Regulators and Final Control

Elements
7

7.1 Electric Motors 1377

DAMPERS AND LOUVERS 1362
Introduction 1362
Damper Designs 1363
Parallel-Blade Dampers and Louvers
Rotating Disc Dampers 1365
Multiple-Disc Dampers 1365
Fan Suction Dampers 1366
Variable-Orifice Dampers 1366
Conclusions 1367
Bibliography 1367
7.2
EELECTRIC ENERGY MODULATION 1368
Introduction 1368
On/Off Power Control 1369
Throttling Power Controllers 1369
Saturable Core Reactors 1369
SCR Power Controllers 1370
Zero-Voltage-Fired SCR Controllers 1371
Controlling Infrared Tungsten Heaters 1372
Common SCR Limitations 1372
Ignitron Tube 1373
Power Amplifier 1374
References 1374
Bibliography 1374
7.3
LINEAR AND ANGULAR
POSITIONING OF MACHINERY 1375
Open- and Closed-Loop Positioning 1376
Positioning System Components 1376
Motors and Actuators 1377
Motor Drivers 1378
Controllers 1378
Sensors for Feedback 1378
1364 Communication Protocols 1380
Conclusions 1380
References 1380
Bibliography 1381
7.4
PUMPS AS CONTROL ELEMENTS 1382
Rotodynamic or Centrifugal Pumps 1384
Radial-Flow 1384
Axial- and Mixed-Flow 1385
Peripheral or Regenerative Turbine 1385
Positive-Displacement Pumps 1386
Rotary Pumps 1386
Gear Pumps 1387
Reciprocating Pumps 1387
Air Pumps and Air Lifts 1388
Condensate Pumps 1388
Air Lifts 1388
Design of Pumping Systems 1388
Head Requirements 1388
NPSH Calculation 1389
Specific Speed 1390
Horsepower 1390
Installation Considerations for Wastewater
Pumping Stations 1390
Metering Pumps 1391
Plunger Pumps 1391
Diaphragm Pumps 1392
Pneumatic Metering Pumps 1393

1359

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

1360 Regulators and Final Control Elements

Installation Considerations 1393 Stability 1422

NPSH and Pulsation Dampening 1395
Opposed Centrifugal Pumps 1395
Bibliography 1396
7.5
REGULATORS—FLOW 1397
Introduction 1398
Purge Flow Regulators 1398
Flow Regulators for Chromatographs 1399
Variable-Orifice Flow Regulators 1399
HVAC Balancing Flow Regulators 1399
Oil Flow Regulator 1401
Industrial Flow Regulators 1401
Thermal Mass Flowmeters 1402
Bibliography 1403
7.6
REGULATORS—LEVEL 1405
Introduction 1405
Float-Type Level Regulators 1405
The Phenomenon of Offset 1406
Span, Dead Band, and Hysteresis 1406
Power Generated by the Float 1406
Specific Gravity and Temperature Effects
Stuffing Boxes 1408
Installation 1408
Conclusions 1409
Diverter Valves 1409
Altitude Valves 1410
Bibliography 1411
7.7
REGULATORS— PRESSURE 1412
Introduction 1413
Regulators vs. Control Valves 1414
Control Valves 1414
Regulator Applications 1414
Gas Industry Applications 1415
Liquid Pressure Regulation 1415
Gas Station Safety Regulators 1416
Pressure Surge Relief Valves 1416
Pressure Regulator Designs 1416
Weight-Loaded Regulators 1418
Spring-Loaded Regulators 1418
Pilot-Operated Regulators 1418
Regulator Characteristics and Sizing 1419
Seating and Sensitivity 1419
Droop or Offset 1420
Noise 1421
Cavitation 1422
Sizing and Rangeability 1422
Safety 1423
Installation 1423
Bibliography 1423
ISA Specification Form (Table 7.7s) 1425
Instructions for ISA Form S20.51 1425
7.8
REGULATORS—TEMPERATURE 1426
Introduction 1427
Control Quality 1427
Types of Temperature Regulators 1428
Direct- and Pilot-Actuated 1428
Remote or Internal Element 1428
Accessories and Special Features 1429
Thermal Systems 1430
Bulbs, Wells, Fittings 1430
Vapor-Filled System 1431
Liquid-Filled System 1434
Hot Chamber System 1435
Fusion-Type System (Wax-Filled) 1435
The Regulator Valve 1436
Single- and Double-Seated Valves 1436
Three-Way Valves 1436
Valve Features 1438
Conclusions 1438
1407
Bibliography 1438
7.9
THERMOSTATS AND HUMIDISTATS 1440
Introduction 1441
Accuracy of Thermostats and Humidistats 1441
Conventional 1441
Advanced 1441
Thermostats 1441
ElectroMechanical Designs 1442
Electrical/Electronic Design Features 1442
Microprocessor-Based Units 1443
Control by Phone 1443
The Proportional-Only Controller 1443
Thermostat Action and Spring Range 1445
Thermostat Design Variations 1445
Special-Purpose Thermostats 1446
Humidistats 1450
Relative Humidity Sensors 1450
Humidistat Design Features 1452
Bibliography 1453
7.10
VARIABLE-SPEED DRIVES 1454
Introduction 1455
Transportation Efficiency 1455
Characteristics of Variable-Speed Drives 1455

© 2006 by Béla Lipták


Electromechanical Drives 1456
Mechanical Variable-Speed Drives 1456
Hydraulic Variable-Speed Drives 1458
Magnetic Variable-Speed Drives 1459
Variable Voltage 1461
Pole-Changing AC Motors 1461
Solid-State Variable-Speed Drives 1461
Underlying Semiconductor Technology 1461
Drive Circuit Topologies 1462
Variable-Speed DC Motors 1462
© 2006 by Béla Lipták
Contents of Chapter 7 1361
Thyristor DC Drives 1464
Variable-Frequency Drives 1465
Comparison of Solid-State Drives 1468
Efficiency of Solid-State Drives 1469
Recent VFD Developments 1469
Efficiency of Variable-Speed Drives
and Pumps 1469
Evaluation of VSD Efficiencies 1470
Conclusions 1471
Bibliography 1471
7.1 Dampers and Louvers
A. BRODGESELL (1970) B. G. LIPTÁK (1985, 1995, 2005)

Flow sheet symbol

Types of Designs: A. Multiple blade or louver

Design Pressure:
Materials of Construction:
Sizes:
Flow Characteristics:
2
Leakage through Each ft
2 2
(0.092 m ) of Damper Area:
Costs:
Partial List of Suppliers:
B. Rotating disc, including multiple disc
C. Radial vanes
D. Iris-type variable orifice
(Note: Some butterfly valves and guillotine-type slide gate valves are similar in
their functions to dampers. They are discussed in Chapter 6.)
Type A designs can usually handle up to 10 in. H2O (2.5 kPa) shut-off differen-
tials; type D units can handle up to 15 psid (103 kPa)
Steel, galvanized steel, aluminum, and fiberglass; stainless steel is used in special
cases
Type A dampers are available up to 6 ft × 8 ft (1.8 m × 2.4 m) for HVAC
applications and in even larger sizes for boilers and other industrial applications
See Figure 7.1b
At 3 in. H2O (0.75 kPa) shut-off pressure differential: the leakage of standard type
2
A units is 50 SCFM (250 l/s/m ); special low-leakage type A, 5 SCFM (25 l/s/m );
2
positive-steel type B, 0.5 SCFM (2.5 l/s/m )
Type A costs range from $100 to $250 per square foot of area ($1000 to $2500
per square meter) as a function of size, features, and accessories
Air Clean Damper Co. (www.aircleandamper.com)
Arrow United Industries (www.arrowunited.com)
Babcock & Wilcox Co. (www.babcock.com)
Bachmann Industries (www.bachmannusa.com)
Belimo Air Controls (www.belimo.org)
Damper Design Inc.(www.damperdesign.com)
Flextech Industries (www.flextech-ind.com)
FMC Corp. (www.fmc.com)
Honeywell Sensing and Controls (www.honeywell.com/sensing)
Johnson Controls (www.jci.com)
Louvers & Dampers Inc. (www.louvers-dampers.com)
Miracle Vent Inc. (www.miraclevent.com)
Polymil Products Inc. (www.polymil.com)
Ruskin Air & Sound Control (www.ruskin.com)
Safe-Air/Dowco (www.safeair-dowco.com)
Vent Products Co. (www.ventprod.com)
Young Regulator Co. (www.youngregulator.com)

INTRODUCTION such as heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC),

Dampers and louvers are used to control the flow of gases and
vapors. These streams usually flow in large ducts at relatively
low static pressures. There are both “commercial” and “pro-
cess control” quality dampers on the market. Commercial-
quality units are used for the less-demanding applications,
while the process control-quality units can handle higher
pressures, higher temperatures, and corrosive vapors. The
process control-quality units also can provide superior leak-
age and control characteristics.
Dampers are also used to control the flow of solids or to
throttle the capacity of fans and compressors. There is no

1362

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

 7.1 Dampers and Louvers 1363

Top 1.0

0.8

0.6
Joint unsupported
by vertical 0.5
edge stop
0.4
Air flow
Joint supported Vertical edge stop 0.3
by vertical
edge stop
0.2
Joint unsupported
Top and bottom by vertical
leaf edges 0.15
edge stop
deflect toward

Damper pressure drop (in. w.g.)

horizontal

io
edge stop under 0.1

rat
pressure 0.09

a
are
0.08
Parallel Bottom

0
0.5
e
0.07

0.7 0
Fre

0.6
damper Opposed blade proportioning

0
0.06

5
(uni-rotational damper

0.7
0.05

0
0.8
louvre) (counter-rotational louvre)
0.04
FIG. 7.1a
The designs of the parallel-blade and opposed-blade dampers, 0.03
which are also referred to as uni-rotational and counter-rotational
louver designs. 0.02

0.015

1.0
0.01
90° louvre
(parallel)
0.8 0.008
Fraction of maximum flow

0.007
0.006
0.6 0.005

0.004
0.4 Butterfly 500 700 1000 1500 3000 5000
(150) (210) (300) (450) (900) (1500)
800 2000 4000
0.2 (240) (600) (1200)
Approach velocity ft/m (m/m)

0 FIG. 7.1c
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Fraction of maximum rotation Pressure drop through wide-open dampers. The free-area ratio of
100 Percent of total
an open damper is the total open area between the blades, divided
A-1
B-2 system drop by the nominal area.
Linear C-5 through the
80 D-8 damper in the
E - 22 wide open
Percent maximum flow

F - 50 position
clear distinction between butterfly valves and butterfly damp-
60
C G - Inherent character- ers or between slide-gate valves and guillotine dampers. The
A B E F G
D istic of an opposed design features of these dampers are quite similar to their
blade damper with
40 equal percentage control valve counterparts, which are discussed in Chapter 6.
linkage at a constant
pressure drop
Dampers in general are large in size, and their operating
20 and shut-off pressures are limited to lower values. The diam-
eters of the largest dampers can exceed 20 ft (6 m).
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent linkage movement
DAMPER DESIGNS
FIG. 7.1b
The flow characteristics of a parallel-blade damper are similar to
those of a conventional butterfly valve (see top part of this figure). Dampers and louvers can be grouped according to their
The flow characteristics of an opposed-blade damper approach equal- shapes into parallel-blade, disc and multiple-disc, radial vane,
percentage characteristics when the total system pressure drop is and variable-orifice designs. Within each design category,
through it and it shifts its characteristics toward quick opening, as there can be subdivisions according to leakage rates, materi-
the damper receives less and less of the total pressure differential. als of construction, actuator designs, or accessories provided.

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

1364 Regulators and Final Control Elements

3−1/2 in.
90 mm

FIG. 7.1d
2 2
Standard commercial damper frame sizes and areas, ft /m . (Courtesy of Ruskin, previously Johnson Controls.)

Parallel-Blade Dampers and Louvers positioned manually, pneumatically, or electrically. In the

Multiblade dampers consist of two or more rectangular
vanes mounted on shafts that are one above the other, which
are interconnected so they rotate together (Figure 7.1a).
The vanes are operated by an external lever, which can be
uni-rotational louver (parallel damper) design, the vanes
remain parallel at all rotational positions. In a counter-
rotational louver (opposed blade), alternate vanes rotate
in opposite directions. Both designs are illustrated in
Figure 7.1a.

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

 7.1 Dampers and Louvers 1365

Flow guides are sometimes installed between adjacent Sealed, low-leakage damper
vanes in order to improve the effectiveness of throttling. In
4
the top of Figure 7.1b, the blade-angle vs. flow characteristics
(1.00)
of a parallel-blade damper and a butterfly valve are shown.
The sensitivity of this design is very high at mid-flow while

Pressure differential, inches of H2O (kPa)

the last 30° of rotation is relatively ineffective. The flow
3
characteristics of butterfly valves are similar though some- (0.75)
what superior to those of louvers.
The lower portion of Figure 7.1b shows an opposed-blade
damper with equal percentage linkage. As less and less of 2
the total system pressure drop is assigned to the damper, the (0.50)
characteristics of this damper shift toward quick opening.
Figure 7.1c gives the pressure drop across wide-open
dampers. Ideally the wide-open pressure drop should be 1
between 4 and 8% of the pressure difference across the closed (0.25)
damper. If the damper is sized so that closed pressure differ-
ence is between 12 and 25 times the pressure drop, when the
damper is open, its apparent characteristic will be nearly 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
linear (see curves C and D in Figure 7.1b). (0.3) (0.6) (0.9) (1.2) (1.5) (1.8) (2.1) (2.4)
Figure 7.1d provides some dimensional data for standard Leakage, cfm/ft2 [(m3/min)/m2]
commercial damper frames, including their areas. Static across damper, inches of H2O (kPa)

Low-Leakage Designs The parallel-blade damper cannot Standard unsealed damper

provide tight shut-off because of the long length of unsealed 4
(1.00)
seating surfaces. The leakage characteristics of unsealed stan-
dard dampers are given in the lower portion of Figure 7.1e. In 3
low-leakage damper designs, blade seals are installed along the (0.75)
seating surfaces of the blades, resulting in the reduced leakage 2
characteristic shown in the upper portion of Figure 7.1e. (0.50)
There are a number of variations in the blade-edge seal 1
designs. Some of these designs are illustrated in Figure 7.1f. (0.25)

0
Corrosion Resistant Designs For corrosive services, both 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
(3) (6) (9) (12) (15) (18) (21) (24) (27)
the parallel- and the opposed-blade designs are available in
sizes from 12 by 24 in. up to 60 by 120 in. These units are Leakage, cfm/ft2 [(m3/min)/m2]
made of fiberglass-reinforced polymer with 304 stainless steel FIG. 7.1e
hardware. Some design variations are shown in Figure 7.1g. The leakage rates through sealed, low-leakage dampers are shown
in the top, while the leakage rates of unsealed dampers are given
Actuators and Accessories Damper actuators can be man- in the bottom portion of the figure. (Courtesy of Honeywell and
ual, electric, hydraulic, or pneumatic. Standard pneumatic actu- Ruskin, formerly Johnson Controls.)
2
ators vary their effective diaphragm areas from 2 to 24 in. (13
2
to 155 cm ), while their stroke lengths range from 2 to 6 in. (51
Rotating Disc Dampers
to 152 mm). The amount of force they produce ranges from
about 10 to 300 lbf (4.5 to 136 kgf). The standard spring ranges The rotating disc damper designs are very similar to the but-
for dampers include the spans of 3–7, 5–10, and 8–13 PSIG terfly valve designs, which were discussed in detail in
(0.2–0.48, 0.34–0.68, and 0.54–0.88 bars). Electronic actuators Section 6.17. These dampers are usually installed in circular
can be operated by 4 to 20 mA DC analog or by digital signals. ducts and can be operated both manually or automatically. A
For more accurate throttling, the actuators can also be corrosion-resistant version of this design is made of fiberglass-
provided with positioners. If remote indication of damper reinforced plastics materials and is illustrated in Figure 7.1h.
status is desired, limit switches can be installed to detect the
blade angle. These can be pneumatic sensors of nozzle back- Multiple-Disc Dampers
pressure or mechanically actuated position sensors. The
damper position switch can be furnished with an adjustable A unique variation of the butterfly design is the multiple
mounting flange, which allows the unit to be mounted rotating disc damper. In this design several disc elements are
through a duct wall with the trip lever positioned so that it distributed over an area (Figure 7.1i). One advantage of this
is actuated by the damper blade itself. configuration is improved flow control characteristics,

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

1366 Regulators and Final Control Elements

Model ABK6 Model ABF6 Model ABFA

“K” style “F” style “FA” style

Enlarged view of
blade seal
Pressure
effects
seal

High pressure Low pressure

side side

FIG. 7.1f
Low-leakage damper designs tend to increase the efficiency of 45° Adjustable 90° Adjustable Combination
HVAC systems. In this figure, two blade-edge seal designs are stationary &
adjustable
illustrated. (Courtesy of Honeywell and Ruskin, formerly Johnson
Controls.)
FIG. 7.1g
Corrosion-resistant fiberglass-reinforced polymer damper designs
for both adjustable and stationary applications. (Courtesy of
because each disc can have its own unique spring range and Polymil Products Inc.)
failure position.
Another major advantage is the substantial reduction in Variable-Orifice Dampers
leakage compared to the parallel-blade design. At a static pres-
sure of 3 in. H2O (0.75 kPa) the leakage can be estimated as Variable-orifice dampers use the same principle as the iris
0.01% of full damper capacity, which corresponds to about 0.5 diaphragm of a camera. In order to achieve control action,
2 2 2
SCFM (2.5 l/s/m ) leakage per ft (0.092 m ) of damper area. the closure element moves within an annular ring in the
damper body and produces a circular flow orifice of variable
Fan Suction Dampers

On blowers and fans, when throughputs must be controlled,

radial vane dampers can be utilized. The damper consists of
a number of radial vanes arranged to rotate about their radial
axis (Figure 7.1j).
The radial vane dampers do not provide high-quality
control, and their closed position leakage rates are also high.
Their control applications include furnace draft control.
Usually a positioner is furnished with these units, which
provides a linear relationship between the control signal and
the blade pitch angle. In certain packages the positioner is
factory set in the reverse acting mode, meaning that an increas-
ing control air signal will reduce the air flow by decreasing
the blade pitch. In such packages, one has to install a reversing FIG. 7.1h
relay between the positioner and the actuator, if direct action Corrosion-resistant single-disc damper (Courtesy of Polymil Prod-
is desired. ucts Inc.)

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

 7.1 Dampers and Louvers 1367

D-2 D-1 D-1 D-1 D-1 D-2

Actuator
D-3 D-3 D-3

D-4 D-4 Wafer

Section A-A
A
FIG. 7.1i
Multiple-disc dampers provide better sealing and control
characteristics.
diameter (Figure 7.1k). The flow characteristics are similar
to those of a linear valve.
However, tight shut-off is not possible, and leakage rates
are comparable to or greater than those of a butterfly valve
of equal size. Maximum pressure differential is limited to
approximately 15 psid (104 kPa). Dual valve units can be
provided with a common discharge port for applications
involving the blending of two streams.
For solids service, the variable-orifice valve can be used
for throttling, if the valve is installed in a vertical line. In
horizontal lines, the shutter mechanism of the valve forms a
dam, which makes the valve unsuitable for solids service.
Standard sizes range from 4 to 12 in. (100 to 300 mm).
valve
body
Adjustable
orifice
FIG. 7.1k
Variable-orifice or iris damper. The sleeve can be made of nylon
or of other materials and is provided with a built-in retaining ring
at each end. When the upper end is fixed and the lower end is
rotated, this gradually reduces the orifice opening. At 180° of
rotation the orifice is completely closed. If the sleeve is first turned
back on itself, partly “inside out,” the effect of rotation is exactly
the same, but operates in a much more compact form, as a pleated
duplex diaphragm.
CONCLUSIONS
Dampers are suitable for control of large flows at low pressures
where high control accuracy is not a requirement. Typical
applications of these units include air conditioning systems
and furnace draft control. Variable-orifice or iris dampers are
smaller than other dampers, offer better control quality, and
can also be used to control vertical solid flows.

Bibliography

Ball, K. E., “Final Elements, Final Frontier,” InTech, November 1986.

Brown, E. J., “Air Diffusing Equipment,” in ASHRAE Handbook, Equipment
Volume, Chapter 2, 1979.
“Catalog of U.S. & Canadian Valves & Actuators,” Washington, D.C.: Valve
Manufacturers Association of America, 2003.
Dickey, P. S., “A Study of Damper Characteristics,” Reprint No. A-8, Bailey
Meter Co.
Daryanani, S., et al., “Variable Air Volume Systems,” Air Conditioning,
Heating and Ventilating, March 1966.
“Evaluation Finding for Oiles Multiple Viscous Shear Dampers,” Cerf.
Report: Hitec 99-04, American Society of Civil Engineers, 1999.
Lipták, B. G., “Reducing the Operating Costs of Buildings by Use of Com-
FIG. 7.1j
puters,” ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 83, Part 1, 1977.
Radial vane dampers are used to throttle the flow on the suction Lipták, B. G., “Optimization of Semiconductor Manufacturing Plants,”
side of air fans and blowers. Instruments and Controls Systems, October 1982.

© 2006 by Béla Lipták