Sunteți pe pagina 1din 26

TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND

CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002 Page 1 of 19

PART 1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Origin of Soils

Depending on their origin, naturally occurring soils can be divided into two main categories; residual and
transported.

Residual soils are those which form from the weathering of parent rocks in-situ. As a general rule, dark
coloured rocks (rich in iron and magnesium, and silica poor) weather more rapidly to form deeper
residual soil deposits than light coloured rocks (poor in iron and magnesium, and silica rich).

Transported soils are formed by weathering and erosion of rock (sometimes to a residual soil), followed
by transportation, deposition, and sometimes chemical alteration. The first of these processes may
involve chemical and physical processes. All others but the last are physical in nature. The type of soil
found in a particular deposit depends on the energetics of the environment of deposition. As the energy
of the environment increases so does the maximum size of the particle which can be transported out of
that environment and away from the material source. Some types of transported soils are listed below.

Alluvial soils Soils deposited by stream and rivers. These include river gravels, sand and other finer
sediments. Generally synonymous with Fluvial soils.

Marine soils Soils deposited in ocean basins, estuaries, bays and beaches. These include clays
(quiet water-low energy), and beach sands (strong wave action-high energy).

Aeolian soils Soils deposited by wind action. The most obvious example is desert sand, however
finer deposits derived from exposed coral and other organisms do occur.

Lacustrine soils Soils deposited in lakes. These are usually clay soils, some of which may be blown
onto the lake surface or transported into the lake by rivers. Some swamp deposits
which include peat could be included in this category.

Colluvial soils Soils formed as a result of transportation by gravity in landslides and debris flows.
These are often mixed materials of rock fragments and finer materials such as clay and
sand.

Soil in Engineering Terms

In engineering terms a soil includes every type of uncemented or partially cemented inorganic and
organic material found in the ground. The Australian Standard for Geotechnical Site Investigations
(AS1726) further defines soil as an aggregation of discrete particles each of which has a nominal size of
less than 60 mm, and which as a whole has a compressive strength of less than 600 kPa. This strength
limit implies that most soils can be remoulded by hand or broken into pieces by hitting with a rubber
mallet. Discrete particles larger than 60 mm are termed cobbles (60 mm to 200 mm) or boulders
(>200 mm). Natural materials with a greater strength than soil are defined as rock.

UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002 Page 2 of 19

Basis of Soil Classification

Soils are divided into two groups on the basis of the particle size of their primary component (the
component which comprises over 50% of the soil) as follows:

Soil Group Nominal Particle size


Coarse Grained Soils 60 mm to 60 µm
Sand and Gravel
Fine Grained Soils less than 60 µm
Fines - Clay and Silt

As a guide 60 µm is about the smallest particle that can be individually seen with the (good) naked eye.
For convenience the nearest standard sieve sizes are used for these delineations.

Coarse grained soils are further subdivided into sand and gravel on the basis of particle size. Those in the
coarse grained size range with a nominal particle size greater than 2 mm (about the size of a match head)
are described as gravel. Those with a nominal particle size of less than 2 mm are described as sand.
Many coarse grained soils are composed of a variety of different sized grains. The distribution of grain
sizes can be expressed as grading, or its opposite, sorting. The term grading is most often used in
engineering. A well graded (poorly sorted) soil is composed of particles with a wide variety of grain
sizes. A poorly graded (well sorted) soil may be composed of particles within either a narrow range of
grain size or of two discrete sizes leaving a range of sizes between the two which is unrepresented (see
Figure 1).

Figure 1. Diagrammatic representation of grading terms. The distribution of sizes is assessed on mass of
the particles rather than volume. Therefore, whilst a well graded soil has a wide range of different sized
particles it will have fewer large particles than small.

Well Graded Poorly Graded Gap Graded

Fine grained soils (cohesive soils) comprise silt sized particles (60 µm to 2 µm) and clay sized particles
(less than 2 µm). They are subdivided on the basis of their behaviour in consistency limits (Atterberg
Limits) tests. Three states of consistency which determine a soil’s behaviour can be distinguished in
cohesive soils as follows:

• a soil of liquid consistency behaves like a fluid and will not retain its shape if remoulded by hand;

• a soil of plastic consistency can be readily remoulded without the formation of cracks and will retain
its new shape;

• a soil of solid consistency will only deform under high pressure and will crack on deformation.

UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002 Page 3 of 19

The consistency limits tests define boundaries between the liquid, plastic and solid states for cohesive
soils. The liquid limit is the moisture content of a soil at the boundary of liquid and plastic consistency.
The plastic limit is the moisture content of a soil at the boundary of plastic and solid consistency. The
plasticity index is the plastic limit subtracted from the liquid limit.

In general, high plasticity soils; ie, those with a high plasticity index, tend to resemble plasticine or
potting clay. Low plasticity soils have a more chalky feel and are less pliable to handle. Some properties
of high and low plasticity soils are given in Table 1 which provide an indication of why delineation of
plasticity may be important in engineering and environmental assessments.

Table 1. Generalised Soil Properties Related to Plasticity

High Plasticity Soils Low Plasticity Soils


Exhibit large volume changes with change in Exhibit small volume changes with change in
moisture content moisture content
Are generally of very low substance permeability May have higher substance permeability
Have high clay contents Have low clay contents
Have high ion exchange capacity Have low ion exchange capacity

The definition between clay and silt based on consistency limits is shown in Figure 2. As illustrated, the
liquid and plastic limits of a silt are significantly closer together than those of a clay. This means that a
silt is likely to alter its consistency state and thus its behaviour with only relatively small changes in
moisture content; a feature which can be useful for delineating silt and clay in the field where laboratory
test results are not available. Because of this difference in behaviour, silts are termed ‘non plastic’ and
clay soils ‘plastic’.

Unified Classification Symbol (UCS)

In reality, soils are often composed of a mixture of components. Soils may include a mixture of fines and
sand, fines and gravel or all three. The Unified Classification System classifies soils with a two letter
symbol (referred to as the Group Symbol in AS1726). The first letter of the symbol provides
identification of the primary component of the soil and will be one of: C-clay, M-silt, S-sand, G-gravel or
O-organic. Allocation of the second letter is less simple.

UCS for Coarse Grained Soils

In coarse grained soils containing an appreciable quantity of fines (>12%), the nature of the fines
component defines the second letter of the UCS. A gravel with clay fines is classified as GC. A sand
with silt fines is classified as SM. Coarse grained soils without appreciable fines (<12%) are given the
second letter of the UCS with respect to their grading. The letter ‘P’ is representative of poorly graded
soil, and ‘W’ of a well graded soil. Thus a well graded sand is classified as SW, and a poorly graded
gravel as GP.

UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002 Page 4 of 19

UCS for Fine Grained Soils

The second letter of the UCS for fine grained soils is defined by their liquid limit, either determined in
laboratory tests or assessed by visual/tactile means when test results are unavailable. The letter ‘L’
signifies low liquid limit (<35%). The letter ‘L’ or ‘I’ may be used to signify medium or intermediate
liquid limit (35% to 50%). ‘H’ signifies a high liquid limit (>50%). Accordingly, a clay of high liquid
limit would be classified as CH and a silt of low liquid limit as ML. This classification scheme for fine
grained soils showing the plasticity characteristics of the different soil types is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Unified 40
H igh
Classification Symbols plasticity clay
CH
for fine grained soils. M edium
30 plasticity clay
Clay and silt are Low plasticity clay CI
defined as plastic and CL

non plastic respectively. 20


Therefore a clay of H igh
liquid lim itsilt
liquid limit >50% is MH
10 M edium
termed a high plasticity liquid lim itsilt
clay and classified as Low plast.clay/silt ML
Low liquid lim itsilt M L
CH. A soil classified as 0
MH would be termed a 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Liquid Lim it(% )
silt of high liquid limit.

PART 2 STANDARD FOR SOIL DESCRIPTION

1. Introduction

This Manual describes the system we use for all soil descriptions in the field or laboratory. It has been
prepared to encourage consistency between logs prepared within and between the various offices of GAP.
Where different practises are adopted between different offices, numerous problems arise when
engineers, geologists, scientists or technicians operate outside their usual office, especially on large
projects where numerous logs may be produced by staff from several offices. In this situation
considerable unchargeable time is often expended in checking and modifying the logs so that they
conform with those of the office issuing the project report. This situation is unnecessary, inefficient and
the potential for errors in logging or interpretation are greatly increased. The standardised logging system
will ensure that :

• all observable and significant properties of a soil are described;

• every description of soil uses the same terms with the same meaning;

• particular properties always appear in the same position in the text of the description.

The system provides guidelines which should be strictly adhered to in all work unless otherwise
instructed by the manager of a particular project.

The soil description method complies with AS1726 - 1993, the Australian Standard for Geotechnical Site
Investigations.
UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002 Page 5 of 19

2. Type and Order of Description

2.1 Type of Description

Soil descriptions based on laboratory tests of particle size distribution and/or Atterberg Limits are
described as laboratory descriptions. Those based on judgement must be described as descriptions by the
visual / tactile method. Field descriptions generally fall into the latter category.

2.2 Order of Description

The soil properties are described in the following order:

1. Classification symbol - BLOCK LETTERS.


2. Soil Name; e.g. Sandy CLAY - with the primary soil type in block letters.
3. Plasticity for cohesive soils, or particle size and shape for sands and gravels.
4. Colour
5. Secondary soil components; with an estimate of their percentage, (optional), and giving their
plasticity or particle size.
6. Other minor soil components.
7. Moisture condition.
8. Strength. (Applies to soils in their undisturbed state only)
9. Structure; i.e. fissuring & cementation.
10. Additional observations; i.e. "FILL" or geological notes.

3. Fine Grained vs Coarse Grained Soils

When classifying for engineering purposes by the Unified Classification System, soils are initially
divided into the fine grained (cohesive) group and the coarse grained (granular) group.

If it is judged that more than 50% of the sample is smaller than 60µm (i.e. passing the 75µm sieve), then
the soil is of the fine grained group; i.e. clay or silt. Should less than 50% of the sample be smaller than
60µm the soil is of the coarse grained group; i.e. sand or gravel.

Cohesive soils

As clay and silt particles are generally smaller than can be seen by the naked eye, cohesive soils are
classified by their behaviour in Atterberg limits tests as shown on the Unified Soil Classification chart in
Figure 2. If the plot of liquid limit/plasticity index falls above the 'A' line then the soil must be classified
as a clay. Conversely should the plot fall below the line then the soil is a silt. For cases where the plot
falls on the line within the dual classification box in the lower left corner of the chart a dual classification
of CLAY/SILT may be used.

If Atterberg limits are not available the soil should be classified as a clay or silt depending upon the
tactile field identification procedures based on dry strength, dilatancy, and toughness, also given in
Appendix A. Of these tests, dilatancy is often the most diagnostic.
Granular Soils

UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002 Page 6 of 19

Coarse grained soils should be classified as either sand or gravel based on the relative quantity of each
component.

Soil particles greater than 2mm are defined as gravel; those smaller are defined as sand. For convenience,
the 2.36mm sieve is generally used to define the boundary between gravel and sand sized particles.

Particles greater than 60mm and less than 200mm are termed cobbles, and those greater than 200mm,
boulders. Cobbles and boulders are not included in the main body of the soil description. Any
occurrence of >60mm particles should be defined in the "Additional Observations' part of the
description. Table 2 lists the particle sizes of the different soil components and the test sieves relevant to
each major soil type.

Organic and man made materials cannot be adequately described using these terms. If these materials are
present in the soil being classified, specific names should be used, such as "brick fragments" rather than a
general term like "fill material". Guidance for the description of such materials is given in section 4.11.

Table 2 - Division of soil groups by particle size

GROUP NAME SUB-DIV SIZE A.S. SIEVE


Clay <2µm
Fine fine 2µm -6µm
Silt medium 6µm -20µm
coarse 20µm -60µm 75µm
Sand fine 60µm -200µm
medium 200µm -600µm
Coarse coarse 600µm -2.0mm 2.36mm
Gravel fine 2.0mm-6mm
medium 6mm-20mm
coarse 20mm-60mm 19mm
Cobbles 60mm-200mm 63mm
Boulders >200mm

4. Soil Description

4.1 Classification Symbol & Soil Name

The primary soil name (ie clay, silt, sand or gravel) and classification symbol of the soil are selected by
following the steps given on the flow chart shown in Figure 3.

When a secondary component is present, a modifying adjective may be added to the primary soil name, ie
sandy gravel. The proportions which define whether a modifier may be used are shown in Table 4. When
primary and secondary components are present in almost equal proportions dual names may be used, e.g.
sandy clay / clayey sand.

UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002 Page 7 of 19

Figure 3. Soil Classification Flow Chart

YES Is >50% of material NO


< 75µm?

Fine grained soil Coarse grained soil

Above ‘A’ line Plasticity chart Below ‘A’ line NO Is >50% of coarse
fraction >2.0mm?

YES

Clay Silt Sand Gravel

YES Is there a large Are there Are there


organic content? >12% fines? >12% fines?

NO YES NO NO YES

Is liquid limit Is liquid limit SP GP


>50? >50? or or
SW GW

YES NO YES NO

OH OL MH ML

Are the fines plastic? Are the fines plastic?


Liquid Limit

<35 - CL YES NO YES NO


35-50 - CI
>50 - CH
SC SM GC GM

UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002 Page 8 of 19

4.2 Plasticity (fine grained soils or fines)

Liquid limit and plasticity index are either visually assessed or are determined on the soil fraction passing
the 425µm sieve in accordance with AS 1289. Terms describing plasticity are defined by the liquid limit
as shown on Table 3.

Table 3 - Plasticity descriptive terms

Range of Liquid Limit Descriptive Term


<35 Low plasticity
35-50 Medium plasticity
>50 High plasticity

4.3 Particle Characteristics and Size (Coarse grained soils)

The particle shape of granular soils can range from rounded to angular, however description of the
particle shape is generally necessary only for gravel materials. Figure 4 shows definitions of these terms.
The particle shape provides useful information about the likely origin and nature of deposition of a soil,
and can significantly affect the material’s behaviour.

The distribution of the different particle sizes found within a soil is described as grading. For most
engineering purposes description, a soil’s grading is adequately defined by the Unified Classification
Symbol, however, if necessary, grading may be described using one of the following terms.

"Well Graded" good representation of all particle sizes from largest to smallest
"Poorly Graded" one or more intermediate sizes poorly represented
"Gap Graded" one or more intermediate sizes absent
"Uniform" essentially all one size

Figure 4. Typical Shape Of Coarse Grained Particles

UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002 Page 9 of 19

For boulders, the maximum sizes should be noted.

4.4 Colour

The colour of a soil is described in the moist condition using simple terms such as:-

Red White Grey


Black Brown Orange
Yellow Green Blue

These may be modified as necessary by "Pale" or "Dark". Borderline colours may be described as a
combination of these colours (e.g. red brown). Any unusual colouring which may signify the presence of
contamination should be noted. Where descriptions of colour may have contractual implications reference
should be made to standard colour charts such as the Munsell System.

When the soil contains a mixture of colours the soil may be described as “grey with red staining”, or
“pale brown and white”. The term mottled should be avoided unless a description of the nature of
colouring is also included.

4.5 Description of Secondary Components

The secondary soil components should be described using simple terms such as "approx. 30% to 40% low
plasticity fines" or just "low plasticity fines" where it is considered by the classifier that no useful
purpose will be served by stating a percentage of secondary material. The proportion of secondary
component is always important in clayey sands.

Where more than one secondary component is present, the component which is most significant in
defining the soil name from the USC chart is used closest to the primary component in the description.
i.e. Gravelly Clayey SAND (UCS symbol of SC), rather than Clayey Gravelly Sand.

4.6 Minor Components

Table 4 gives minor soil component descriptive terms. Other terms such as “occasional” or “minor”
should not be used.

Table 4 - Descriptive terms for minor components

Coarse Grained Soils Fine Grained Soils

% Fines Modifer % Coarse Modifier

≤5 Omit, or use “trace” ≤ 15 Omit, or use “trace”

> 5 ≤ 12 Describe as “with some clay/silt” > 15 ≤ 30 Described as “with some


as applicable sand/gravel” as applicable

> 12 Prefix primary soil name with > 30 Prefix primary soil name with

UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002 Page 10 of 19

“silty/clayey” as applicable “sandy/gravelly” as applicable

In Table 4, “% Fines” refers to the per cent passing the 75 micron sieve and“% Coarse” refers to the
percent retained on a 75 micron sieve.

4.7 Moisture Condition

Moisture condition is described using one of the terms shown in Table 5 :

Table 5 - Descriptive terms for moisture condition.

Term Abbreviation Description


Dry D Granular soils : cohesionless and free flowing.
Cohesive soils: hard, brittle or friable and powdery, moisture content
well below plastic limit
Moist M Soils are darker than in the dry condition & may feel cool.
Granular soils : Sands and gravels tend to cohere
Cohesive soils : can be moulded
Wet W As moist, but with free water forming on hands when handled.
Granular Soils : Sands and gravels tend to cohere.
Cohesive soils: usually weakened

Other terms such as “saturated”, “damp”, and “humid” are not clearly defined or cannot be determined in
the field and should not be used. The moisture condition of cohesive soils can be described relative to the
plastic or liquid limit if this can be assessed.

4.8 Soil Strength

Consistency (Fine Grained Soils)

The terms on Table 6 are used to describe the consistency of fine grained soils.

Table 6 - Descriptive terms for consistency of fine grained soils

Term Abbreviation Shear Strength Field Guide


(kPa)
Very Soft VS <12 A finger can be pushed well into the soil with little effort.
Soft S 12 to 25 A finger can be pushed into the soil to about 25mm depth
Firm F 25 to 50 The soil can be penetrated about 5mm with the thumb.
Stiff St 50 to 100 The surface of the soil can be indented with the thumb, but
not penetrated.
Very Stiff VSt 100 to 200 The surface of the soil can be marked by the fingers, but
not indented with thumb pressure.
Hard H >200 The surface of the soil can be marked only with the thumb
nail.
UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002 Page 11 of 19

Friable Fb Crumbles or powders when scraped by thumb nail

The undrained shear strength may be assessed using correlations of measured undrained shear strength
with pocket penetrometer readings. The instrument must be regularly calibrated and used with care.

The use of combination strength terms (e.g. Firm to Stiff) should be restricted to material assessed as
having a strength close to the division between the two terms (e.g. an undrained shear strength of about
50 kPa). Materials with strength ranging from firm to stiff should be described as such.

Relative Density (Coarse Grained Soils)

Coarse grained soils are grouped according to their density indices (relative density) as defined in
Table 7. The density index is typically assessed from established correlations with Standard Penetration
Test results.

Table 7 - Relative Density of Coarse Grained Soils

Term Abbreviation Density Index SPT “N” blows Visual Assessment


(%) per 300 mm *
Very Loose VL 0 to 15 0 to 4 Ravels
Loose L 15 to 35 4 to 10 Shovels easily
Medium Dense MD 35 to 65 10 to 30 Shovelling difficult
Dense D 65 to 85 30 to 50 Pick required
Very Dense VD 85 to 100 > 50 Picking difficult
* - Dependant on overburden pressure and equipment used

Further field guides to the relative density of coarse grained soils are given by other dynamic and static
cone penetrometers. Without considerable experience it is difficult to make an assessment of the density
index without some form of field test or laboratory testing of undisturbed samples. Therefore these terms
often cannot be used in field or laboratory descriptions unless other suitable evidence is available. In
such a situation it is still important to make an assessment based on field observations, such as “Appears
Loose”, which should appear in the “Additional Information” column of the log.

4.9 Soil Structure

The structure of the soil may govern its engineering behaviour and should be described where possible.
Sketches are often the most reliable and easiest way to record this information.

Zoning

A sample may consist of separate zones of soils differing in colour, grain size or other properties. The
patterns of these zones are described as:-

• Layers - continuous across exposure or sample


• Lenses - discontinuous layer with lenticular shape
• Pockets - irregular inclusion

The dominant thickness and distinguishing features of the zones should be noted.
UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002 Page 12 of 19

Fissures

Any cracks or surfaces along which the soil breaks easily are fissures. If fissuring is present notes should
be made as to the degree of fissuring present. If continuous slickensided shear zones are found an
estimate should be made of their angle in relation to the horizontal plane.

Other Defects

Other defects may include:

• dykes
• roots
• root holes or tubes (hollow)
• tube casts (solid material filling old tube)
• surface cracks

Defects may be re-cemented and therefore may be stronger than the parent soil. The approximate
dimensions and spacing of defects should be given.

Cementing

Soils or defects within soils may be cemented together by various agencies.


If the cementing agent allows fracturing by hand of the particle aggregations when saturated it is
described as weakly cemented.

If the cementing agent prevents fracturing of the saturated aggregations it is described as a rock in
engineering terms in accordance with AS 1726.

The nature of the cementing agent should be identified if possible from its appearance, strength, reaction
to acid etc.

4.10 Additional Observations

Any aspect of the soil which is not covered by the bulk of this manual should be noted as an "additional
observation".

It is always important to establish the geological origin of a soil where possible. It should be noted if the
soil is from an alluvial or residual deposit. If it can be determined that a soil is a highly weathered rock or
a slopewash material this should be noted.

In many soils especially in arid and semi-arid regions, soils may contain chemical materials such as
calcite (lime), gypsum, or iron oxides. These materials may be well distributed through the soil, or
present as isolated nodules or crystals. It is therefore important to choose terms carefully to ensure that
the material is clearly and properly described. For example the general term "calcareous" should be
reserved for materials with well distributed calcium carbonate. Terms such as "weakly cemented by
calcareous material" should be used for soils with their structure strengthened by calcium carbonate

UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002 Page 13 of 19

cementing of the particles. For material containing nodules of limestone "with calcrete nodules" is
suitable.

Other aspects which are important include such properties as dilatancy and the presence of visible pore
space or voids, which may be described with terms such as “porous structure”, or “appears to be of low
density”.

5 UNUSUAL MATERIALS

5.1 Organic Soils

Organic soils are those in which there is sufficient organic material to alter the property of the soils. Such
soils commonly have wood fragments included within the fabric.

“Peat” is a dark brown to black residual material, sometimes fibrous, produced by the partial
decomposition and disintegration of plant material in a wet environment.

“Root Mass” is a fibrous intergrowth of rootlets.

5.2 Is it Soil, or is it Rock?

Materials which appear to be intermediate between soil and rock in terms of strength, weathering or
because of mixed composition are often the most poorly described.

Much of this confusion is regarding the definition of terms given in AS1726, but some is because of the
complexity of the materials themselves. Examples of such materials are:

• Extremely weathered rock, which is defined by AS1726-1993 as “Rock weathered to such an extent
that it has soil properties, i.e. it either disintegrates or can be remoulded, in water”.

• Extremely low strength rock, which is defined by AS1726-1993 as a rock which is “easily remoulded
by hand to a material with soil properties” and has a point load strength index of <0.03 MPa.

• Mixtures of large rock fragments (>60mm) and soil components, which may be formed by weathering
along joints in a rock mass, alluvial processes, colluvial processes or partial cementation such as in
duricrusts (calcrete, silcrete, ferricrete).

It is especially important to provide a clear description of such materials because many civil contracts and
specifications have different rates for activities involving ‘soil’ and ‘rock’. For example, contractors and
engineers preparing specifications may depend on our logs to assess how much of each material type is to
be excavated or drilled using a certain method. If our description of a material is limited to “Extremely
Weathered Shale” the assumption may be that this material will require rock excavation methods,
whereas the material may actually be a clay or silt soil which is significantly easier to excavate.

It is therefore important to accurately record the type of equipment (where appropriate) that was used to
allow us to make our observations, such as :

• Caterpillar D9 bulldozer
UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002 Page 14 of 19

• Hitachi EX300 hydraulic excavator with 1.2 m wide toothed bucket


• Trailer mounted Gemco 210B rotary drilling rig with solid augers and a V - bit

As our business is to provide engineering advice, we should describe materials primarily in terms of their
engineering properties, followed by an assessment of their geological origin. A material which can be
remoulded by hand and is likely to have the engineering properties of soil should be described as a soil
with observations of structure, and an interpretation as to whether it is an extremely weathered or
extremely low strength sandstone/siltstone/basalt or whatever. The presence of obvious rock structure
does not define a material as rock in engineering terms.

The least ambiguous method to describe mixed materials is to use a simple main heading such as:
“Mixture of Boulders and Soil”, or “Rock Fragments in a Soil Matrix”. The remainder of the description
should describe each of the components (i.e. soil and rock) separately, and give an assessment of their
proportions. A typical description may be :

MIXTURE of SOIL (≈ ≈60%) and ROCK (≈


≈40%)
SOIL is : CI Sandy CLAY, medium plasticity, pale brown; ≈ 40% fine to coarse sand, dry, hard.
ROCK is : LIMESTONE, pale brown, medium strength, present as subrounded cobbles and
boulders to about 600 mm in size.

5.3 Weathering & Rock Strength

There is a common perception that the more weathered a rock is, the lower its strength. Weathering and
rock strength are not necessarily related. Within a particular formation or rock unit, highly weathered
rock may be stronger than fresh rock due to iron cementation or other chemical effects. A relatively
young material which is easily remoulded but exhibits rock structure may not be weathered at all, and
therefore should not be described as extremely weathered. Examples include some Tertiary sand
deposits, calcretes and volcanic ash deposits which have been protected from weathering by an overlying
lava flow. These materials should be described as cemented sand or with a soil description and a note as
to their assessed origin.

5.4 Duricrusts

Duricrusts are formed by precipitation of previously dissolved chemicals, which form an altered layer
within a soil profile. Duricrusts are generally variable, and may range from gravel sized nodules to
relatively continuous layers of uniformly strong rock materials. Some examples of typical duricrusts are
presented in Table 8.

UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002 Page 15 of 19

Table 8 - Typical Duricrusts

Duricrust name Description


Calcrete Calcareous material consisting mostly of calcite (calcium carbonate).
Calcretes are also referred to as caliche, kunkar and travertine.
Ferricrete A material produced by secondary deposition of previously
dissolved iron oxides. Ferricretes include lateritic soil, laterites,
ferruginous breccias and ferruginous sandstones. Also known as
ironstone.
Laterite A red or yellow soil containing numerous gravel sized particles
enriched in iron and/or alumina. These particles may be soft or hard,
but do harden on exposure to the atmosphere.
Silcrete Siliceous material, usually of high to very high substance strength.
Crystalline structure similar to quartzite.

5.5 Fill

It is essential that the thickness and composition of FILL, where present, is recorded accurately. The fact
that soils have been deposited on a site by other than natural mechanisms may have significant
geotechnical and environmental implications. The material should be identified clearly on the field log as
fill, and then described in the same detail as natural soil. Providing less thorough descriptions of fill may
prevent us from being able to answer important questions regarding, for instance, the likely origin,
suitability for re-use in engineered fills, potential for contamination, etc.

Typical characteristics of FILL include :

• unusually variable range of colours


• very distinct changes in soil profile
• presence of foreign objects such as glass, plastic, slag etc.
• buried organic matter in some instances
• “cloddiness” of clay soil indicating previous disturbance by excavation

It is essential that we describe all the components observed in fill accurately. General descriptions such
as ‘building refuse’ or ‘organic waste’ are not helpful and may be misleading. Even using terms like “fill
contains plastic and bitumen” to describe fill with several plastic bags and a trace of bitumen fragments
can give the impression to users of a test pit report that the fill is severely contaminated. Table 9 gives
guidelines for the degree of information which should be recorded on field logs.

UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002 Page 16 of 19

Table 9 - Examples of Acceptable Level of Description for Fill Components

Misleading Description Example of Acceptable Level of Description


Fill contains plastic several plastic bags
Fill with medical waste two syringes
numerous gauze dressings, jars labelled “Biohazard”, and
decomposing body organs
Fill contains concrete blocks about 25% of the fill comprises concrete blocks and slabs to about 1m
and slabs in size
Fill includes metal scrap lengths of railway track up to about 4m long
several lengths of copper wire and some steel drill cuttings
200mm thick layer of rusted scissors
Fill with organics several logs up to 2m long
pockets of grass clippings up to about 0.5m thick
one decomposing poodle

The compositions of fills may be highly variable, and it is often useful to describe them as a mixture of
materials, for example :

≈60%) and REFUSE (≈


FILL - MIXTURE of SOIL (≈ ≈40%)

SOIL is : CI CLAY, medium plasticity, grey brown; trace of fine to medium quartzite gravel,
moist, firm.

REFUSE includes several plastic bags, concrete slabs up to 1 m in size, galvanised iron sheets, some
glass bottles.

Some environmental protection agencies make a distinction between fill which has been imported on to
the site from elsewhere, and onsite materials which have been reworked and compacted (ie during ‘cut
and fill’ works). Whilst it is often not possible in practice, a comment to the affect that fill materials
appear to be of local origin should be included. If the upper surface of a site (<200mm) has been
disturbed and remoulded, the affected material should be described as disturbed and remoulded ground,
rather than FILL.

5.6 Pavement Materials

Pavement materials are a specific type of fill. It is important to clearly identify the extent and nature of
pavement materials where present. The question often arises “Are the existing pavements suitable for
future use?” or “Can we stabilise/recycle the existing pavements?”. In some cases we are asked to
comment on these issues after the completion of fieldwork, despite the fact that our field investigation
may not have been planned to specifically address the issue of pavement composition. Hence these layers
should always be logged carefully. Granular pavements usually contain some or all of the following
layers :

• Wearing Surface (Sprayed bituminous seal or asphalt, usually between 10 mm and 50 mm thick)
• Basecourse (High quality crushed rock, usually of either 20 mm or 40 mm nominal size)
• Sub-base (generally lower quality crushed rock than basecourse, may have more fines)
• Subgrade (either natural soil/rock or compacted FILL)
UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002 Page 17 of 19

Where possible the boundaries between these layers should be noted on the field logs. It is often most
useful to sketch the observed structure.

The following notes indicate some important issues to be addressed when logging pavements.

1. Where present, the type of wearing surface should be described, including the stone size, and the layer
thickness noted to the nearest 5 mm. Wearing surfaces may be either a sprayed bituminous seal or
asphalt (also known as asphaltic concrete or hotmix). Sprayed seals are constructed by applying a
layer of bitumen to the surface and then pushing gravel (aggregate) into the bitumen. Such seals are
usually between 10 mm and 30 mm thick (they may incorporate more than one layer) and typically
produce a rough wearing surface. Hotmix seals are produced by a machine which mixes bitumen with
gravel and then applies mixed hotmix in a layer of relatively constant thickness to the prepared
surface. Hotmix may range in thickness from about 25 mm to greater than 200 mm, and usually
produces a smoother wearing surface than spray seals.

The basecourse and sub-base layers should be described as a soil (i.e. GW Sandy Gravel, fine to
medium etc.) and the layer thicknesses should be noted to the nearest 10 mm. It is useful to describe
the rock type (i.e. basalt, quartzite, dolomite etc) and include descriptions of the whether the particles
are rounded or angular and whether the gravel appears well or poorly graded. Where the field
engineer/geologist is sufficiently experienced with such materials, it is extremely useful to also
describe the materials as 20 mm CRUSHED ROCK, 40 mm QUARRY RUBBLE or similar. Such
terms vary locally and may infer that the grading and fines content of the material comply with a local
specification, and should therefore only be used where appropriate. Terms such as Class 1 20 mm
Crushed Rock, DGB20, PM32 etc should be not be included on the field log as compliance with the
specifications for these materials can not be visually assessed.

As a minimum the materials should be described as PAVEMENT MATERIAL, EXISTING


PAVEMENT or QUARRY PRODUCT.

2. If any of the materials present high resistance or refusal to drilling or excavation this must be noted on
the field log.

3. Where it is possible to distinguish between BASECOURSE and SUB-BASE layers the layer name
should be written in the Additional Observations column.

4. Stabilisation (the addition of cement, lime, or other materials to granular Basecourse or sub-base
materials) is often used to increase the strength and hence design life of pavements. The presence of
stabilised materials must be noted because :

• the design life and potential failure mechanisms differ for unstabilised (unbound) or stabilised
(bound) pavements. Our assessment of pavement condition or `failure’ causes may be
significantly influenced by the presence of stabilised materials.
• A stabilised pavement may be significantly more difficult to excavate or rip. If we do not record
the presence of stabilised materials we may be liable for a contractor’s claim for construction
difficulties.

UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002 Page 18 of 19

5. Some pavements incorporate geotextile between the pavements layers described above, typically
placed above the subgrade or beneath a bituminous seal. The presence of any such materials within
the pavement should be noted.

6. Old asphalt layers such as bitumen impregnated macadam (coarse gravel and cobbles) layers should be
identified as they may have a large impact on the performance of pavement overlays.

7. The pavement surface distress such as rutting or cracking of asphalt should be noted and, if
appropriate, described using A Guide to the Visual Assessment of Pavement Condition (Austroads,
1987).

5.7 Potentially Contaminated Soils

On some environmental projects it may be considered that it is unnecessary to log soils in the same
manner as for geotechnical projects. In some cases it may be acceptable to omit some of the details that
are not considered relevant, however in general logging for environmental projects should, where
possible, be performed to the same standard regardless of the project at hand. Whilst some of the
information recorded may not required in the immediate future, if it is collected at the time of the
investigation it may be very useful in later stages of the project, or on future projects.

Where information required on an engineering log is omitted the log should include a statement such as
“Report of Borehole not prepared for engineering purposes”.

Additional information is required when logging potentially contaminated soils. This information is of
particular assistance during the selection of samples for laboratory analysis and may include a visual
ranking of the apparent contamination and a description of any odours observed.

Ranking

A field assessment of the degree of contamination can be made based on visible evidence of
contamination and odour using the ranking system outlined in Table 10.

Table 10 - Ranking system for potentially contaminated soil

VISIBLE CONTAMINATION ODOUR


Rank Description Rank Description
0 No visible evidence of contamination A Natural odour only
1 Slight evidence of visible contamination (trace) B Slight odour
2 Visible contamination (eg more than trace) C Moderate odour
3 Obviously contaminated (eg predominantly tar, D Strong odour
slag, spent oxide, coke)

The field ranking (i.e. 0A or 3D) should be recorded with the sample number on the field logging sheet.

Odour

A clear description of odours can be of great assistance when developing the analytical program. As
odours are subjective the description to appear in the final log should be kept simple. For instance,
UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002 Page 19 of 19

hydrocarbon odour would be appropriate for petrol, diesel or kerosene. A second description may be
included in brackets on the field log (ie. not to be included in the final log) if considered valuable. For
instance (toilet cleaner odour) or (mothball odour). A list of some common odour types is given in Table
11.

Table 11 - Typical Odours

ODOUR MAY INDICATE


hydrocarbon BTEX OR TPH
tar PAH or phenolics
solvent organic solvents
sweet volatile halogenated organics
chlorine chlorine or chlorinated compounds
sulphide sulphides or sulphates
ammonia ammonia
putrescible methane, bacteria, nutrients

If there is an odour present which does not fit into one of these categories then some comment must still
be made such as “non-soil odour” or “chemical odour” and a description given in brackets.

The odour description should appear on the field log sheet in the “Additional Observations” column.

UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002

APPENDIX A

USC & PLASTICITY CHARTS – FIELD TESTS

UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002

Plasticity Chart

PLASTICITY CHART 40
Unified Classification CH
Symbols for fine Plasticity Index (%)
30
grained soils. Clay and CI or CL
silt are defined as
20 CL
plastic and non plastic
respectively. Therefore MH
a clay of liquid limit 10 ML
>50% is termed a ‘high CL/ML ML
plasticity clay’ and 0
classified as CH. A soil 0 20 40 60 80
classified as MH would Liquid Lim it (%)
be termed a silt of high
liquid limit.

Field Tests

These procedures are to be performed on the minus 0.2 mm size particles. For field classification
purposes, where screening is not intended, simply remove by hand the coarse particles that interfere with
the tests.

Dilatancy (reaction to shaking)

(i) Prepare a pat of moist soil with a volume of about 10 cm3. Add enough water if necessary to
make the soil soft but not sticky.

(ii) Place the pat in the open palm of one hand and shake horizontally, striking vigorously against the
other hand several times. A positive reaction consists of the appearance of water on the surface
of the pat which changes to a livery consistency and becomes glossy. When the sample is
squeezed between the fingers, the water and gloss disappear from the surface, the pat stiffens,
and finally it cracks or crumbles. The rapidity of appearance of water during shaking and its
disappearance during squeezing assists in identifying the character of the fines in the soil.

(iii) Very fine clean sands give the quickest and most distinct reaction whereas a plastic clay has no
reaction. Inorganic silts, such as typical rock flour, show a moderately quick reaction.

Dry Strength (crushing characteristics)

(i) Mould a pat of soil to the consistency of putty, adding water if necessary. Allow the pat to dry
completely by oven, sun, or air drying, and then test its strength by breaking and crumbling
between the fingers. This strength is a measure of the character and quantity of the colloidal
fraction contained in the soil. The dry strength increases with increasing plasticity.

UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002

(ii) High dry strength is characteristic of clays in the CH group. A typical inorganic silt possesses
only very slight dry strength. Silty fine sands and silts have about the same slight dry strength
but can be distinguished by feel when powdering the dry specimen. Fine sand feels gritty
whereas a typical silt has the smooth feel of flour.

Toughness (consistency near plastic limit)

(i) A specimen of soil, about 10 cm3 in size, is moulded to the consistency of putty. If too dry, water
must be added and, if sticky, the specimen should be spread out in a thin layer and allowed to
lose some moisture by evaporation. Then the specimen is rolled out by hand on a smooth surface
or between the palms into a thread about 3 mm diameter. The thread is then folded and re-rolled
repeatedly. During this manipulation the moisture content is gradually reduced and the specimen
stiffens, finally loses its plasticity, and crumbles when the plastic limit is reached.

(ii) After the thread crumbles, the pieces should be lumped together and a slight kneading action
continued until the lump crumbles.

(iii) The tougher the thread near the plastic limit and the stiffer the lump when it finally crumbles, the
more potent is the colloidal clay fraction in the soil. Weakness of the thread at the plastic limit
and quick loss of coherence of the lump below the plastic limit indicate either inorganic clay of
low plasticity, or materials such as kaolin-type clays and organic clays which occur below the A-
line.

(iv) Highly organic clays have a very weak and spongy feel at the plastic limit.

UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002

APPENDIX B
CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENT VERSION OF
NOTES & TERMS INCLUDED WITH BOREHOLE AND TEST PIT LOG REPORTS

UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002

APPENDIX C

EXAMPLE LOGS

UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002

UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3
TP3 - SOIL DESCRIPTION AND
CLASSIFICATION
Revision Level 2
April, 2002

UNCONTROLLED IF PRINTED – CHECK WITH OFFICE QUALITY MANAGER FOR CURRENCY TP3

S-ar putea să vă placă și