SLRC REVIEWER FOR THE LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR TEACHERS (LET)

PROF. DORCAS MENOC – BANDIALA

Day 1: PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING

The word principles is derived from the Latin word “princeps” meaning the beginning or end of all things. It is a
comprehensive law or doctrine from which others are derived or on which others are founded. According to L.T. Hopkins, a
principle is a rule for guiding the ship of education so that it will reach the point designated by the philosophy of education;
it is a compass by which the path of education is directed.

Type of Principles of Teaching

1. Starting Principles – refer to the nature of the child, his psychological and physiological endowments.
2. Guiding Principles – the methods of instruction, or the conglomeration of techniques in carrying out the educative
process.
3. Ending Principles – educational aims and objectives.
a. Psychological – growth and development of the child.
b. Philosophical – based on the culture of the people.

THE INBORN TENDENCIES OF A CHILD

1. Intelligence is defined by W. Stern as a general general capacity of an individual consciously to adjust his thinking to
new requirements; it is general mental adaptability to new problems and conditions of life. Lewis Terman defines it
as the ability to learn in terms of abstract ideas, while Colvin viewed intelligence as the ability to adjust to new
environment.
Thurstone’s Classification of Intelligence
1. Ability to deal with space
2. Ability to solve problems
3. Ability to understand ideas in terms of words
4. Ability to write and talk easily
5. Ability to perform numerical calculations
6. Ability to recognize likeness and differences
7. Ability to recall past experiences
Edward Lee Thorndike’s Classification of Intelligences
1. Abstract – capacity to respond symbols, letters, etc.
2. Concrete/mechanical – capacity to manipulate and to deal with things such as art and music
3. Social – capacity to deal with people
2. Emotion is the blending of sensations caused by the profound and widespread changes in the body. Crow & Crow
defined emotion as an effective experience that accompanies generalized inner adjustment, and mental and
physiological stirred-up states in the individual and that shows itself in his overt behavior.
3. Imitation is the tendency of the child to do according to what he sees or observes.
4. Curiosity is the elementary form of interest. It is the starting point of interest and the desire to discover.
5. Gregariousness refers to the desire of the individual to be with other people because man is a social being.
6. Play is the natural impulse possessed by men and animals. It is an activity which the individual engages in for the
satisfaction of his desires.
7. Collecting and hoarding means the interest in keeping the objects which a child is interested to possess.
8. Competition implies a struggle between two or more persons for the same object or purpose to equal or surpass
others. On the other hand, rivalry suggests a personal contest for selfish ends, resulting in envy and jealously.
9. Manipulation is the natural impulse of the child which involves a skillful or dexterous management or control of
actions by means of intellect.

Jean Piaget – developmental trends

Children moved through stages of cognitive development in his research and review. But the culture which the child lined
was a major factor in the process. The idea of developmental stages reaches into emotional and social development.
Major differences in curriculum of varying age groups for groups school curriculum and institutional differences using
groupings.

Pre-operational (2-7 years old).

This child needs concrete items, visual aids and hands-on activities to provide the building blocks for future understanding.
Instrumental times should be short and wide longs of experience should be offered.

Concrete operational (7-11 years old)

Concrete proper and visual aids continue to be of importance. Their students need opportunities to manipulate and test
objects, they benefit from instructions that are brief, and well-organized and sue the familiar to explain the complex levels
and to work on problems that require a logical and analytical thinking to prepare for formal operations step.

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The change to formal operational often brings with it some of the items considered as typical adolescence:
1. “argumentation” – results from new reasoning skills; seen as teenagers use facts and ideas to build a case against
explanation and argue and /or contradict these reasons in favor of their own ideas.
2. Adolescent Egocentricism – characteristics of adolescent thinking that leads young people to focus on themselves
to the exclusions of others.

Some teaching principles (theories)

Schroeder (1996) points out that the “typical” student learning style profile is changing on campuses today and there is a
much =greater variation in the range. If learning style preferences to be considered.
The most important thing an instructor can do is be aware that there are diverse learning styles in the student population.

KOLB’S THEORY OF LEARNING STYLES

Concrete experiences
Kolb’s Abstract conceptualization Hartman 1995
Kolb showed that learning styles could be seen on a Took Kolb’s learning styles and gave examples
continuum running from: of how might teach
1. Concrete being involved in a new offer laboratories, field work observations or
experiences experience trigger film to each of them
2. Reflective watching others or
use logs, journal or brains forming
observation developing observations
3. abstract creating theories to explain papers and analogies work well
conceptualization theories
4. Active using theories to solve Offer simulations, case studies and enrichment
experimentation problems, make decisions activities

Olson – stresses that reform will not happen unless teachers support the reform and and are involved in the decision
making process.
Bruner’s theory of cognition
Cognition is a process by which an organism perceives or obtains knowledge of an object and its relation to the learning
process. A practical process of “discovery” as motivational factor in learning.

Three stages of cognition Growth

1. Enactive representation – begin soon after birth ; experience and action are fused ; there is no separation of the
child from his environment
2. Iconic representation – the child can represent the world by an image relatively independent of his own action
3. Symbolic representation – the child learns that, thing have names and thus requires linguistic skills
 Cognitive theory (associated of related ideas)’
o E.g. why do mothers force their children to drink milk? Why is there a need for us to care for our health,
 Associations – just like humans
A plant needs water and sunlight in order to grow.
 Cognitive theory (relating to new materials to the past ideas or memories) think of any materials before that
relates to a cellphone…
 Cognitive theory (using concrete object to represent ideas)
Game of lego logo – make your own architectural design on your dream house
 Cognitive theory (using skillful questions)
Q. what will you do if your cellphone is snatched?
 Why do you want to go to school?
 Cognitive theory (using comparison)
Find an object similar to a circle
 What is / are its uses?
 Every learned idea is vital for the interpretation of life
E.g. why do we have to be conscious about health?
 Students learn to apply their knowledge
“health is very important to human life.”
 Making new ideas on his / her own
Q. what are the things to be considered to maintain good health?

OLD NEW IDEAS

Sleep early Slogan for health conscious
Balance diet A food exhibit for good food
Clean environment Community service / information about good food

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MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE
The theory of multiple intelligences was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of education at
Harvard University. It suggests that the traditional notion of intelligence, based on I.Q. testing, is far too limited. Instead, Dr.
Gardner proposes eight different intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential in children and adults.
These intelligences are:
1. Linguistic intelligence (“word smart”)
2. Logical mathematical intelligence (“number/reasoning smart”)
3. Spatial intelligence (“picture smart”)
4. Body kinesthetic intelligence (“body smart”)
5. Musical intelligence (“music smart”)
6. Interpersonal intelligence (“people smart”)
7. Intrapersonal intelligence (“self smart”)
8. Naturalist intelligence (“nature smart”)

Nature Number
Smart Smart
Word
Smart Picture
Smart
Self Body
Smart Smart

Music People
Smart Smart

Linguistic Intelligence
Linguistic intelligence is the use of spoken or written language. Giving regular opportunities for achievement in both
is important because some auditory learners need to hear information, which helps the learners who need to speak the
information in order to learn it. Because reading and writing is the key to success in most lives, the linguistic must not be
neglected, and A Core tools make a linguistic link, a visual link, and help the student get the learning through the fingers.
These tools take the student through the entire cycle: They show how to Log assignments, analyze information individually
and in groups, and how to evaluate the process of learning. The tools guide the learner in reflection and goal setting.

Logical/Mathematical Intelligence
The logical intelligence is naturally used in conjunction with all types of intelligence. The organization of thoughts
and movements play a large part in all human activity. Categorizing, sequencing, comparing, and reaching conclusions are
functions of logical intelligence. Even the new idea or invention that is a result of creativity (lateral thinking) can be viewed
as a logical and product to the creative person. Most students find the exclusion of their particular multiple intelligence
quotient (MIQ) illogical, so to gain credibility teachers must honor all intelligence by developing them. The activities and
assignments used to develop skills in all types of intelligence must seem logically connected.

Spatial Intelligence
We use spatial intelligence whenever we move through space: sports, dancing, or just walking around. An expert,
however, can create with space. A gifted student can create a astounding feats with the body, perhaps judging direction,
proximity, and movement, and create alternative plans and make midair adjustments. Others can manipulate an imaginary
object in space. Spatial creativity may also enable students to draw, make up dances, stories, and invent new things.
Weekly assignments of visualizations, stories, and other projects develop spatial intelligence. Lateral creative thinking is
used in creating, inventing, and in understanding the big picture. Those who possess genius in spatial intelligence may
develop wisdom or the ability to learn from experience and have a strong sense of “where they are.”

Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence

Kinesthetic intelligence is the kinetic movement of the body in space and the inner-space movement of the
emotions. A wide range of abilities, from the broad motor skills of sport to the fine motor skills needed for writing, awaits
development. Communication of emotions through the body or, just as important, the control of the emotions can be
developed. Acting, and other forms of presenting ideas or emotions through movement of the body areas important to
kinesthetic development as are getting ideas and emotions through the fingers in writing or the manipulation of other tools
or machines. A student might need to use movement in order to understand, while others might benefit from seeing
movement to understand. Diverse kinesthetic approaches create learning opportunities.

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Musical Intelligence
All people possess some musical intelligence if only to navigate their environment. We detect many kinds of
environmental sounds. Some people hum or drum to the rhythm of sounds they hear. Most are able to detect patterns in
the music they enjoy. Some can develop their musical intelligence to recognize the patterns individual performers and
composers use. The expert can create patterns, recognizable by others. Some musical experts create notes, some create
words, some create rhythms with movement such as dance and drumming. Students possess differing degrees of expertise,
but all are affected, usually positively, by the addition of music to the environment, activities, assignments, projects and
evaluations in a Core Classroom. When all assignments and activities are cored, music gets connected.

Interpersonal Intelligence
How well we connect to our communities and keep a sense of where we are in relation to others reflects how much
our interpersonal intelligence is developed. This skill is prized above all others in the business of the world; many classify it
as the key to success in the future. This skill enables us to form meaningful personal relationships. Working toward an
common goal and learning to share tasks develops interpersonal skills. A Core Classroom provides training in interpersonal
skills as students work toward common goals and share tasks equitably. Regular team building activities and meaningful
group projects allow leaders to emerge. Those gifted should be given the chance to help create a sense of community in the
classroom; they will practice for their future personal, work, and global communities.

Intrapersonal Intelligence
A sense of self is the basic aspect of intrapersonal intelligence. Those with intrapersonal skill learn to cope with the
world around them. Knowledge of self through reflection is especially important to help students mature in a social context.
Therefore infra-personal skill helps develop inter-personal skill. Knowing and accepting self is the first step in understanding
and accepting others, which is essential in learning to cope. Time to reflect on the process of interacting is important in
gaining self-knowledge. Students need ample reflective time to develop intrapersonal skills. They need time to reflect on
the usefulness of what they have learned and to set meaningful long and short term goals to use their new learning. Those
who understand their own motivations and needs excel in intrapersonal skills.

Naturalistic Intelligence
The natural intelligence involves the full range of knowing that occurs in and through our encounters with the
natural world including our recognition, appreciation, and understanding of the natural environment. It involves such
capacities as species discernment, communion with the natural world and its phenomena, and the ability to recognize and
classify various flora and fauna.
If the naturalist intelligence is one of your strengths you have a profound love for the outdoors, animals, plants, and
almost any natural object. You are probably fascinated by and noticeably affected by such things as the weather, changing
leaves in the fall, the sound of the wind, the warm sun or lack thereof, or an insect in the room. At a young age you were
likely nature collectors, adding such things as bugs, rocks leaves, seashells, and so on to your collections. You probably
brought home all manner and kinds of stray animals and today you may have several pets and want more. You tend to have
an affinity with and respect for all living beings.

GENERAL CHARACTER TRAITS OF FILIPINO LEARNERS ACCORDING TO GREGORIO

1. Shyness is an attitude characterized by partial inhibition of social responses especially in the presence of strangers.
2. Sensitiveness is the tendency of the child to be easily impressed, affected or hurt.
3. Lack of Perseverance means lack of persistence in an activity for a long time due to difficulty, opposition,
disappointment, or interference.
4. Lack of Resourcefulness means the inability to meet new situations.
5. Lack of Industry refers to lack of steady attention or diligence in any pursuit.

LEARNING
Learning is a mental activity by means of which knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes and ideals are acquired, retained
and utilized resulting in the progressive adaptation and modification of conduct and behavior (Bugelski, 1965). As far as the
behaviorists are concerned, learning is any change in the behavior of an organism.

THEORIES OF LEARNING
1. Mind Theory (Christian Wolf) states that the mind has mental powers or faculties, such as memory reason,
judgment, etc., which functions as a separate entity that can be improved through exercise or use.
2. Connectionist’s Theory (Edward Lee Thorndike) believes that learning is the product of the connection between
the stimulus and response (Association Learning).
3. Behaviorism (J.B. Watson) viewed learning as any change in the behavior of an organism. Such change may range
from the acquisition of knowledge, simple skill, specific attitude and opinions or it may also refer to innovation,
elimination of modification of responses.
4. Gestalt’s View of Learning. Gestalt is a German term which means pattern, shape, form or configuration. It
advocates that the whole is more than the sum of its parts and the whole gets its meaning from its parts. It also
suggests that the conception of experience in any given moment is determined by the totality of its related phases
which constitute an integral pattern or configuration.

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 5. Progressivism sees learning as an active and dynamic process in which the learner is definitely involved. Learning is
a process that is active, purposeful and creative.

WAYS HOW ORGANISMS LEARN

Trial and Error means attempts to meet a situation in various ways until the correct responses are found more or less
accidentally. It involves random reaction and accidental success.
Learning by Conditioning – changing the meaning of a situation by associating it with some past experience of new stimuli
that brought about satisfaction or dissatisfaction to the learner through repetition.
a. Classical Conditioning – Ivan Pavlov
b. Operant Conditioning – Burrhus Frederick Skinner
Learning by Observation and Imitation - learning is done through directing the attention to a specific element considered
worthy of mental record and reproducing the recorded element as the need arises.
Insight is the higher level of trial and error. It refers to the ability to foresee things and react in advance. It suggests that the
degree of insight increases with age. It is based on the experiment of Wolfgang Kohler.
Learning by Motivation. Motivation is the process of arousing the individual’s attention and interest directed towards a
definite goal.

Types of Motivation
1. Intrinsic – natural desire of the individual to learn
2. Extrinsic – motivation based on rewards or punishment
Incentive to Motive
1. School Marks
2. Exhibiting Good Works
3. Game or Play
4. Examination
5. Honor Roll
6. Emulation-Process of Equaling or Excelling Other’s Work or behavior
7. Material Rewards
8. Punishment
9. Vocational Goal

LAWS OF LEARNING
 Laws of Readiness – is associated with mind set. It states that when an organism is prepared to respond to a
stimulus, allowing him to do so would be satisfying while preventing would be annoying.
 Law of Exercise – constant repetition of a response strengthens its connection with the stimulus, while disuse of a
response weakens it.
 Law of Use – the more frequent a modifiable connection between the situation and the response is utilized, the
stronger the connection.
 Law of Disuse – when a modifiable connection between a stimulus and response is not use over a period of time
that connection is weakened.
 Law of Effect – when a modifiable connection between a stimulus and a response has been made, it is
strengthened if it results satisfaction and weakens if it leads to annoyance.
 Law of Belongingness – means that the strength of connection is increased if the paired stimuli possessed
similarities.
 Law of Association – a new connection is formed through the association of the past and the new situation. It is the
process of relating two or more experiences to each other.
 Law of Multiple Response – different reaction/responses are elicited by the same stimulus.
 Law of Frequency – the often the response is repeated the greater is its tendency for its use when the right
situation occurs.
 Law of Recency – the response which has been exercise and rewarded most recently is the one which is most likely
to occur when the organism is in the given situation.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING

Intellectual – individual’s mental ability level
Learning Factors – study habit
Physical Factors – disabilities, nutrition, etc.
Mental Factors - attitudes and one’s beliefs and ideas
Emotional/Social Factors
Teacher’s Personality
Environmental Factors

USE OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS

John Amos Comenius (1592-1670) wrote Orbis Pictus Sensualium or the World of Sensible Things Pictured, a book which is
considered as the first book on the use of visual aids and classroom teaching.

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DEVICE
Device is any means than the subject- matter itself that is employed by the teacher in presenting the subject matter to the
learner.
Purpose of Visual Devices
1. To challenge students’ attention
2. To stimulate the imagination and develop the mental imagery of the pupils
3. To facilitate the understanding of the pupils
4. To provide motivation to the learners
5. To develop the ability to listen
Forms of Visual Aids
1. Demonstration
2. Field Trips
3. Laboratory experiments
4. Pictures, films, stimulation, models
5. Real objects

Classification of Devices
1. Extrinsic – used to supplement a method used
Ex: pictures, graph, film strips, slides, etc.
2. Intrinsic – use as a part of the method or teaching procedure
Ex: pictures accompanying an article
3. Material Devices – device that have no bearing on the subject matter
Ex: blackboard, chalk, books, pencil, etc.
4. Mental Devices – a kind of device that is related in form and meaning to the subject matter being presented
Ex: questions, projects, drills, lesson plans, etc.

THE LEARNER
The 20th century has been considered by various experts as a century of the child because so much has been
learned of their nature and development that a lot of children have been greatly improved. Before the establishment of
child-centered schools of Pestalozzi, Herbart and Froebel the child had the right to listen but not to be heard. However, due
to the result of various studies made regarding the nature of the child, children now are given the rights and privileges that
they should enjoy as legitimate member of the society. Children are known to be marvelously tough, pliable and teachable.

Psychological Characteristics of the Child

a. Children are interested to learn
b. Children need immediate goals (short term goals)
c. Children need routine
d. Play plays a vital role in child development
Needs of a child
Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of basic human needs
1. Physiological needs – hunger, thirst, breathing
2. Safety and security needs – protection from injury, pain, extremes of heat and cold
3. Belonging and affection needs – giving and receiving love, warmth and affection
4. Esteem and self-respect needs – feeling adequate, competent, worthy, being appreciated and respected by
others
5. Self-actualization needs – self fulfillment by using one’s talent and potentials

Understanding children’s behavior

Development of positive behavior. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) believed that by nature men are basically
good that what makes man evil are the influences of the society. To develop positive behavior in children, the following
must be emphasized:
1. Contribution – children should be encourage to contribute because this is one way of showing to them that
they are an important part of the group.
2. Responsibility – children should be encouraged to involve themselves in decision making, and be made
responsible for their own behavior and actions within the limits of the group.
3. Cooperation – children should be encouraged to resolve problems and difficult situation through a concerted
effort of all the members of the group.

Causes of children’s misbehavior

The American Psychological Association (1712-1778) concluded that a breakdown of family processes and
relationships contributes to children’s antisocial behavior. On the other hand, Thuroton and Benning (1993) suggested that
the following family variables affect the behavior of the child:
1. Parental supervision and discipline – inadequate, too lax, too strict or inconsistent and erratic

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2. Parents are indifferent or hostile to the child. They disapprove many things about the child and handed out angrily
physical punishment.
3. The family operated only partially as a unit, if it all and the marital relationship lacked closeness and equality of
partnership.
4. Parents found it difficult to discuss concerns regarding the child and believe that they had little influence on the child.
They believe that other children exerted bad influence on their child.
5. The parents have too much expectations about their child.

THE TEACHER AND THE TEACHING PROCESS

The teacher is someone who causes others to learn. He is a person who exerts a considerable influence in the life of
other people specifically the children under his care.

The Roles of a Teacher

1. Model 5. Evaluation of students’ performance
2. Classroom manager 6. Parent surrogate
3. Facilitator of learning 7. Counselor
4. Motivator 8. Friend
9.

Qualities of an Effective Teacher

K – Knowledge
A – Attitude (Zig Ziglar – your attitude not your aptitude will determine your attitude)
S – Skills
H – Habits
E – Experience

Intelligence
Good health (mens sana encorpore sano)
Self confidence (cogito ergo sum)
Affability (friendliness)
Educationally qualifies (R.A. 7836)

The Needs of Teachers

1. Fair treatment
2. Firmness and understanding from their superiors
3. Positive atmosphere
4. Recognition for their contribution
5. Chance for professional

CLASSSROOM MANAGEMENT
Classroom management as defined by Good (1959) is the administration or direction of activities with special
reference to problems involving discipline, democratic techniques, use of supplies and other materials, the physical
features of the classroom, general housekeeping and social relationship of the pupils and the teachers. It can be
summarized as the operation and control of classroom activities.

Principle Behind Classroom Management

1. The teachers should plan activities that are suited to the classroom conditions.
2. The teacher’s disciplinary policies must be in accordance with the school policies.
3. The teachers must observe some routinary procedures to save time and energy (i.e. entering and leaving the
room, passing papers, etc.)
4. The teachers must take into consideration the needs and condition of their students.
5. The teachers must utilize positive rather than negative approach in dealing with children.

Causes of Disciplinary Problems in the Classroom

1. Teacher’s personality – lack of knowledge of the subject matter, poor decision making, etc.
2. Physical factors – health condition of the child
3. Individual factors – individual differences due to family and community background, etc.
4. Social factors – adjustment to the group
5. Emotional factors
6. School environment

Ways to Improve Classroom Discipline

1. Know your subject matter and be prepared at all times.
2. Come to class ahead of your students.

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 3. Call the class to order as soon as the bell rings.
4. Follow some established family routine.
5. Check the condition of the class as well as the condition of every pupil.
6. Check pupil’s assignments regularly and return their work promptly.
7. Explain to your pupils your expectation of every activity that they will accomplish.
8. Provide adequate time for every activity.
9. Do not threaten your pupils. If threatened, the pupils often feel challenged to see how serious are you and how far
they could go before you carry-out your threats.
10. Have a good sense of humor.
11. Compliment your students on worthy contributions.
12. Try to involve all pupils to class activities.
13. Handle calmly all attempts to distract your attention.
14. Always have a contingency plan in case of emergency.
15. Never be sarcastic.
16. Always consider individual differences in dealing with your pupils.
17. Never make a martyr out of a troublemaker.
18. Never punish all your pupils for the fault of one.

THE ART OF QUESTIONING

Questioning is the starting point of learning. People learn because they ask questions. In the teaching-learning
process the kind of questions that a teacher asks and the way he asks them to some extent determines his effectivity as
well as the outcome of his teaching methods and techniques.

PURPOSE
1. To discover the impact of the lesson to the students.
2. To evaluate the students’ performance
3. To direct the minds of the students to the important aspect of the lesson
4. To give the students a chance to express themselves
5. To develop the thinking and reasoning ability of the students and help them analyze ideas
6. To acquire information
7. To draw out interpretation
8. To manifest retention of knowledge
9. To develop the skill to answer effectively and eliciting comprehension skills
10. To energize the mind or the imagination resulting to internalization of concepts
11. To check whether these concepts are internalized for use in the students academic and functional life
12. To develop the students’ problem solving skills and decision-making faculties

LEVELS OF QUESTIONING
I. Literal
“Right there” question
Note or recall clearly stated facts and details
Follow directions
Associative quotation with speaker

II. Interpretative
Thinks and search question
Identify character traits, emotional reactions
Interpret figurative language
Anticipate events
Recognize sensory image
Sense implied meaning of words, phrases and sentences

III. Critical
Give opinions, reactions to the selection
Discriminate between fancy and reality, fact or opinion
Identify assumptions, points of view, author’s purpose and style
Determine relevance
Weigh values presented

IV. Integrative/Application
“Tying up” questions
Comparing and contrasting old and new ideas gained from reading
Synthesizing ideas learned
Making different ending

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HIERARCHY OF QUESTIONS
Discussed herein is the hierarchy of questions that the teachers usually ask regardless of the subjects being taught.
This hierarchy is based on Benjamin Blood’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.
1. Knowledge (Memory) Questions
Trains the ability to recall, to bring to mind appropriate materials learned previously such as specific names,
facts, places, figures, events, concepts, principles and others. The correct answer is usually verbatim repetition of
knowledge acquired from a specific source.
Typical knowledge questions:
1. When was the Katipunan founded?
2. Who founded the Katipunan?
3. Identify the people involved in the Philippine Revolution.
4. Enumerate the demands of the La Liga Filipina.
Key Words: name, tell, list, describe, recall, state, define, identify

2. Comprehension Questions
Train a student to understand oral and written communications and make use of them. Comprehension
questions may be manifested by the students in the following ways:
1. The student can express ideas in his own words.
2. The student can separate the essential from the non-essential.
3. The student can establish relationships among things.
4. The student can extrapolate or predict an event from a trend or pattern.
5. The student can make inferences or give the probable consequences of events.
Typical comprehension questions:
Explain in your own words the El Nino and La Nina Phenomena.
Compare and contrast the atmosphere of the Earth and Saturn.
Predict what will happen to the Philippines under the Estrada presidency.
Key words: extrapolate, explain, compare, predict, illustrate, infer, estimate

3. Application Questions
Require the students to transfer what they have learned to new situations with little or no supervision. The
student is expected to put some skills into practice, solve problems and construct something.

Typical application question

1. Which of the following best exemplifies asexual reproduction?
2. How do you express in algebraic equation – the age of the earth is twice the age of the moon?
Key words: demonstrate, plan, solve, apply, build, develop, construct

4. Analysis Questions
Require a student to breakdown an idea into its parts, to distinguish these parts and know their relationships to
one another. The student is able to distinguish relevant from irrelevant data, a fact from generalization, an
assumption from a conclusion and select facts which are essential to support a hypothesis.
Typical analysis questions:
1. What part of the essay is the conclusion?
2. What part or parts support the stated conclusion?
3. What part of the essay is factual and what part is hypothetical
4. What are the fallacies in the arguments presented?
Key words: classify, distinguish, discriminate, categorize, analyze, detect

5. Synthesis Questions
The student put together or integrates a number of ideas or facts into new arrangement.
Some common focus of syntheses in the summary of the lesson either written or oral, proposal, a plan of
action, a short story or a short play, a bulletin board display, a literary-musical program and the like.
Typical syntheses question:
1. How can you help improve our economy?
2. What are the alternative crops in order to cushion the effect of the El Nino phenomenon in our agriculture?
3. What plans can you propose to make the centennial celebration more meaningful?
Key words: propose a plan, formulate a solution, develop, create, make up, summarize

6. Evaluation Questions
The students appraise, criticize or judge the worth of an idea, a statement or a plan on the basis of a set of
criteria provided to them or which they themselves have developed.
Typical evaluation questions:
1. Is it good for the Filipinos to ratify the VFA?
2. Are you in favor of amending the present constitution?

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 3. Evaluate the achievements of Ramos administration.
Key words: select, judge, evaluate, decide, which do you prefer

LESSON PLANNING
Effective classroom management depends on a large measure on the teacher’s ability to plan interesting, student-
centered, multi-activity lessons to promote a high degree of student’s involvement and maximum participation. Lesson
planning is a vital part of teaching for all the various elements involved in instruction, such as objectives content or subject
matter, instructional procedures, evaluation and related matters are given due attention.

LESSON PLAN
Lesson Plan is the term applied to the statement of objectives to be realized and the methods to be used in the
attainment of such objectives within the specified time.
Importance of Lesson Planning
1. Helps the teachers to be systematic and orderly.
2. Delimits the field to be taught for a certain class period.
3. Prevents waste and unnecessary repetitions of lessons already taken up.
4. Forces consideration of objectives, selection of subject matter, selection of procedures, planning of activities
and preparation of test serve as an inventory of what the children have already learned.
Components of a Lesson Plan
I. Objectives – states the aims which the lesson seeks to achieve. It must be Specific, Measurable, Attainable,
Results-Oriented or Realistic and Time-Bounded (SMART).
II. Subject Matter – states the topic or the titles of selection, books used and the page numbers concerned. We
also indicate the materials and value to be infused.
III. Learning Activities – these are the different activities to be undertaken to realize the objectives.
IV. Evaluation – the test we usually give to determine whether the students have mastered the lessons. The part of
the lesson plan that gives us feedback.
V. Assignment – the teacher provide the topics for discussion in their next meeting or the additional activities to
reinforce student learning.

SAMPLE LESSON PLAN

IN GRAMMAR
I. OBJECTIVE – must be specific, measurable, and attainable within the allotted time.
II. SUBJECT MATTER – states the titles of selection, books used and the page numbers concerned, states also the
value stressed.
III. LEARNING ACTIVITIES
A. Review – recall of the past lesson.
B. Identification exercises – unlock the new structure/vocabulary which will be used in presentation material
through the usual procedure, like showing pictures, giving situations, doing certain actions, etc.
C. Presentation – present the new structure/vocabulary through any of the following presentation materials –
dialog, a story, a paragraph, a comic strip, a song, a poem, a letter, an advertisement, etc.
D. Comprehension Check-up – ask a number of comprehension questions which aims at the following :
1. To check the student understands of presentation material.
2. To give the students experience in using the new language structure/vocabulary
E. Practice – give at least 3 communication situations/experiences which maximize students’ participation and
their meaningful use of the new language structure/vocabulary. Some ways to maximize students
participation are the use of the following :
1. Small group technique
2. Dyadic exchange
3. Milling around
4. Picture charts/chart exercises
5. Real objects/cutouts/pictures
6. Dialogs/stories
7. Games/riddles/contest, etc.
F. Generalization – Have some sentences containing the new structure written on the board or on a chart.
Help the student analyze the sentences through questions, the answer to which will lead to
generalization(s). Make generalizations simple as possible.
G. Application
1. Oral – conduct exercises similar to those under practice
2. Written – give situations similar to those given during the oral application, have all the students write a
sentence at their seats in answer to your question. Ask two students to write their sentences on the
board. After everyone has finished writing, have all the students check the boardwork with your
guidance. Have them also check their own sentences. If time permits, give additional situations to elicit
written answers from the students.

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 IV. FORMATIVE TEST – Give at least 5 items which are congruent with the objective. To make the students familiar
with the kind of response expected of them, make at least one of the practice exercises in the lesson proper of
the same type as the formative test. As much as possible, items should be related to each other, that is, they
treat of the same experience or situation.
V. ASSIGNMENT – This should be an outgrowth of the lesson, not some writing task which is new or strange to the
points.

SAMPLE LESSON PLAN IN LITERATURE

I OBJECTIVE – Make this specific, measurable and attainable within the allotted time. Choose a comprehension or a
study skill.
II SUBJECT MATTER – Write the title of selections and books to be used, indicating the page numbers. State also the
value stressed.
III LEARNING ACTIVITIES
A. Unlocking of difficulties – Unlock unfamiliar vocabulary/concepts in the selection through:
1. Real objects/pictures/cut-outs
2. Gesture/facial expressions/demonstrations
3. Situations/shorts paragraphs
4. Context clues
5. The dictionary, etc.
B. Motivation – The motivation question should be:
1. A “big question” – “big” in the sense that it illicit many different answers from the students based on their
experience.
2. Related to the story to be read and can be answered without the students reading the story.

Motive Action – It should these characteristics:

1. It is parallel to the motivation question, if possible, so that there is a smooth flow from motivation question
to motive question.
Example of parallel questions:
Motivation Question – what games do you and your brothers/sisters play?
Motive Question – what games did the speaker and his brother play in a poem?
2. It is simple and easy to answer – just a means to give the student a motive for reading.
3. The students can answer it only after reading the selection.
C. Silent reading of the selection/oral reading of the story
D. Discussion
1. Answering the motive question
2. Answering the 4-D question which gives students a whole grasp of what the selection is about.
E. Specific skills development (The skills in the objectives)
1. The selection just read can serve as springboard for the development of the skill and the skill and be the
material for the first exercise.
2. Additional exercises can be taken from other materials.
IV FORMATIVE TEST
Same as in the lesson plan in grammar
V ASSIGNMENT
Same as in the lesson plan in grammar

CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING

IN CRITIQUING LESSON PLAN
1. Congruence of instructional activities used with the lesson objective(s).
2. Congruence of evaluation measures with the lesson objective(s).
3. Appropriateness and adequacy of activities/instructional aids used.
4. Integration of two or more communication skills.
5. Use of communication situations.
6. Maximum pupil participation with the teacher as facilitator.
7. Correctness of English used.
8. Infusion of values.

CHILDREN WHO ARE VICTIMS OF UNEQUAL TEACHING

1. Children who are undertaught
Fail to learn what they could learn
Fall behind others and become discouraged
Develop dislike for school
May escape from schooling at earliest opportunity
Find themselves boxed in by lack of education

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 2. Children who are overtaught
Waste time in over learning
Become bored with school
May develop distance for learning
May fail to find themselves
Find themselves boxed in by lack of education

3. Children who are mistaught

Limit interest to subjects taught to them
May learn to dislike or fear some subjects
Fail to develop broad base for further learning
Grow up half educated
Find themselves boxed in by lack of education

4. Children who are not taught

Respond less to their environment
May develop prejudices against the arts
Function in a limited way in some aspects of human relationships
Amy remain ignorant of important realms of human experience

REFER TO LIST OF BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES

Teaching has been defined in so many ways by different authors, educators and experts in the field of education, however
for the purpose of this material, we will define teaching as:
A FULL TIME TASK. It demands all the time, patience, strength, tolerance, understanding, endurance and sense of humor
from the person who desires to be a teacher.
AN ARTISTIC ACHIEVEMENT. This is reflected in teacher’s daily projection, animation, creative planning, sincerity and
enduring patience.
A PROCESS OF PRAISE AND ENCOURAGEMENT. This involves loving, disciplining, helping, guiding, criticizing and accepting
child.
A PROCESS OF TRANSFORMATION. This involves guiding the learner from the legend to the truth, from the unknown to the
known, from the pretentious to reality and from the unworthy to the meritorious.
SELF SATISFACTION AND FULFILLMENT. This is obtained from the sweet smile of the child who was helped by the teacher,
from his daily contributions to the classroom, and from the achievement of an expectation.

This segment of the reviewer discusses some of the most common teaching strategies and techniques that the teachers
usually employ to deliver the goods to their clientele – the students, in an efficacious manner. However, it is an accepted
tenet and a known fact that there is no single best teaching methodology that a teacher can utilize so as to make his
students learn, that is why a teacher must use his prudence in the choice of appropriate and effective teaching strategy to
attain his ultimate end – helping his students learn the lessons.

NOTE, ORGANIZE, SUMMARIZE

Students may need help in learning to apply reading skills to study techniques when preparing for class discussions, tests,
and report writing. They can improve their comprehension if they learn to see how ideas are connected in an entire piece of
writing.
1. Have the students skim an assigned passage to get a general idea of the content and well they have understood the
whole passage.
2. Instruct the students to make notes in the margins about important ideas within and across paragraphs. You might
model this step with a transparency of the reading and an example of your own notes for the first paragraph or so. One
possibility is to give the students a chance to try writing marginal notes about the key ideas for one paragraph and then
show them your model or elicit their suggestions.
3. Have students work on their own, making brief marginal notes in their own words of among ideas from each paragraph.
Special care should be taken to recognize relationships among ideas extending across paragraphs.
4. Divide students into pairs or small groups. Have them compare their marginal notes. After they have made good
headway, hand out blank transparencies to each group and have them outline the passage or part of the passage on
the transparency.
5. Show outlines from two or more groups, simultaneously if possible. Have students compare similarities and differences
with their own group outlines. Encourage questions about why certain points were or were not include in the outline.
After discussing the outlines, have students assess how their comprehension changed from the first cursory reading to
the second during which they took their marginal notes.
6. Using a student generated outline, have the students summarize the article orally or in writing. Ask the students not to
look at the original while they are summarizing. These summaries can be used to test comprehension.
7. As students become used to this procedure, they can begin writing and comparing their own outlines, instead of notes,
with those of their classmates.
8. Semantic maps or other representations of organizational structure may be substituted for outlines.

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9. This series of reading activities should be practiced several times throughout a term so that the students begin to
acquire independent note-taking strategies.
10. If students are not familiar with outlining or mapping techniques, teachers may have students take marginal notes to fill
in partially completed outlines or topic maps. Guidance through the procedure should gradually decrease.
11. Not all passages lend themselves to paragraph by paragraph analysis. Students may need some help incorporating ideas
from two or more paragraphs into one section of an outline.

JIGSAW READING
This activity has been around for a long time and takes various forms, regardless of the type of jigsaw reading, the activity is
enjoyable and helps students to conceptualize the reading passage by looking at a small part and then fitting the individual
pieces together. It works well as a pre-reading activity.
Procedure
1. Divide the reading passage by paragraphs and make copies for students.
2. Arrange the class into groups according to the number of paragraphs in the reading passage.
3. Give each group a complete set of the passage, making sure that each person has a different paragraph.
4. Tell the students to put the paragraphs together in an appropriate order. Have them begin by reading their own
paragraphs and then telling the other members of the group what they are about.
5. Ask the groups to share with the class the ordering that they have agreed on. Discuss the reasons for the various
orderings the groups selected.
Set a time limit – this turns the activity into a contest.
For basic readers, do the activity with scrambled sentences instead of paragraphs.
Distribute a copy of the original reading passage to each student.

ORGANIZATION AND STRUCTURE, WHO DONE IT?

Newspaper articles, especially those related to criminal or police actions, offer students a variety of topics, styles,
and levels of difficulty. The information they contain usually includes elements related to time, place and action. Learners
must not only understand the information but be able to reconstruct it chronologically because journalists present the
current state of affairs in the opening paragraph and then proceed to narrate the events that led to it.
Procedure
1. Select articles a few paragraphs in length. Long articles can be shortened, but they should contain enough
information to make the story coherent.
2. Give the students a copy and ask them to read it.
3. Either write a chart on the board for them to complete, or reproduce it as a handout. Try to have a chart with at
least two labels: time and action.
4. As soon as the students have read the article and seen the chart, ask them to fill it in, taking care to organize the
information in chronological order, starting either with the most recent time or with the most remote. Have them
work individually or in pairs.
5. After a few minutes, when most or all of the students have finished, have them compare their charts.
6. Complete the chart on the board following the directions the students give you. At this stage, it is important to
comment on different words used to fill in the chart or on any differences in how students completed it.
Reconstructing the story allows students to discuss their different interpretations of it. At this point, the students
have all the elements of the story and are ready to narrate it starting from the beginning. Ask them to retell the
story or rewrite it.

LITERATURE: MAKING STORIES THEIR OWN

When students engage in activities requiring them to reread stories, their understanding at the literal and
interpretative levels improves greatly. Ethnic folk tales, legends, and other stories can make rereading enjoyable.

Procedure
1. Pictomap. After they read or listen to a story, ask students to:
 Draw a map identifying where major scenes took place
 Retell what happened at each place
 Cut out circles to draw the episodes as inset pictures
 Glue pictures onto the map
 Draw arrows to indicate event sequence
They can go back to the story at any point of the project. This activity works well with adventure stories. Structures
covered include sequence and cause effect.
2. Point-of-view. Using a talk show format, have students take on the roles of guests and host. As they work together
to plan for questions and answers, encourage students to express their feelings and viewpoints as though they
were the real characters. This activity allows the students to understand a story from an insider’s point of view. It
also enables students to consider values and interpretations of events as they consider various perspectives. Role
play during the actual presentation time is a wonderful opportunity for ESL students to play with ways or speaking.
3. Mural. Ask students to create a definite scene that best represents the story. It is necessary to emphasize careful
reading or library research if necessary to get the details right. The main thrust of the project is to interpret the
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 tone and mood of the story. Students can experience how to create desirable effects using different media such as
paint, chalk, finger print and three dimensional paper art. (Use dark paper as background, avoid white.)
4. Sculpture. Give clay to students to create a solid symbol for the story. It is important to have two or three students
work together because through discussion they can come up with a theme or underlying message of the story.
After the sculpture is done, they need to explain orally or in written form how their sculpture is a symbol for the
story.

READ AND DRAW

This activity aids comprehension by allowing students to look at the reading from a different point of view. It also
encourages the sharing of insights into the article by the students.
Procedure
1. Divide the reading passage into five or six easy-to-read parts and write each part on an index card. Make sure the
reading is one that lends itself well to drawing and make sure each part has an element in it that can be drawn.
2. Divide students into as many groups as you have parts of the reading. Explain the activity. Have the students
working together in small groups read their part of the story and then draw what they have read.
3. Give one piece of paper and a pen to each group. Remember, students should work cooperatively.
4. After each group has drawn their portion of the story, prost the drawings.
5. Have a representative from each group to explain the drawing.
Tips
1. Try a reading passage that is not so easy to draw. You’ll be surprised at the students’ creativity.
2. If you have not done cooperative learning activities in the class before, you might want to introduce the concept of
cooperative learning.

READING RELAY
In this strategy, which focuses on speed reading, skimming and scanning skills, students compete against a clock,
but not against one another, if you have not done cooperative learning activities in the class before, you might want to
introduce the concept of cooperative learning before you try this activity.
Procedure
1. Divide the reading passage into easy-to-read parts. The students work in groups, so make sufficient sets for the
number of students in the class. For example, if you have 12 students and the story has three parts, make four sets.
2. Make up any kind of comprehensive questions you wish for the entire reading passage.
3. Divide the students into small groups. The number of students in each group should equal the number of reading
parts you have in each set.
4. Explain the activity. Each member of the group receives s different part of the reading. They read that part as many
times as they can before the signal. At the signal, the students pass the reading passage to the student in their
right. This continues until each student has had an opportunity to read each part of the passage.
5. Hand out the reading to each group. Tell the students to start reading as you begin to time them. The length of time
you let the students read depends on their ability and how much you want to focus on skimming skills and reading
speed.
6. After the students have finished reading all the parts, collect them and give each group one copy of the
comprehension questions. Ask the students to work as a group to answer the questions.
7. Give each student the entire reading passage and go over the comprehension questions.

CHOOSING A DIFFERENT TITLE

This activity is a good way of getting students to realize that authors have many options to choose from in selecting
a title and that the actual title used will reflect the taste or bias of the author or editor of the newspaper or magazine in
which the article appears.
Procedure
1. Locate a suitable article from a newspaper or magazine. The article should have a title and be about 250-350 words
long. Prepare a list of 10 other titles for the article 5 “good” titles (i.e., titles focusing on the main idea of the article)
and 5 “wrong” ones (i.e., distracters focusing on supporting details). You will need one copy of the article and one
list of titles for each student.
2. Distribute the article and the list of titles. Divide the class into pairs.
3. Tell the students that they are to read the title of the article and the article itself. Then they are to look at the list of
titles and choose 5 more that are also good. Then they should number the titles from 1 to 5 starting with the one
they think is best.
4. Have students work in pairs, choosing and ranking 5 titles.
5. (Optional) have one student from each part report to the class.
Tips
1. As a variation, remove the original title from the article and include it among the titles on the list. Have students
guess which title was actually used by the author.
2. As an additional step, ask students to say what is wrong with the other titles in the list.
3. Another option is to have the entire class vote on what they think is the best title for the article.

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PIECING TOGETHER IDEAS
Making distinctions between general ideas and supporting details is an important of reading comprehension. Strip
stories are an enjoyable way for students to see the relationship between the bigger and smaller pieces of a text.
Procedure
1. Select appropriate reading material for the class.
2. Select sentences or paraphrase portions of the reading passage and write them on strips of paper. Prepare a set of
corresponding strips that say either “main idea” or “supporting detail”. The two sets of strips must correspond
exactly. The total number of strips should equal the number of students in the class.
3. As the students read the material, devote class time to enhancing comprehension until the material is well
understand.
4. Have students
*draw a strip from a list
*work together to match the strips with quotations to the strips with labels
*stand in a line (with a strip) in order that the sentences appeared in the reading passage
*read out loud, sequence, what is written on the individual strip
Tips
1. For a large class, use two sets of strips and have two groups form two different lines simultaneously.
2. Make the activity more difficult by requiring any reading material to be put away before the strips are drawn from
the hat so students may not refer to it during the exercise.
3. It is important to have covered the material well before attempting this activity, but it is a nice way to conclude
work on a reading passage.

NEWSPAPER POSTERS
Understanding the content of the sections in a newspaper is essential for proceeding in a course that uses
newspapers extensively. English language newspapers also give students access to more of the English-speaking world
around them. This activity is a great ice breaker at the start of a term.

Procedure
1. Clip an assortment of articles and other items from newspapers. Be sure to include enough items from all parts of
the papers for all the groups to have plenty to choose from.
2. Provide a list of all categories to be included in the posters. For example: front page, metro, business, sports,
lifestyles, entertainment, classifieds.
3. Put the students into groups. Each group uses a poster board and creates a poster that represents the various items
found in the different sections, choosing from the articles and items you provide. Ask the students to label the
categories.

MIXED UP COMPREHENSION
Lower level reading skills such as decoding and graphic cue recognition should be learned along with higher level
reading skills such as applying prior knowledge to the reading passage.
Procedure
1. Make up 5-10 comprehension questions on the board on the reading passage selected.
2. Write the comprehension questions on the board or have the questions prepared on a handout.
3. Have students write a reading passage that answers the questions. The students can use their imaginations and
write anything but the passage must be able to answer every question.
4. Read the stories out loud.
5. Compare with original reading.

READING ROULETTE
It is important to recognize topic sentences in paragraphs for reading and writing activities, as the key to
understanding the text. This activity combines the search for topic sentences with speed reading and peer correction.
Students also have a break from reading materials in textbooks. They read their own material and feel a sense of pride.
They laugh a lot as they read what what their classmates have written. They have fun.
Procedure
1. Create groups of three to five students. All groups should have equal numbers,
2. Give all the students the same topic sentence (complete or incomplete): It was dark and stormy night and
3. Have students write for three(3) minutes
4. After 3 minutes, have them pass their papers to the classmate on their right(within their group).
5. Give students 4 minutes to read what was written by their classmates and then continue to write from
where their classmates left off.
6. Give them 5 minutes to repeat step 5.
7. Increase the time after each exchange of papers and keep repeating step 5.
8. Return the paper to the original writer, who will write the conclusions.

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 9. If there are five students in a group, the total time spent on reading and writing should be 3+4+5+6+7+8=33
minutes. The first three minutes and last 8 minutes will be utilized by the original writer, who will write the
introduction and conclusion. The four other group members will write four paragraphs.
10. Each student now has a student generated piece of reading (a total of six paragraphs). Students can correct
essays with teacher monitoring.

ONE MORE TIME, WITH FEELING

Learners reading aloud often do so with little effect. This activity can help them develop expression. The feelings
they choose may or may not be related to the text, it is quite possible, for example, to read an exciting passage while you’re
tired.
Procedure
1. With the class, brainstorm a list of emotions and physical states (e.g excited, happy, tired, bored and hung
over).write them on the bored.
2. Have learners select the paragraph or paragraphs they will read. They also choose one of the feelings listed on the
board. Tell them they will read and selection as if they felt that way.
3. They practice reading their text aloud (to themselves).
4. In pairs or small groups, they lead the selection partners to try guessing the feeling.

THINGS TO DO BEFORE READING

Before students begin reading any passage, they need to preview it to see what they already know in terms of
content and vocabulary. Previewing makes for smoother reading and smoother reading lessons. Any one and the following
directions, or a combination may be used each time a new passage is introduced.
Procedure
1. Ask students to brainstorm for answers to the following questions, then write ideas on the board.
 Look at the title and the heading for each section. What do you think this passage is going to be about?
 Look at the pictures. What do you think this passage is going to be about?
 Read the first and last paragraphs and the first sentence of each paragraph. What do you thing is this passage going
to be about?
 Scan the passage and cross out all the words you don’t know. After you read the passage again carefully, look up
the words in a dictionary.
 After looking at title, picture and so on, brainstorm the specific words you expect to see in the passage.
 After looking at the title and pictures, make up some questions you think this passage might answer.
 What kind of passage is this? (fiction? non-fiction-what kind?) Why would somebody read this? For information?
Pleasure?
2. Choose words from the passage and write them on the board. Ask students to scan the passage and encircle them (to
give pre-checking of vocabulary a task).
3. Tell a story about the ground of the reading passage, or summarize the passage itself. Ask students to take notes or
draw a picture of the story as you speak.
4. Have everyone read the message.

Adopted from:

An Assortment of Interactive Reading Recipes from New Ways in Reading, (1993).R.

Day (Ed.). Alexandria, VA: TESOL Publications. Selected by Jeff Taschner, USIS
English Teaching Fellow, 1993-94.

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