Biological Approach

SAQ 1A: Explain the effects of one or more pheromones on human behaviour

A pheromone is a chemical substance produced by the body and secreted into the environment
by an animal, which affects the behaviour of another animal (condition for this is that both
animals have to be of the same species). Pheromones are largely seen to play a role in animal
behaviour, but there are studies that support its presence in humans. There are multiple types of
pheromones, primer pheromones which cause a slow and long-term physiological change (eg.
hormonal changes) as well as signaling pheromones, (which produce rapid behavioural effects
that are commonly seen in animals).

Wedekind (1995) carried out an experiment, in which the effect of hormones on human
behaviour is demonstrated, specifically mating behaviour. The aim was whether the participants
(47 women) could identify males whose genetic makeup was dissimilar to the participants. In
order to boost the immune system of any potential offspring. MHC genes within the immune
system (used to fight pathogens) was monitored in this experiment. A sample of 47 men were
asked to sleep with a shirt for 2 nights and to store it in a plastic bag. After the 2 days women
had to smell 7 different shirts, one of which was a control, 3 where of men with similar immune
systems and 3 from men with dissimilar immune systems. Results showed a pattern that women
preferred the odors of men with immune systems in contrast to them. This experiment showed
that attraction was influenced by biological factors (ie. hormones) which did in fact do show a
trend in results. Women, without knowing the men (no external factors) chose males with genetic
makeup that boost the immune system of a potential offspring.

Thus supporting the often criticised stance that pheromones do play a role in affecting human
behaviour. If we consider mating selection to be the human behaviour in this case, then
hormones being the only independent variable, show a clear correlation with the trend in results
(of women prefering men who secreted certain pheromones that indicated that those men would
prove to be more beneficial for the women).

Good answer. 6/9. Next time don't start with the animal aspect, lead up to it. Use
the human aspect first.
SAQ 1B: Explain neuroplasticity with support from a relevant study

Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to alter its own structure due to changes in the body or
the environment. It accomplishes these changes by the processes of dendritic pruning and
dendritic branching (dendritic arborization). The former refers to the brain removing synapses
that are no longer needed, thus increasing the efficiency of its neural pathways. The latter is the
brain creating new synapses or pathways to create connections for new information learnt, ie.
branching out its neurons. A neuron itself is responsible for transmitting commands/signals in the
body through electrical impulses. Both of these processes work to form synaptic plasticity, which
states that neurons that are being more often are more likely to stay whilst other neural
connections (that aren't being used) will fade away, making synapses stronger with repeated use.

Maguire et al (2000) performed a quasi-experiment, testing London taxi drivers brains to see
whether they had changed due to their training and use of spatial memory. Her sample consisted
of 16 right handed male taxi drivers (participants had to take a knowledge test as well as have a
license for 1.5 years to qualify for the experiment). The drivers’ MRIs were compared to those of
50 right handed males (who did not drive taxis, ie. becoming the control group). Their
differences were measured by Voxel-based morphology (VBM), to check the density of grey
matter in the brain, as well as pixel counting which counted the pixels/area of the hippocampus.
The hippocampus is responsible for the transfer of short term memory (STM) to long term
memory (LTM). The study was kept objective by the use of a single blind study (the researcher
who analysed the results was unaware of who the MRI belong to).

Results showed that the posterior hippocampus was larger and the anterior hippocampus was
smaller for the taxi drivers (compared to the control group). Indicating more dendritic branching
in the posterior and pruning in the anterior. No other noticeable difference was present whilst
comparing brains.

This shows the brain adapted the hippocampus in the drivers to allow them to do their jobs
better. The posterior hippocampus plays a major role in spatial memory and navigation, which
was in use by the drivers, thus was bigger. The anterior hippocampus is involved in perception
and coping with novelty (not in direct use by drivers thus smaller). Ie the hippocampus changed
to the demands of its surrounding.

Good job. 7/9

SAQ 1C: Describe the effect of dopamine on behaviour

Dopamine is a type of chemical used in neurotransmission (which is neurons sending electrical

impulses/messages to its vast network of other neurons). Whilst sending these electrical impulses
across a nerve cell, the action potential releases a neurotransmitter at the end of the axon (body
of a neuron). These neurotransmitters are then released into a junction between two nerves
(called a synapse). These neurotransmitters then fit into a receptor site on the postsynaptic
membrane following the lock and key model. Which are then broken down by an enzyme or are
reuptaken. Thus neurotransmitters are chemicals that allow messages to cross a synapse and
allow us to respond to a stimuli. Dopamine is a kind of neurotramitter. It happens to be
metabotropic, meaning it does not directly affect the neuron and it’s neither excitatory not
inhibitory. Dopamine typically controls the brain's pleasure centre, plays a key role in
motivation and is linked to addictive behaviour. (Behaviour such as love or attraction).

Which is demonstrated in a study by Fisher et al (2003). His aim was to investigate the neural
mechanisms associated with the attraction system (romantic love). His sample consisted of 10
women and 7 men (from 18-26 years of age). Sample was attracted by posters and word of
mouth and all claimed to be in love. To evaluate the level of “love” the participants were in,
researchers interviewed them using a semi-structured format and a “Passionate Love Scale”
(PLS). They were then placed in an fMRI and asked to look at photographs of their significant
other (for 30 seconds), followed by a 40 second distraction task (of counting backwards in 7s)
and then to look at a photograph of a neutral acquaintance. This was repeated 6 times.

Results showed that distinctly different parts of the brain were activated when participants were
shown photos of their significant other (right ventral tegmental area - VTA was activated) and
with acquaintances. The VTA is a dopamine rich area in the brain and is associated with the
reward centre.

Thus showing a causal relationship with love and the brain's pleasure centre and holding the
neurotransmitter, dopamine, directly responsible for this effect. It supports the idea that
dopamine is present whilst feeling “love” or rewarded, (as shown by the activation of the VTA in
Fisher et al’s (2003) study). Showing that dopamine alters human behaviour (as seen in the study
explained above).

7/9 Good work

SAQ 1D: Describe the effect of one hormone on behaviour with support from a
relevant study

Hormones are a class of chemicals that affect behaviour. They are secreted by the endocrine
system into the bloodstream. Because they are chemicals, they take longer to affect the target
cells, but also have a longer response (as compared to the nervous system). Hormones are
released to affect target cells (specific cells that allow a physiological change, but only in the
presence of a specific hormone). Each gland secretes specific hormones, ​one hormone that
affects human behaviour is cortisol and is secreted by the adrenal glands; these glands are
located on top of each kidney. Cortisols purpose is to help control blood sugar levels, regulate
metabolism, reduce inflammation and assist with memory formation.

This is studied by Newcomer (1999), in which the effect of hormones (specifically cortisol) is
seen on human behaviour( memory). They investigated the role of cortisol as a hormone on
memory as well as the relationship between amount of dosage and memory. Participants were
divided into 3 conditions. Firstly, the experimental group (1) which ingested a tablet (160 mg of
cortisol), second was the experimental group that ingested a tablet of 140 mg of cortisol. Finally
a control group (that ingested a tablet that looked similar to the hormone tablets, but did not have
any cortisol). This Control was used as the placebo effect to show that ingested the tablet on its
own did not have an effect on memory (and that all groups had this control of ingesting a tablet,
so the results were balanced/reliable). All conditions ingested 1 tablet for 4 days and had to read
a paragraph and then recall it. Effect of this did not last long and wore off after participants
stopped ingesting the cortisol tablets.

Group 1 (160 mg) did not not recall as group 2 (140 mg), showing that an excessive level of
cortisol actually inhibited memory consolidation. However group 2 recalled on average more
than group 3 (control group). Showing that a restricted/appropriate amount of cortisol actually
improved recall.

Thus supporting how hormones affect human behaviour. If we consider memory to be the human
behaviour we can see that the secretion/presence of some hormones affect it. A limited amount
of cortisol improves encoding memory( allows more to be recalled) while an excess showed
adverse effects on memory. However it shows that effects of the hormone are temporary as
memory consolidation returned back to normal after stopping the intake of cortisol tablets.
Cognitive Approach
SAQ 2A: Explain one ethical consideration with research into emotion and cognition using one
relevant study

Ethics refer to the correct rules of conduct necessary when carrying out research which are in
place to protect the participants from any harm. This includes the right to confidentiality
(keeping particiapnts and their results anonymous), informed consent, debriefing, no undue harm
(eg. deception) and the right to withdraw at any moment.

An example of the infleunce of emotion on cognition are Flashbulb Memories. Which is a

special kind of emotional memory, which refers to vivid and detailed memories of highly
emotional events that appear to be recorded in the brain as a picture taken by a camera. This is
supported by neuroscience, showing a link between the amygdala (which is involves in
processing strong emotions such as fear or love). Because the amydala is located near the
hippocampus, it is inferred that it has a critical role in emotional memory formation. It is
supported by the importance driven model (personal consequences determine the intensity of the
emotional reaction. Which then CAN create flashbulb memories).

This is seen in a quasi-experiment by Sharot et al (2007). Their aim was to investigate the
biological basis and existence of flashbulb memory. The sample was made up of 24 participants
who were in New York City during 9-11. Participants were put into an fMRI. While in the
scanner, they were presented with word cues on a screen. The word "Summer" or "September"
was projected along with any other words in order to have the participant link the word to either
summer holidays or to the events of 9-11. After the brain scanning session, participants were
asked to rate their memories for vividness, detail, confidence in accuracy and arousal.

Results showed that only half of the participants actually reported having what would be called
"flashbulb memories" of the event. The ones that had flashbulb memories had more specifc
memories and were closer to the World Trade Centre. Showing that the activation of the
amygdala or the participants who were downtown was higher when they recalled memories of
the terrorist attack than when they recalled events from the preceding summer. The participants
with no flashbulb memories showed no major difference in amygdala activation.

However considering the ethics of this study, the privacy of the subjects may be invaded because
the fMRI indicates a general representation of their thought process. Indirectly inducing thoughts
of a traumatic moment/experience for the participants was also not accounted for. Researchers
were unsure of how exactly particpants would react to this priming and did not protect the
partipants from harm.
SAQ 2B: Explain one memory model

Memory is considered the “faculty of the brain by which information is encoded, stored and
retrieved when needed.” There are different types of memories, including declarative and
procedural memory, as well as short term and long term memory. Multi-Store Memory model
(MSM) is a type of memory model proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) that states that
there are seperate stores/loactions for different memories. Memory processes are sequential and
that memory operates in a single uniform way are other assumptions of the model. The model
shows that envionemtnal input is processed into sensory memory which is then transfered to
Short Term Memory (STM) if attention is paid to it. If the memory is rehearsed in STM it can
then be transfered to Long Term Memory (LTM). Retrivall and recall from LTM allows
memories to be understood or “revisited” back in STM. STM is limited in capacity and the
loaction (store) where thinking occurs. LTM is conceptualised as a vast storehouse of
information. It is thought to be limitless in nature (unlimited duration and capacity).

Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) conducted an experiment investigating the role of short term memory
with reference to multi-store model. Participants had to recall a list of 20 words (free recall)
which was combined with an interference task (2 processes involved in retrieving information).
Suggesting there are two different stores for short term and long term memory. There were 3
conditions, group 1 had no delay and was considered the control group. Group 2 had a 10 second
delay and group 3 had a 30 second delay, both including an interference task-participants had to
count backwards.

Results showed that group 1 (no delay) recalled the first 5 words and last 3 words were recalled
best, group 2 and 3 showed similar results of recalling first words better and poorer recall of the
latter words.

Supporting the primacy effect (words heard first were rehearsed and passed onto Long-Term
Memory) and recency effect (words heard last were still sitting in the Short-Term Memory). Ie.
demonstrating the U shape of the serial position curve, thus suporrting the 2 different stores for
STM and LTM. As well as the fact that STM is limited in capacity as stated in the MSM model.
SAQ 2C: Outline the concept of reconstructive memory from one study

Reconstructive memory is a theory of memory recall, in which the act of remembering

(retrieving information) is influenced by various other cognitive processes (such as perception,
imagination, semantic memory and beliefs). This was first proposed by Bartlett in 1932, that
memory is false due to schemas. Schema is a cluster of knowledge or memory that is stored in
the brain. One assumption of schema is that an indivdual’s prior experience will influence how
they remember new information. W ​ hen we learn something new, we link it back to our existing
knowledge, this can lead to confirmation bias (cognitive bias that affects our encoding of memory)

One study that explores this concept is by Brewer and Treyens (1981). Their aim was to
investigate the role of schema in encoding (formation) and retrieval of episodic memory. Their
sample was 86 university students who study psychology. Particiapnts were asked to wait in a
proffessors office , which consisted of typical office items, except no books, a skull and a toy
top. All chairs had objects on them except one, so all students would have the same vantage
point. The waiting period was 35 seconds and then particpants were alloted to one of three
conditions. First condition (30 participants) was recall by writing descriptions (with location,
shape, size, colour), then a verbal recognition test in which they had to rate 1-6 if an object was
present (6 being definitely present). The verbal test had 131 objects, of which 61 were in the
room. Second condition (29 participants) was drawing what they saw in the room (they were
given an outline of the room). Third condition (27 participants) was verbal recall, they were read
a list and asked if the items were present.

Results showed that the first and second condition recalled better, expected items were recalled
more often (congruent with their scehmas), incongruent items (eg. skull) was recalled less often
but rated 6 on the verbal recall. First condition recalled correctly 13.5 and mistakenly recalled
1.13. In the second condition participants tendedto change certain objects to match their schema.
Eg. falsely recalled a pad of paper on a desk, when it was actually on a chair. 93% of the
participants were deceived, ie. they did not know that they'd be asked to recall objects in the
room.

This study supports the concept of reconstructed memory. Memories were changed/reconstructed
to fit the expected schema of a professors office. Aschematic things (skull) were remembered
because they were unexpected. Participants recalled books to be in the office, because they are
typically expected in an office, so when thy weren’t there, their encoding was affected due to
expectation and thus they created false or reconstructed memories.
SAQ 2D: Describe biases in thinking and decision-making

Cognition is not purely mechanical and thus may have biases. Thinking and decision making can
be explained by the dual process model, which consists of system 1 and system 2. System 1 is
largely respsonsible for quick and automatic decisions (bases decisions on past experiences) by
taking mental short cuts (heuristics), it generates impression and generally focuses on what it
sees. System 2 on the other hand requires concentration and effort, it works with abstract
concepts and logic, uses conscious reasoning, and it slower but ore relaible than system 1. It
produces more sund judgement and better quality decisions. However due to our nature to be
cognitive misers and ego depletion as well as when cognitive load is too high, we use system 1
more often (it requires the least effort). By using system 1, we are at risk of more biases such as
illusory correlation, which is perceiving a relationship between variables even when no such
relationship exists // correlation not causation. As well as confirmation bias, which is an
individual favouring information that conforms to existing beliefs and discounting evidence that
that doesn’t match.

This is demonstrated by Hamilton and Gifford (1976). Their aim was to investigate whether
illusionary correlation exists within minority and majority groups. Their sample consisted of 114
university students from USA. The participants were informed about 2 fictional groups, Group A
(GA) and Group B (GB). There were 26 people in Group A and 13 in Group B. They were given
statements about one individual from each group. Both groups had the same ratio of statements
given (GA had 18 + & 8- while GB has 9+ & 4-). Statements were either positive or negative.
Participants were then asked how many of the people in each group had positive vs negative
traits.

Results showed that participants attribute more of the undesirable behaviours to the minority
rather than the majority. Even though there were the same ratio of traits and people. They
overestimated the number of bad traits in the minority group.

The minority (Group B) was biased against due to illusory correlation and confirmation bias.
Because after illusory correlations were formed, people actively seek to confirm their belirfs by
looking at the evidence in a biased way. This is illustrates the biases created with system 1
thinking and decision making.
Sociocultural Approach
SAQ 3A: Explain the social identity theory using one relevant study
SAQ 3B: Outline social cognitive theory with relation to self efficacy
SAQ 3C: Identify one effect of stereotype on human behaviour
SAQ 3D: Discuss the role of culture in behaviour