The standard germination test

 In this test the seeds are placed under optimal environmental conditions of light and
temperature to induce germination.
 Various techniques are used for germinating seeds in seed-testing laboratories. Small
seeds, for example, are placed on specialised germination trays, in plastic boxes, in
covered glass Petri-dishes.

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 These containers are then placed in germinators in which temperature, moisture and light
are controlled.
 After several days or weeks, viability is calculated as the percentage of seedlings
developing from the number of seeds planted.
 An example is also the rolled towel test which is commonly used for testing cereal
grains. Several layers of moist paper (towelling) are folded over the seeds, then rolled
into cylinders and vertically placed in a germinator.

9.7.2 Tetrazolium test.

 In these test, the seeds are usually soaked in water to allow them to become completely
hydrated, and then cut in half lengthwise to expose the embryo.
 They are then placed in a 0.1% to 0.5% tetrazolium solution.
 The parts of the seed that are living will become red; the nonliving parts remain white.
 If the embryo turns red, the seeds are viable; if the embryo remains white, the seeds are
nonviable.
 Sometimes only a portion of the embryo becomes red, making it difficult to interpret the
results of the test. The reactions take place equally well in dormant and non-dormant
seeds. Results can be obtained within 24 hours, sometimes in 2 or 3 hours.
 The chemical tetrazolium chloride, which is colourless when dissolved in water, changes
to the red-coloured formazan whenever it contacts living, respiring tissue.
 In living tissues, enzymes change the tetrazolium salt to formazan.
 In dead, non-respiring tissues, these enzymes are not active.

9.7.3 Excised embryo test

The embryos in the seeds of many woody plant species have profound dormancy conditions
and do not respond in a direct germination test.
 In this test the embryo is excised from the seed and germinated alone, by placing them
for example on moist paper in a Petri-dish.
 The time required for the test varies from 3 days to 3 weeks.
 Non-viable embryos remain white at first but become soft, turn brown and decay within
2 to 10 days.
 Viable embryos remain firm and will show some activity like greening and separation of
the cotyledons, growth of radicle and plumule.

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