PART –A: MATERIALS SCIENCE

1. Crystal structure:
Material:
It is something that consists of matter. It is the stuff of which something is
made. To understand the material property is essential because without this information
and knowledge, the manufacturing process may be an expensive and complex task,
which negates the profit and utility of the product.

Material Science:
- Based on the physics and chemistry of the internal structure of material.
- Investigates relationship existing between the structure of materials and their
properties.
- Nature & behaviour of only solid material.

Metallurgy:
- It is the science & Technology of metals.
- It is the science of
(i) Extracting metals from the ores.
(ii) Refining of crude metal
(iii) Production of alloys & the study of their constitution, structure and
properties
(iv) Relationship & mechanical treatment of metals and alloys.
Choice of right material for the given requirement the proper use of that material
and even the production of that new material are all the direct responsibility of engineer.

Metallurgy

Extractive Mechanical Physical

It is the process of chemical reduction.

Crystallography:
It is that branch of science in which the internal structure of crystals, their
properties, external (or) internal symmetries of crystals is studied. It is the study of the
shape and defects of crystal, crystal formation of solids.

Crystal:
It is a solid whose constituent atoms (or) molecules are arranged in a systematic
geometry patern structure.

Structure:
Arrangement and disposition of the atoms within a crystal.
Crystalline Materials:
It consist of atoms (or) molecules arranged in a regular and orderly manner in a
3 Dimensional pattern.
Crystalline solids
Crystal structure
Amorphous solids
Crystalline Solids:
Basic structural unit is crystal. Number of crystal come together to form a
crystalline solid. Each of these crystals contain a number of repetitive blocks called unit
cells which are arranged neatly in an order. Density of crystalline solids are generally
high & their structure is stable.
Ex: All metals, salts like Nacl, Many oxides.
Amorphous solids (or) Non-crystalline materials:
 The basic structural unit is molecule and chains of these molecules come together
to form an amorphous solid. These chains of molecules are random within the solid and
occur no particular order. Density is low and structure is unstable.
Ex: Glass, Polymers, Elastomers.
Aggregates:
Some materials, Ex: silicate can occur as a crystalline solid (quartz) (or) as a
non-crystalline solid (silicate glass).
Ex: Concrete, rocks & Minerals.
Unit Cell:
It is the smallest group of atoms possessing the symmetry of the crystal. It is the
smallest volume that contains the full pattern of repetition is called a Unit cell.
Space Lattice:
It is the distribution of atoms in three dimensions such that every atom as
identical surroundings. In 3D pattern, where the atoms arrange themselves in an orderly
manner along various directions. It is the 3D network of imaginary lines connecting the
atoms.

C β α
γ Y

a
X b

A unit cell with x,y and z coordinate axis, showing axial lengths (a,b, &c) and
inter axial angles (α, β and γ).
Atom Structure:
It implies the system of electrons, protons, neutrons, etc., making upon individual
atom. Nucleus: Atom having a small central part. It consists mass and fixed positive
potential value i.e. proton & neutron. Around the nucleus the negative charge of fixed
value is spinning its own axis i.e. some electrons. Atoms are electrically neutral because
that having equal no. of protons and electrons. Number of either protons / electrons
are called atomic number. Total no. of protons and neutrons are called atomic weight.
Atomic/crystallographic planes:
Layers of atoms/planes along which atoms are arranged.
Miller indices:
System of rotation for designating crystallographic planes and directing of
crystals.

Co-ordinate number:
No. of nearest atoms directly surrounding a given atom in a crystal i.e. nearest
neighbours to an atom in a crystal.
Atomic packing factor (APF):
Atomic packing is defined as the packing of atoms in a unit cell of the crystal
structure of a material. Packing arrangement of atom depends on the following factors:
(i) The relative radius of the atoms involved
(ii) Character of bonding between atoms.
Volume of atoms contained in each unit cell
APF =
volume of the unit cell
 APF gives % of space within each unit cell of a crystal structure which is packed
with atoms. On the other hand it also gives us information on the free space available
with in unit cell. It determines density of packing in crystal.
Simple Cubic (SC):

It having one atom at each of 8 corners the side of cube is ‘a’.

Ex: Nacl, Manganese.
A → lattice constant r → atomic radius
The center of each atom coincides with the different corners of the cube and the
atoms touch each other at their periphery.
Let us take a = 2r.
There are 8 corners of the cube and at each corner there is an atom. Each
corner atom is shared by 8 adjoining cubes.
∴ The shape of the cube (or) No.of atoms in one sc unit cell = 1
8 × 8 =1
volume of atoms no.of atoms × volume of each atom
APF = =
volume of unit cell volume of unit cell
4
1× π r 3
= 3 (Consider atom shape is like sphere so v = 4 π r3).
3
3
a
4 . π r3
=
3.(2r )3
= 0.52.

APF = 52 %. ∴ 52 % of space inside the unit cell f a SC is packed with atoms.

Remaining 48 % is empty space.
Body Centred Cubic ( BCC):
It has one atom at the center of the cube along with atoms at each corner of the
cube. Ex: Cr, W, Na, α - iron, γ - iron, v, Mo, Mn.
No. of atoms in B.C.C:
Each corner atom is shared by 8 adjoining cubes and the new center atom is not
shared by any adjoining cube.
8 atoms at the corner × 1
8 = 1 atom
1 center atom = 1 atom
Total = 2 atoms.
T find ‘a’ in terms of ‘r’:
From fig, xy = a 2 + a 2 = 2a 2 = 2 a
Similarly, (xz)2 = (4r)2 = ( 2 a)2 + a2 = 2a2 + a2 = 3a2
4r = 3 a.
4r
a=
3
no.of atoms × volume of each atom
APF=
volume of unit cell
4 2 × 4πr 3
2× π r 3
3
= 3 =  4r 
3×  
a3  3
π
=
8
APF = 0.68

Face Centred cubic (FCC):

It has an atom at each corner of the cube and in addition, it has one atom at
(the intersection of the diagonals of) each f the six faces of the cube.
Ex: Al, Cu, Ag, Pb, γ Fe, Ca.
No.of atoms in FCC:
Each corner atom is shared by 8 adjoining cubes and each face atom is shared by
only two cubes (i.e) one this cube and the second adjacent one). The unit cell contains
8 atoms at the corner × 1/8 = 1 atom
6 face centered atom × ½ = 3 atom
Total = 4 atoms
To find ‘a’ interms of ‘r’:
(4r)2 = a2 + a2
4r = a 2 + a 2 = 2a 2 = 2 a
a=
4r
2
no.of atoms × volume of each atom
APF =
volume of unit cell
4
4 × π r3
3
= 3
 4r 
3 
 2
2π
= APF = 0.74
6

Hexagonal Closed Packed (HCP):

It consists
(i) One atom at each corner of the hexagon
(ii) One atom at the center of the two hexagonal faces
(iii) 3 atoms are mounted in between 2 faces of the hexagon.

Ex: Zn, Cd, Mg, Beryllium.

No.of atoms:
Each of the 12 atoms at the corner of the top faces
base are shared by 6 HCP Unit cells = 12 × 1/6 = 2 atoms.
The atoms at the center of the top face and
base are each shared by only two unit cells = 2 × ½ = 1 atom
3 full atoms with in the unit cells =3 = 3 atoms
Total = 6 atoms

‘a’ in terms of ‘r’:

The corner of atoms touch their neighboring atoms are periphery ⇒ a = 2r.
height of the hexagonal prism
[C] = 1.633 a.
side of the hexagonal face
APF: Area of ∆DFH = ½ × base × height
= ½ × a × a sin 60o
Totally 6 triangles are there
So area of hexagon = 6 × ½ a2 sin 60o = 3a2 sin 60o
Volume of the HCP unit cell = Area of base × height
= 3a2 sin 60o × C.
= 3a2 . sin 60o × 1.633 a.
Volume of a atoms per unitcell
APF =
volume of the unitcell

No.of atoms × vol of the atoms

=
vol of the unitcell
6 × 4 πr 3
= 3
3a sin 60 × 1.633a
2 o

=
6× 4 π a
3
( )
2
3

APF = 0.74.
3a sin 60 × 1.633a
2

In all, HCP & FCC are more densely packed. SC is the least densely packed. BCC
will come in between SC & FCC.

Imperfections in metal Crystals:

Crystal: Atoms, ions, molecules arranged in a pattern which is repetitive three
dimensions. Ideal Crystal: Atomic arrangement is perfectly regular and continuous
throughout. Real Crystal: Cast/ welded objects are never perfect. The lattice distortion,
various imperfections, irregularities/ defects are generally present in them. Due to the
imperfections of the crystal the physical and mechanical properties of engineering metals
and alloys are affected.

Crystal Imperfections
Point Defects Line Defects Planner, surface, interfacial Volume
grain boundaries defects Defects

(i) Vacancy (i) Edge dislocation (i) Grain boundaries

(ii) Interstitialcies (ii) Screw dislocation (ii) Tilt boundaries

(iii) Impurities (iii) Twin boundaries

(iv) Electronic defects

Point Defects:
- Imperfect point like regions in the crystal.
- Completely local in its effect eg) Vacant lattice site.
- Point defect increases the internal energy as compared to the perfect crystal
a) Vacancy:
- Unoccupied atom position with in a crystal lattice.
- Vacancies are simply empty atom sites
- Vacancies may occur as a result of imperfect packing during the original
crystallization (or) they may arise from thermal vibrations of atoms at
elevated temperature, because as thermal energy is increased there is a
higher probability that individual atoms will jump out of their position of
lowest energy.
Industrial process of annealing, homogenization, precipitation, sintering, surface
hardening, oxidation and creep, the transport of atoms through the lattice with the help
of vacancies.

Schottky defect:
It is closely related to vacancies and is formed when an atom/ ion is removed from a
normal lattice site and replaced in an average position on the surface of the crystal.
When vacancies are created by movement of atoms from positions inside the
crystal to positions on the surface of the crystal.

b) Interstitialcies:
 A small sized foreign atom occupies the space in between the atoms of a crystal
without dislodging any of the parent atoms. The interstitial atom may be lodged within a
crystal structure, particularly if the atomic packing factor is low. Interstitially produces
atomic distortion because interstitial atom tends to push the surrounding atoms further
apart, unless the interstitial atom is smaller than the rest of the atoms of the crystal.
Frankel’s defect:
- it is closely related to interstiitialices
- An ion displaced from the lattice into an interstitial site.
The ions of two different kinds of atoms are known as cations and anions.
Cations are smaller ions while anions are the larger ions. Cations may easily get
displaced into the void. Anions, on account of their larger size, donot displace in small
sized voids. The presence of this defect does not change the overall electrical neutrality
of the crystal.

Ex: Imperfections in CaF2 & silver halides.

− EF
nF = N L N I .e KT absolute temperature
Boltzoman constant
Energy formation of frankel defect
No.of interstitial sites
No.of lattice sites occupied by ions/m3.
No.of Frenkel defects.
c) Impurities:
- Impurities are compositional Defects.
- It may be small particles in the structure (or) foreign atoms in the lattice. It
has atomic radius and electronic structure differing from the host atoms.
substitutional
Impurity
Interstitial
 Substitutional: It is created when a foreign atom substitutes a parent atom in the
lattice structure. Zn atom replaces a Cu atom in the FCC statement of Cu. Interstitial
Impurity: Foreign atom occupy positions between the atoms of the ideal crystal.
Impurity defect occur in metallic, covalant, ionic solids and processes such as diffusion,
phase transformation.
d) Electronic Defects:
Result of errors in charge distribution in solids.
Ex: An Impurity atom, whether interstitial (or) substitutional may have a charge
quite different from that of the host atoms and hence may produce local electronic
disturbances. These all are called electronic imperfections and is necessary to explain
electrical conductivity and related phenomena in solids.
Line Defects:
- Most important two dimensional/line defect is the dislocation.
- It is a line defect where an uniform alignment of atoms is broken to form a
discontinuity.
- It is a disturbed region between two substantially (solid strong) perfect parts
of a crystal.

- Dislocation is a defect in a crystal structure whereby a part plane of atoms is

displaced from its symmetrically stable position in the array.
- It is responsible for the phenomenon of slip (All atoms in one block move
over the same distance).
- It is the region of localized lattice disturbance separating the slipped and
unslipped regions of a crystal.
- It is intimately connected with strain hardening (metal becomes harder &
stronger when it is plastically deformed (Ex) rolling), yield point (point at
plastic deformation), fatigue (Components have to withstand different kinds of
load at different times), creep, brittle fracture.
Types: a. Edge Dislocation:
In edge dislocation the Burger’s vector lies at an angle to the line of dislocation,
along the axis of rows of atoms in the same plane. In this edge dislocation, the starting
point and end point both won’t coincide. So the vector ‘b’ connecting the end point with
starting point is the burger’s vector of the dislocation.
 Due to presence of extra row means that adjacent atoms are displaced elastically
and consequently from both sides elastic forces are exerted on the dislocation. These
forces balance out, so that it is easy to move dislocation from one position to another.
Under shear stress a positive dislocation (⊥) moves to right and negative
dislocation (T) moves to left. Edge dislocation used for slip in plastic flow during
mechanical working. It moves in the direction of burger’s vector. Burger’s vector: The
magnitude and direction of displacement of atoms in a dislocation is defined by a vector
called burger’s vector. It lies perpendicular to the edge dislocating line.

b) Screw Dislocation:

Burger’s vector lies parallel to the dislocation line along the axis of a line of atoms
in the same plane. To form the screw dislocation more forces are required and speed of
movement is low compared to the edge dislocation.
Generally the dislocations arise in crystal due to
(i) Thermal stress
(ii) External stress causing plastic flow
 (iii) Phase transformation
(iv) Segregation of solute atoms causing mistakes.

Surface Defects:
Due to finite size of crystals, bonds are broken on the surfaces for want of
neighboring atoms. Lines joining various atoms is called grain boundary. Grain: Growth
of crystals in a direct consequence of addition of atom. The crystal growth randomly so
impinge together, some atoms will be between the crystals. That atoms wont join due to
the opposing forces. These atoms occupy positions at the junctions of adjoin crystal that
junction will differ in non crystalline materials by one boundary region. That region is
called grain boundary.

a. Grain boundaries:
It is formed when two growing grain surfaces meet. It is a transition region and it
is a three dimensional surface. In Grain Boundary the atomic packing is imperfect. All
the grain boundary between two adjacent grains there is a transition done which is not
aligned with either grain.
b. Tilt boundaries:
It is the low angle grain boundary where the orientation grain 1 difference
between two neighbouring crystals is less than 10o. Limited to a ten edge dislocations,
located one below the other
 .
c. Twin boundaries:

Where the atomic arrangement on one side of the twin boundary. It separate
two parts of crystal having the same orientation and they look like mirror image of each
other. It will be form only annealing and mechanical working of metals.
Volume Defects:
These are like cracks, foreign inclusions, blowholes etc which are three
dimensional and much larger than other type of defects. It will come mainly into solids
during processing, fabrication techniques and have a considerable effective of a
material.
Effect of Imperfections:
1. Larger foreign atom induces the compressive. Stress and strain smaller atom
induces the tensile stress & strain.
2. Inertial atom induces strains around its surroundings.
3. Stability of crystal is affected
4. Imperfections mainly affect the
(i) Flow & fracture characteristics
(ii) Crystal growth
(iii) Electrical properties including semi-conductor behaviour
(iv) Diffusion mechanism
(v) Creep of metals and alloys
(vi) Annealing, precipitation
(vii) Oxidation, corrosion
Need the study of Imperfections: Better understanding of them & how they affect metal
properties. Possibilities of minimizing
 2. Atomic diffusion:
Diffusion:
- It is the movement of atoms & molecules between different regions in a solid, liquid
(or) gas.
- It is the movement of atoms and molecules to new sites within a material, tending to
make the composition of all parts uniform.
Ex: Homogenization of a cast alloy
- It is the result of thermal agitation. Diffusion becomes more as temperature rises.
- When the concentration of atoms of one element is higher at one point than ar another,
(in an alloy) the atoms will diffuse from the region of higher concentration to that of
lower concentration.
- It is the migration of atoms from their original lattice in a structure to other sites.
- It is in gases state is very rapid because there is hardly any obstruction from other
atoms/ molecules. Diffusion takes place in liquids also where the atoms are more closely
spaced. But in solids, although diffusion in present, the rate of diffusion is very slow.
Region of high Region of low
concentration Diffusion concentration

Applications of Diffusion:
Galvanizing
1. Metal bonding Welding, Brazing, Soldering

Metal Cladding
2. Homegenising treatment eg) Annealing of castings.
3. Recovery and Recrystallization
4. Phase changes eg) γ - α iron
5. Precipitation of phases in age hardening
6. Powder metallurgy (formation of bonds between metals)
7. Oxidation of metals
8. Surface treatment of steels (Carburizing, Nitriding etc)

Types of Diffusion:
1. Self Diffusion:
- It is the migration of atoms in pure materials.
- Here a particular atom does not remain at one equilibrium site indefinitely
rather it moves from place to place in the material. In a pure material such
movement is known as self diffusion.
- It can be detected experimentally by radioactive tracers
- (Ex) Radioactive Ni (Ni59] can be plated on to the surface of normal Ni.

2. Inter Diffusion:
- It occurs in binary metallic alloys
- i.e. Diffusion of one component through the lattice of the other. Eg) Ni-Cu
system. The diffusion of Cu through the lattice of Ni.

3. Surface Diffusion:
It is the atomic migration along the surface of a phase (Ex) solid – vapour
interface.

4. Grain boundary diffusion:

Atomic migration along the grain boundaries.

5. Volume diffusion:
 Atomic migration through the bulk of the material.

Mechanisms of Diffusion:
1. Atomic diffusion by Vacancy mechanism:
If vacancy (or) other crystal defects are present in a crystalline lattice then atoms
can move in these lattice from one atomic site to another provided that sufficient
activation energy is present produced by the thermal vibration of atoms. Diffusion rate is
directly proportional to temperature.

The atom has sufficient activation energy to overcome energy barrier (above
shown in fig) then it can move into the vacant site. Diffusion of this type known as self
diffusion.
Activation energy self of diffusion = Activation energy to form a vacancy + Activation
energy to move the vacancy

Activation Energy:
In any diffusion mechanism, work must be done if the atoms are to move from
one place to another. To do this work, an energy barrier must be overcome for atoms to
begin jump from one site to another site. The minimum energy is required by the atoms
to overcome this energy barrier is called the activation of energy of diffusion. In a
vacancy mechanism, energy is required to pull the atoms from their original positions to
vacant atomic sites.
It depends on no. of factors
(i) A small atom has lower activation energy than a large atom.
(ii) Interstitial movement requires more energy than vacancy movements.
(i) High activation energy required for atomic diffusion for those materials,
which are strongly bonded and have higher melting point.
Ex: W, SiC, Boron Carbide.
Atomic diffusion by interstitial mechanism:
The interstitial diffusion of atoms in crystal lattices takes place when atoms move
from one interstitial site to another neighbouring interstitial site without permanently
displacing any of the atoms in the matrix crystal lattice. The activation energy is required
to force the atoms between other atoms to different interstitial position.
Diffusion by interchange of atoms:

Atoms exchange their positions and hence movement of atoms take place.

Fick’s first law of diffusion (Steady state diffusion):

The flux of atoms [ J ] moving across a unit surface area ion unit time is
dc
proportional to the concentration gradient .
dx
Under steady State flow:
C1
⇒

X1
Volume Concentration of
atoms
C2
x2

Distance , x
dc
J=-D
dx
 C2 − C1 
J = - D  
 x2 − x1 
J : No.of atoms/ unit area of diffusion
per unit time (atoms/m2.sec)
C: Volume concentration of atoms (atoms/m3)
X: Distance between the planes in the direction of flow of atoms (m)
D: Diffusion coefficient (or) diffusivity (m2/sec)
Diffusivity : The amount of material transport per unit area in unit time, having unit
concentration gradient is called diffusivity. Positive sign indicates that movements
of atoms from higher concentration to lower concentration.

Fick’s Second law of diffusion (Non-steady state diffusion):

The rate of change of composition is proportional to the second derivative of the
concentration gradient. It relates to the change in concentration with time.
dc d  dc 
= D 
dt dx  dx 
dc d 2C
=D 2
dt dx
A more general equation is required to take care of non-stationary state of flow
i.e., those in which the concentration in a fixed region changes with time.
dc
→ is the rate of accumulation of the diffusing material at a point where the
dt
dc
concentration gradient .
dx
Factors affecting the diffusivity:
1. Temperature:
Arrhenius – type equation:

 − Q 
D = Do  RT  absolute temperature in Kelvin
e

Universal gas constant (8.314 J/mol-k)

Activation energy for diffusion (J/mol)
Constant (m2/sec).
Diffusion coefficient (m2/sec)

High temperature provides the necessary activation energy to the atoms to begin
diffusion. So a higher temperature initiates diffusion faster.

2. Pressure:
To break the bond of atoms more pressure is needed.

3. Crystal Structure:
If a crystal structure is distorted. i.e., If there are more imperfections, the rate of
diffusion is increased.

4. Grain Boundaries:
It process more rapidly along the grain boundaries since it is zone of crysatal
imperfections.

5. Concentration:
If concentration will vary, the diffusivity also varying.

6. Grain size:
In fine grained material, the diffusivity is high.

7. Atomic size:
Diffusion occurs more rapidly when the size of the diffusing atom is less.
Ex: Carbon in iron.
 3. Mechanical behaviour:
Testing of Materials:
Needs of material testing:
• To determine the surface/sub-surface defects in raw material (or) processed
parts.
• To check chemical composition
• To determine suitability of a material for a particular application
• To determine date i.e., force Vs deformation
• To assess numerically the fundamental mechanical properties of ductility,
malleability, toughness.

Classiffication of Tests:
1. Destructive Test:
After tested, the specimen either breaks (or) no longer useful for future use. Ex:
Tensile, impact, bend, Torsion, fatigue test.
2. Non-destructive Test:
Component does not break even after being test. It can be used for the purpose
for which it was made. Ex: X – ray test, ultrasonic inspection.
3. Process Inspection:
It is used to find the quality like receiving / incoming inspection, conveyor
inspection, stock inspection. American society for testing material (ASTM) has already
standardized the test procedure which is useful in comparing the results and improve
their reproducibility.

Mechanical properties determine the behaviour of energy materials under applied

forces and loads. Materials to applied forces will depend on the type of bonding, one
structural arrangement of atoms, no. of imperfections. For manufacturing process and
operations, the mechanical properties are highly variable characteristics.

Mechanical Properties in elastic region:

1. Stiffness:
It is the resistance offered by the material to elastic deformation. Materials
having high stiffness show less deformation under load. The modulas of elasticity /
Young’s modulas itself it measures is the measure of stiffness of a material.
Materials having high value of E show higher stiffness.
2. Elasticity:
Loading a solid will change its dimensions, but the resulting deformation will
disappear upon unloading.
3. Resilience:
Ability of the material to absorb energy when it is loaded elastically and give back
the same energy when the load is removed. So long as the body remains loaded, it
contains stored energy within itself, which is called Strain energy.
4. Modulas of Resilience:
The strain energy stored by a material per unit volume at the elastic limit. It gives
the capacity of the material to withstand shocks & vibrations.

Ur = σ s2
2E
σ s → Stress at elastic limit E → Young’s modulas.
Area under the elastic limit of a stress strain curve gives a measure of the elastic
resilience. Materials having high elastic limit have high resilience. Materials having high
resilience are used for springs.
End of elastic region:
At the end of elastic region either the specimen has to get break (brittle material)
(or) this specimen might start yielding as in case of ductile material.

Yield point phenomenon:

It is that point during loading of the specimen when it begins plastically
deforming.
Mechanical properties in the plastic region:
1.Yield Strength:
Stress at which plastic deformation begins without any appreciable increase in load.
Ability of a material to resist plastic deformation.
Py
Yield Strength (σy) = .
Ao
2. Offset yield strength:
Some materials like Mild steel exhibit a definite yield point. But in case of Cast
iron does not have definite yield point. So far such materials, which do not exhibit a
definite yield point, quantity called offset yield strength.

Offset of 0.2 % is taken on the x-axis. Line is similar to the straight line portion
of the curve is drawn from that point.
3. Ductility:
Capacity of a material to undergo deformation under tension without rupture. We
can draw large section to small section such as in wire drawing. It is expressed % of
Elongation & % reduction.

l f − lo
% elongation ⇒ × 100 Where lf is final length and lo is original length.
lo
 Ao − A f
% area Reeducation ⇒ × 100 Where Ao is original area and Af is final area
Ao
4. Malleability:
Ability of the material to undergo plastic deformation under compressive load
without rupture. Ability of a material formed by hammering (or) rolling. We can
flattend the material into thin sheets without cracking.

lo − l f
% of reduction in length = × 100
lo
Af − Ao
% of excess in area = × 100 . Ex: Lead
Ao
5. Ultimate Tensile Strength:
After the yield point on the stress-strain curve the specimen undergoes
continuous plastic deformation with increasing load. This load reaches a certain
maximum value after which the specimen does not take any more load. At the point of
ultimate load, the area of cross section of the specimen starts reducing considerably is
known as necking.
Ultimate load
Ultimate Tensile strength: .
Ao
6. Fracture Strength:
After the load is reached, the load drops at a particular load, fracture takes place.
The stress corresponding to this load, whose the actual fracture takes place,
fracture strength of the material.

Pf
Fracture strength:
Ao
Brittleness: It is the opposite of ductility and malleability. It is defined as a tendency to
fracture without appreciable deformation. These materials having elongation less that 5
%. Ex: C.I
Hardness:
Resistance of a material to plastic deformation usually by indentation. Resistance
to penetration. It is a measure of permanent deformation and is related to the bonds in
lattice structure.
Fatigue:
When subjected to fluctuating/repeated loads materials tend to develop a
characteristic behaviour, which is different from that under steady load. Here fracture
takes place under repeated loads whose non-value is less than the Ultimate Tensile
Stress (UTS) of the material (Under Steady Load). Failures in metals like bridges,
aircrafts, and machine component.
Impact Strength:
To resist (or) absorb shock energy before it fracture is called impact strength.
Toughness:
Ability of the material to absorb energy during plastic deformation upto fracture.
The ability of the material to withstand bending without fracture.
Ex: “Cu”
Creep:
It is the time dependent permanent deformation that occurs under stress.
True stress and true strain:
True stress & True strain give a correct picture of stress & strain in the specimen
at various intervals of the test. True stress is defined as the load divided by the
instantaneous minimum cross sectional area of the specimen. True strain is defined as
the integral of the ratio of an incremental change in length to the instantaneous length of
the specimen.
L1 − Lo L2 − L1 L3 − L2
i.e., True strain (∑T): ∑ = + + + ....
Lo L1 L2
Li
dL
= ∫
Lo L

Li
∑T = ln
Lo
Li : length of the specimen at any instant of test (I = 1,2,3----)
Relationship between true strain & conventional strain:
∆L
Conventional strain: (∈) =
Lo
Li − Lo Li
∈= = −1
Lo Lo
Li
∈+1=
Lo

Li
ln (∈ + 1) = ln
Lo
ln (∈ + 1) = ∈T.

Impact Test:
 In
many applications like connecting rods, forging hammers, automobiles etc. To study the
behavior of materials under dynamic loading. Components are subjected to impact
load/ shock loads which may be applied suddenly. The stress induced in the
components are may times more than the stress produced by gradual loading. Hence
materials should be able to sustain such loads. ∴ impact tests are performed to assess
shock absorbing capability of materials subjected to suddenly applied shock loads.
Fracture energy
Impact strength =
Area of the cross sec tion at the notch
Hardness Test:
Hardness is a resistance of metal plastic deformation by indentation. The term
may also refer to stiffness (or) temper (or) resistance to scratching, abrasion (or)
cutting. It is a measure of permanent deformation and is reflected to the bond in lattice
structure. Hardness test consists of pressing the surface of material with a sharp edged
indenter. The shape of the indenter, which may be spherical ball, a cone (or) pyramid.
The depth & size of the indentation depends on the resistance of the material against
such penetration.
Brinell Hardness Test:

As per ASTM spectrum a 10 mm diameter ball is used for the purpose.

Specimen is placed over on the anvil. The hand wheel is rotated so that the specimen
along with anvil moves up and contracts with ball. Load is applied mechanically (by gear
driven screw) (or) hydraulically (by oil pressure) and the ball presses in the specimen.
The diameter of the indentation made the specimen by the pressed ball is measured by
the use of a micrometer microscope. The indentation diameter have to take three times
and find out the average diameter.
P
BHN = πD
2
(
D − D2 − d 2 )
P : load on indenter
D : Diameter of steel ball
D : Average diameter of indentation
It is used for iron materials.
Rockwell hardness Test:
It differs from brinell in that the indentors and the loads are smaller and ∴ the
resulting indentation on the specimen is smaller. It is very fast because we are taking the
direct reading. No need to measure the indentation diameter. No need any surface
preparation (polishing) of the specimen whose hardness to be measured.

It consists two scales ‘B’ & ‘C’. B scale: stall ball indenter.
C scale: Diamond cone indenter: It is used for alloy C.I. ‘C’ scale is using for
testing materials harder than ‘B’. Hard wheel is tuned, thereby raising the test piece up
against steel ball indenter till the needle reaches zero. This applies minor load. Major
load is applied by pressing the crank provided on the right hand side of the machine.
Crank is turned in the reverse duration thereby withdrawing major load but
leaving minor load applied.

4. Plastic deformation of a single crystal by slip and

twinning:
 The stresses in metal piece cross the elastic limit the specimen gets plastically
deformed.

Plastic deformation is accompanied by changed in both internal & external state

and it is not reversible. Permanent deformation involves distortion of the crystal &
microstructure. It carried out as in working and shaping processes such as bending,
stamping, drawing, spinning, rolling, forging, Extruding etc. The stamping of automobile
parts, pressing of ship shafting, spinning of Al pans, rolling of boiler plates, rails, I
beams, drawing of wire, extension of telephone cables & forging of crankshaft all
operations involve plastic deformation of metals & alloys.
Single Crystal:
- Periodic & repeated arrangement of atoms is perfect (or) extends throughout
through the entirety of the specimen without interruption.
- It is a solid object of uniform chemical composition which as it occurs in
nature (or) formed in laboratory by solidification of liquid, precipitation from
solution.
- It does not have grain boundary whereas polycrystalline material have grain
boundary.

Single crystals are used in semiconductors, computer memory systems.

Plastic deformation by Slip:

Deformation by Slip:
 Slip is defined as that mechanism of deformation where in one part of the crystal
moves/ slips over another part along certain planes known as slip plane. Slip due to pure
shearing stresses that are acting across the specimen irrespective of whether the crystal
is subjected to tensile/ compressive stresses.

Representation of the greater resistance to slip along planes having lower atomic
density due to necessity for side motion. Due to increase of tensile load, the blocks again
divided and relative displacement has taken place. Slip can be imagined to a park of
playing cards when they are shuffled. Slip occurs due to the movement of dislocations
through the crystal that movement compared to the movement of an earthworm as it
arches its back in order to move forward.

Slip is governed by the following major rules:

1. It occurs only along certain crystallograpohic planes and directions
2. Slip occurs only along the most closely packed set of planes
3. Slip direction is that direction on when the atoms are most closely spaced.
Slip occurs on that system where the shear stress is maximum i.e., at 45o to the applied
tensile load.
Critically Resolved shear stress (CRSS) for Slip:
Slip occurs when the shear stress resolved along these planes reaches a certain
value is called CRSS. CRSS depends of the material, composition, temperature and
independent of structure.
Let us consider a cylindrical shaped single crystal subjected to a tensile load ‘F’
acting in the direction of axis.

φ is a Angle between normal to slip plane & direction of load

λ is Angle between slip direction & direction of load
F is Tensile load
δ is Shear force
A is Area of Compressive stress of cylindrical specimen
Ao is Area of slip plane
 S
Cos λ = ⇒ S = F Cos λ
F
A
Cos φ = ⇒ A = Ao Cos φ
Ao

Ao = A
Cosφ
S F
Shear Stress (τ ) = = cos λ cos φ (Schmid’s law)
Ao A
(where λ = φ = 45o)

F 1 1 F
τ= . . =
A 2 2 2A
F
τ=
2
Slip always begins when the shear stress across the slip plane reaches τ value, a
change in the shape of specimen occurs, parts of specimen are displaced relative to each
other along one or more planes known as slip planes.
∴ The value of maximum shear stress acting at an angle of 45o is equal to half of
the applied tensile load.
Plastic deformation by twining:

Zn, Tin, iron deform by twining.

 In twinning each plane of atoms move through a definite distance and in the
same direction. The extent of movement of each plane is proportional to its distance
from the twining plane, as shown in fig. The distance moved by each successive
atomic plane is greater than the previous plane by a few atomic spacings. When a shear
stress is applied the crystal will twin about the twinning plane in such a way that the
region to the left of the twinning plane is not deformed where as the region to the right
is deformed. The atomic arrangement on either side of the twinned plane is in such a
way they are mirror reflections of each other. Twins are known as anneling twins when
they are produced during annealing heat treatment and mechanical twins when they are
produced by mechanical deformation of metals.
Mechanism of twinning:
Partial dislocation line moves up (or) down by one plane each time the twinning
dislocation goes round it. Twinning may be caused by impact, by thermal treatment (or)
by plastic deformation.
Slip Twinning
1. All atoms in one block move over the 1. Different planes of atoms moves
same distance. fractional distances depending on their
2. Under microscope, slip appears as distance from the twinning plane.
thin line. 2. It appears as broad lines (or) bands.
3. There is very little change in lattice 3. Lattice orientation changes in the
orientation. twinned regions.
4. It requires lower shear stress. 4. It requires higher shear stress.
5. Occurs in metals having more 5. Occurs in metals having less number
number of slip systems. of slip systems.

5. Fracture
Fracture:
Failure processes in metals such as fracture, fatigue creep.
Failure: Unacceptable deformation (or) fracture.
A material can fail, when under an applied mechanical force, another is by
buckling as in the case of overloaded column.
Reasons for failure:
(i) Improper material selection
(ii) Processing
(iii) Inadequate design of the component
Responsibility of design engineer:
(i) Plan for possible failure
(ii) Event that failure occurs
(iii) To overcome the failure
(iv) To take necessary preventive measures against future incident.
Failure analysis:
(i) What was the nature of the stresses at the time of failure?
(ii) Was the part subjected overload?
(iii) Was the part installed properly?
(iv) Was the part maintained properly & serviced periodically?
(v) Fracture occurred in surface/subsurface?
(vi) Did the failure start at one point/ overall points?
(vii) Did the crack start recently (or) had it been growing for a long time?
Needs of failure analysis:
(i) Failures affect to manufacture’s reputation for reliability.
(ii) Because of failure the person may injury/ death.
We have to analyses the failure in various ways.
(i) Laboratory and field testing permit the evaluation of the effects of material, design,
fabrication variables on performance of the part under controlled conditions.
(ii) Service history documents (Time, temperature, loading, environment).
Method to investigate a failure:
1. Initial Observations:
- Record all the photographs
- Visual study of the actual component that failed.
2. Background data:
- Collect all data concerned with specifications & drawings, component design,
fabrication, repairs, maintenance and service use.
3. Laboratory Studies:
- Verify the chemical composition of the material within the limit.
- Check dimensions & properties of the composition.
- check heat treatment, to check for processing defects.
Fracture:
It is the end result of plastic deformation.
It is the separation of body under stress/ load into two (or) more parts.
It is the separation of the body is caused either by physical/chemical forces.
During fracture the atomic bonds are broken and new surface are formed.
Process of fracture:
It consists of 2 components
(i) Crack initiation (ii) crack propagation.
Types of fracture:
(i) Brittle fracture
Highly ductile fracture
(ii) Ductile
Moderately ductile fracture
Fracture depends on:
(i) Nature of material (ii) Temperature, (iii) State of stress (iv) Rate of loading.
Brittle fracture:
It occurred by rapid rate of crack propagation. It is normal to the direction of
tensile load. It occurred only in B.C.C & H.C.P metals but not in F.C.C metals. In brittle
fraction the small cavities will join together to form a crack and this crack propagates,
but all the stages happen instantly and the material failure. It may occur at low
temperature in pressure vessels, bridges, ships, pipe lines.
Brittle fracture increases with
(i) Decreasing temperature
(ii) Increasing strain rate
Ductile fracture:
It is characterized by an appreciable plastic deformation prior to during the
propagation of crack. It is always preceded by the localized deformation called necking.
Ex: Au, Pb may actually be drawn to a point before they rupture.
(a) Highly ductile fracture:

Material necks down to a point fracture and yields to 100% reduction in cross
sectional area. Ex: Pure gold, lead.
(b) Moderately ductile fracture [Cup & cone type]:This fracture surface has 2
portions.
1. Under tensile load the neck deformation takes place.
2. Many fine cavities form in the interior of the cross section.
3. Due to the increased load fine cavities join together to form an elliptical crack which
has its long axis perpendicular to the direction of load.
4. Crack continuous to grow in a direction similar to its major axis.
5. Fracture occurs due to rapid propagation of crack.
 In fracture surface, one of the outer perimeter of the next where fracture takes
place by shear deformation at an angle of 45o approx to the tensile load because this is
the angle shear stress is maximum. The other portion in the interior which has irregular
appearance while the sheared portion will have a shiny surface.
Shear feature:
It occurs normally at 45o to the direction of tensile load.
It occurs as the result of extensive slip on the active slip plane.

6. Creep
Creep:
Under many service conditions, materials are required to sustain steady loads for
long periods of time and different temperature conditions (eg) furnace parts, bladed of a
turbine rotor, timber beams in the roof of a building, filament in vacuum tube. In these
cases time-dependent deformations can grow large and result in fracture of the member
without any increase in load.
Creep can be defined in the following ways:
 - Time dependent strain occurring under stress.
- Process of which plastic flow occurs when a constant stress is applied to a
metal for a prolonged period of time.
- Viscous flow in metals involving applied stress, time, temperature.
- It takes place and lead to fracture at static stresses much smaller than those
which will break the specimen when loaded quickly.
Creep Testing:

Objective:
To determine the creep limit or the limiting creep stress, defined as the stress
that will just not break the specimen when applied for an infinite period of time at a
specific constant temperature. Continues change in the deformation of metal at elevated
temperature when stressed below the yield point.
Test procedure:
Here the tension test run at constant load and constant temperature specimen
like as tension test specimen. With the specimen spot welded, one platinum wire and
one platinum tube. The wire slides inside the tube, reference marks on both observed
through a single telescope at the middle, the elongation can be measured on a scale
inside the telescope. The specimen is subjected to constant loading through a system of
dead weight & levers. A tubular, electrically heated furnance is made to fit around the
specimen. Elongated end of the specimen may have thermocouple in each for
temperature measurement purpose.
Creep Curve:
 It is plotted between the % of elongation/ strain and the time for the entire
duration of test.

1. Primary creep/ Transient creep:

It is a decreasing creep rate because of the work hardening process resulting
from deformation. It is similar in its mechanism to delayed elasticity. It is recoverable
one.
2. Secondary creep/ steady state creep:
The deformation continuous at an approximately constant rate. It may be
essentially viscous (or) plastic in character, depends upon stress level & temperature.
In this stage, a balance exist between rate of work hardening and rate of
softening because of recovery (or) recrystallisation.
3. Teritary Creep:
If the stress is sufficiently high & temperature also high there is a teritary stage in
which the creep rate accrderates until fracture occurs. It is because of structural changes
occurring in the metal.

7. Fatigue
Fatigue:
A component subjected to repeated loading develops a characteristic behaviour
fundamentally different from the behaviour of a metal part subjected to steady loads.
This behaviour is called fatigue.
Fatigue is marked by:
(i) Loss of strength
(ii) Loss of ductility
(iii) Increased uncertainity in both strength & service life.
Fatigue depends no.of. factors:
(i) Nature of loading (repeating/reversing)
(ii) Magnitude of maximum load
(iii) No.of. cycles to failure
(iv) Conditions of metal in the test piece
(v) surface finish of test piece
(vi) Temperature
(vii) Atom conditions
It will occur without any warning.
It is very important all the materials including.
Metals, Plastics, rubber & concrete:
All rotating parts such as axles & crankshafts are subjected to alternating stress,
aircraft wings are subject to repeated gust load, floor beam of bridges, piping are subject
to fatigue through temperature variations and consequent cycling of thermal stress.
Fatigue Testing:
It helps to estimate the endurance limit and endurance strength of a material. It
is dynamic type of test which determines relative behaviour of materials when subjected
to repeated/fluctuating load. It determines the resistance of a metal to repeated/
alternating loads.
Fatigue testing Machine:

Endurance limit is defined as the definite stress at and below which failure by fatigue
approximately does not take place.
 For clean steel this value is 0.46% of the Ultimate strength.
This Machine consists of:
(i) Electric motor is capable running at 10,000 rpm.
(ii) Large bearing is giving support to the specimen
(iii) Collect to hold the specimen
(iv) Rotating lever arm, subjected to downward force, for make the specimen bending.
Upper surface of the specimen remains in tension while the lower surfaces are in
compression. While the specimen rotating, that rotates in between maximum tensile
stress & minimum compressive stress.
The maximum value of the stress is usually lower than the yield strength of
material. The test is continued i.e., the cycles of the stress are applied until the specimen
fails (or) until a limiting no. of cycles has been reached. If a soft steel specimen able top
bear 5,00,000 cycles without failures. Then no. of same material are fatigue tested at
various stress levels and finally plotted in the logarithmic scale.
Stages of fatigue failure:
The specimen subjected to alternating tensile/compressive stresses. It has 3
stages.
1. Crack nucleation:
During first few cycles of loading, localized changes takes place in structure. By
using the sub-microscope we can identify the faults. It occurs only surface of the
specimen.
2. Crack growth:
Submicroscopic cracks formed grow as the cycle of loading continue and becomes
microscopic cracks.
3. Fracture:
When critical size is reached the crack propagates. Area of cross section will
reduce. So fracture finally occurs.
S – N Diagram

Fatigue Loadings:

(i) Reversed: When stress is zero stress amplitude is equal to the maximum stress.
(ii) Alternating/ Fluctuating: Mean stress is no longer zero.,
Maximum stress = Mean stress + Stress amplitude.
(iii) Repeated: It is the result of push-pull type arrangement can observe in lab testing.
(iv) Irregular: It can be found in aircraft, where the stress variation during flight is
random.

Fatigue Properties:
1. Fatigue life: It is the property of the individual specimen and is carried at after testing
a no.of specimens at the same stress.
2. Fatigue strength: Strength of a material for a particular fatigue life.
Factors Affecting fatigue
1. Temperature: Fatigue higher at low temperature.
2. Effect of stress concentration:
Fatigue cracks are nucleated in the region of such geometric irregularities. Actual
stress concentrations is measured by fatigue strength reaction factor.
Fatigue strength reaction factor =
Fatigue strength of a member without any stress concentration
Fatigue strength of the same member with stress concentration
3. Surface Roughness:
All fatigue cracks nucleate at the surface of the members the conditions of the
surface such as surface roughness and surface oxidation (or) corrosion are very
important. Smoothly polished specimens have higher fatigue strength.
4. Surface Residual Stress:
It arises during casting (or) during cold working when the plastic deformation not
uniform throughout the part.
 PART-B: METALLURGY
8. Solidification
Solidification is the process where liquid metal transforms not solid upon cooling.
The properties of the solidified metal depends on its microstructure. Microstructure turn
depends on the solidified mechanism employed to freeze metal. To obtain a sound
casting (Degree of metallic continuity and a casting will be sound) in foundry, we should
have more knowledge of solidification like wise, it prevent defects due to shrinkage of
the metal. During solidification the metallographic structure (We are dealing the material
in microstructure & macrostructure wise) consists of
(i) Grain shape, size, orientation
(ii) Distribution of alloying elements.
(iii) Underlying crystal structure and its imperfections.
Concept of solidification of metals:

Temp ↑ Liquid
Temperature↑
Liquid + solid
Freezing
Melting Temp Temp
Super Latent Solid
Solid Latent Heat Super Heat heat heat→
Time, enthalpy Time, enthalpy

Solidification of liquid metal consists of 2 stages:

(i) Nucleation of minute crystals.
(ii) Growth of these crystals into grains.
1. A metal in molten condition possesses high energy.
2. As the melt cools, it loses energy to form crystals.
3. Since heat loss is more rapid near mold walls than any other place.
4. As in liquid metal cools, the atoms gradually lose their energy and their movement of
atoms becomes less vigrous.
5. Then when atoms collide with each other, attractive forces are set up and atomic
bonds are reestablished between them.
6. Therefore small cluster of atoms, usually consisting of 2 to 3 atoms are formed at
several places in the molten metal and are known as nuclei.
7. It is the number of nuclei formed during the stage of nucleation which decides the
final grain structure of the solidified metal.
8. Nucleation is the starting point of the solidification process of any metal (or) alloy. In
this stage a no.of minute crystals nucleate throughout the melt.
9. In the crystal growth stage where the molten metal continues to solidify around the
nuclei which are already are formed.
10. The nuclei and the metal solidifying around them continuously release latent heats,
that heat is absorbed by the surrounding molten metal.
11. As the temperature decreases due to cooling the nuclei grow rapidly with atoms
attaches themselves in identical layers around the nuclei and a dentritic formation
takes place.
12. This kind of dendritic form together that forms dendritic growth.
13. When the big dendritic tree meets another, a grain boundary is formed the
grains/crystals. It marks the find end of solidification.

Solidification of pure metals:

Pure metals consists
(i) Excellent thermal & electrical conductivity (Ex: Cu & Al).
(ii) Higher ductility, melting point, lower yield point & tensile strength.
(iii) Better corrosion resistance compare than alloys.
Because of their higher melting points, pure metals exhibit certain difficulties in
casting
(i) difficulties during pouring
(ii) Greater tendancy towards cracking
(iii) Their mode of solidification, which may produce defective castings.

Cooling curves:

Pure metals melt and solidify at a single temperature, which may be termed as
melting/ freezing point. Above freezing point the metal is liquid, and below freezing point
it is in solid state. Liquid metals cools from A to B. B to C the melt liberates latent
heat of fusion, temperature remains constant.
In between B to C, partially liquid & partially solid. Form C to D, the solid metals
cools and tends to reach room temperature. The slopes of AB & CD depends upon the
special heats of liquid and solid metals respectively. The equilibrium cooling is occurred
due to the presence of foreign elements in the liquid metals. But in case of pure metals,
when it is poured into a mould, the absence of nuclei exist in solidification. So the
actual solidification starts form B’ i.e., below the freezing point. The liquid metal has
super cooled by an amount ∆T. This phenomenon known as super cooling (or) under
cooling. After the melt has under cooled, the solidified crystals liberate the latent heat of
fusion. At point C the metal has completely solidified and C to D represents the solid
metal cooling.
Solidification of alloys:
 An ally is defined as a combination of two or more elements of which at least one
of them is a metal and the resulting material should have metallic properties.

Ex: Steel, C.I. bronze.

Solidification in alloys takes place in 2 stages (i) Nucleation (ii) grain growth. Based on
solidification ranges, alloys can be divided by 3 types.
a. Solid Solution: Begin solidification at one temperature and end at an another
temperature i.e., solidify over range of temperature.
Ex: Solid-Solution alloys.
b. Pure eutectic:
Begin and end solidification at a constant temperature just like in pure metals.
c. Part solution & Part eutectic:
Begin solidification like a solid solution but end it like an eutectic i.e., the first half
of the solidification is over range of temperature and the second half is at a constant
temperature.
Solidification of alloys:
Alloyed metals having:
(i) Higher tensile strength
(ii) Better high temperature
(iii) Better corrosion resistance
(iv) Lower melting point
(v) Improved machinability, workability, castability

Main types of alloys

(a) Solid solution alloys:
(i) It exhibits differential freezing.
(ii) Because of that the solidification will begin at one temperature and end at another
temperature.
(iii) It is a mixing of two solids not a single phase.
Solid solution is defined as the solution in the solid state and consists of two kinds of
atoms combined in one space lattice. Ex: Cu-Ni & Ag-Au. Phase is defined as the
physically distinct region of matter having characteristic atomic structure and properties
which change continuously with temperature, composition (or) their thermodynamic
variables.

Liquidus line: Above which the alloy is in liquid state, where solidification start.
Solidus line: Below which the alloy is in solid state, where solidification complete.
Cast metal Structures:
When molten metal is poured into a mould and allowed to solidify, different grain
structure may result in the casting. Shape & size of the grains/crystals may differ from
net casting it others. It depends in several factors.
(i) Pouring temperature
(ii) Mass of metal
(iii) Mould material and its thermal conductivity
(iv) Composition of the alloy
3 Types of grain Structures: