Chapter 1

Simple Stress

1-1 INTRODUCTION

Three fundanicntal areas of enaneering mechanics are statics, dynamics. and

strength of materials, Statics and dynamics are devoted primarily to the study
of the external effects of forces on ritid bodies, that is, bodies for which the
change in shape (deformation) can be neglected.
In contrast, strength of materials deals with the relations between cxtemally
applied loads and their internal effects dn bodies. Moreover, the bodies are no
longer assumed to be ridd; the deformations. however small, are of major interest.
In mechanical de.sign, the engiveer must consider both dimensions and material
properties to satisf}r requirements of strength and rigidity. When loaded, a ma-
chine part or structure should r,either break, nor defom excessively.
The differences between riSd-body mechanics and strength of materials
can be further emphasized by considering the fol)owing example. For the bar in
Fig. I-I, it is a simple problem in statics to determine the force required to
sLipport the load 11'1. A moment summation about the pin §upporl determines
J'. This statics solution assumes the bar to be both ritid and strong enough to
support the load. In strength of materials, however, the solution must extend
further. We must investigate the bar itself to be sure that it will neither break
nor be so flexible that it bends without supporting the load.
P

Figime I-I Bar must neither break I)or

bend exoesrively.
Throughout this text we study the principles that govern the two funda-
mental concepts, strength and riridity. In this first chapter we start with simple
axial loadings; later, we consider twisting loads and bending loads; and finally,
we discuss simultaneous combinations of these three basic t!nrs of loadings.

1-2 ANALYSIS OF INTERNAL FOFtcES

Consider a body of arbitrary shape acted upon by the forces clown in Fig. I-2.
In statics, we would star( by determining the resultant Of the applied forces to
dcterminc whether or not the body remains at fst lf the resultant is zero, ve
1
 1-5Twi

have static equilibrium-a condition 8cnerally pe`miling in sthmum If the

resultant is not zero, we may apply inerlia forces to bring about dynamic equi-
librium.Suchcasesarediscussedlaterunderdynaniclcading,Forthcpresent,
we consider only cases involving static equilibrium,
Instrengthofmaterials,vemakeanadditionalinvestigrtionoftbeintul
distribution of the forocs. This is done by passing an exploratory sexfrooi .ng
through the bedy and exposing the internal forces acting on the exploratory
section that are necesary to maintain the equilibrium of either segmctlt. In
general, the internal forces nduee to a force and a couple that. for convenience,
are resolved into components that are nomal and tangent to the section. as
shown in Fig. I-3.

a.tEo:-:ct==nocafm-
The oririn of the reference ares is alvey8 Calm at the oentroid wliich i8
the key rrference point of the section. Although we ape not yet ocady to chow
why this is so, ve shall prove it as we progress; in particular, ve sliall prove it
for normal fonts in the next article. If the jr axis is nomal to the Section. the
section is knoun as the jr surface or, more briefly, the x face.
The notation used in Fur I-3 idelitifics both the cxplontory section and
thedirectionofthefolceormomcntcomponent.Thefirstsobscriptdenctesthe
face on which the component acts; the second sotrdpt indicate.the direction
of the particular component. Thus Prty is the fcoc on the j[ face acting in the y
dinaton.
ia ^N^nce cF wTERA^L Foncae

EricodtpotmttedectBadifrotedinoftheartyedloadsontheDm-
tB and i. given a qxrial name. as fuloou=

P. Aria/ /one. This component neasims the puuing (or

p`Iching) aedon perpendinilar to the Section. A pull dpr
rcsmc a ¢endle force that lcods to dongive the ncmbcr,
whcceap`LchisaconBttriveforcetluttcndstochortcn
it. It is often dcncted ty P.
P.,, PB S#car/orces. Thee ale componcBt8 Of the total rcsisbcoe
todidin8tbepartiontoonerideoftheexdomorysection

ffifi#d=¥ie=ifFty6K¥ndis"###
„ ronp4e. This compormt mcasiifes the resistance to
trrirdng the mcDtxp and is commonly given the qrmbol
I.
Wrty, "A Be»diqg mamcas. These conpoDenc meas`ire the rel
alstaneetobcndingthcnemberabouttheyorzaxcsand
are often denoted medy ty Af, or 4ff .

From the preeding discussion, it is cvidcat that the imemal efled of a

ti`m loading dquds on the sctection and orientrion of the exploratory section.
In paTtic`Ilar, if the loading acts in one plane, say. the xp/ plane as is frequently
the case, the six oomponent8 in F|} I-3 reduce to only three, namely. the axial
force Pj. (or I), the cheer force Ptry (or y), and the bending moment W,„ (or
A/). Then, a8 chonm in FIB. 14a, these components are equivalent to the sintle

Nond
compoaont

conpr` i
rty-i,,t*'£=
Neul.rddiep ` Qi) Wha~.ecBonb-bi.
ca ndfty peDmd!cz]lar to rerdeant J!
ofigr=#edrtyBond
try I. (0 Ndrd ut din e¢ifiiioirfu on ai3iijaiir rion a4. a) twhco Ch
i=i=aej?rdoohbbpcimdinbtodndmJ!OfqmfiedlcodaonlynarDa|froes
„ji=-±_-=€i.
 iG"Fu 8T"rs
resultant force Jt. A little reflection will show that if the exploratory section had
been oriented differently, like deb in Fig. 14b where it is perpendieular to Jt,
the shearing effect on the section would reduce to zero and the tensile effect
would bc at a maximum.
The phrpose of studying strength of materials is to ensure jhat the structures
used win be safe against the maximum internal effects that may be produced by
any combination of loading. We shall lean as our study proceeds that it is not
always possible or con`.'enient to select an exploratory section that is perpendicular
to the resultant load; instead, we may have to start by analyzing the effects acting
on a section like a-a in Figs. I-2 and 14a, and then lean how these effects
combine to produce maximum internal effects like those on section dr6 in Fig..
14b. We shall study this procedure later in Chapter 9, which deals with combined
stresses. For the present, we restrict our study to conditions of loading in which
the section of maximum internal effect is evident by inspection.

1-3 siMPLE sTnEss

One of the basic problems facing the engineer is to select t.he proper material
and I)roportion it to enable a structure or machine to perfoin its function effi-
ciently. For this purpose, it is essential to determine the strchgth, stiffiess, and
other properties of materials. A tabulation of the average properdes of common
mcta}s is edven in Appendix 8, Table 8-I, on page 552.
Let us consider two bars of equal length but different materials, suspended
r`.;:.in a common support as shown in Fig. I-5. If we knew-nothing about the
;]{s cxccpt that they could support the indicated maximum axial loads [500 N
(newtons) for bar I and 5000 N for bar 2], we could not tell whieh material
is stronger. Of course, bar 2 supports a greater load, but we cannot compare

Ftwre I-5 Bats supporting maximum

BOO N 5000 N loads.

strengths without having a common basis of comparison. In this insmce, the

cross-sectional areas are needed. So let us further specify that bar I hay a cross-
sectional area of 10 mm2 and bar 2 has an area of 1000 mm2. Now it is drp|e
to compere their strengths by reducing the data to load capacity per unit a4ca.
Here ve note that the unit strength of bar I i8
1i' 8PRE -
5ct N 5oo N = 50 X |06 N/m2
Orl=
iH = 10 x loot m2
and bar 2 has a unit snength
5000 N 5000 N
Or2= = 5 X |06 N/m2
loco mm2 i iooo x ioin2
Thus the material of bar I is ten times as strong as the material of bar 2.
The unit strength of a material is usually defined as the stress* in the
material. Stress is expressed symbolically as
P
0=2 (I-I)

where a (Greek lowercase letter sl.gma) is the stress oT force per unit arcs, P is
the applied load, and A is the cross-sectional area. Observe tha( maximum stress
in tension or compression occurs over a section normal to the load, as indicated
in Fig. 14b. Shearing stress is discussed in the next section.
From Eq. ( I-I) it can be seen that the units for stress are the units of force
divided by the units of area. In SI (wl)ich is the official abbreviation for the
intemational system of units, Lc Sys/Gmc /nfcrma/I.ona/ dUnl./Gs), force is mea-
sured in newtons (N) and area is measured in square meters (m2). Thus the units
for stress are newtons per square meter (N/m2). Frequently, one newton per
square meter is referred to as one pascal (Pa). Since the prefix M (read as "mega")
refers to multiples of 106 in SI, in the preceding example, the stress in bar I may
be expressed as 50 MN/m2 (or 50 Mpa) and that in bar 2 as 5 MN/m2 (or
5 Mpa).
In U.S. Customary Units. force is measured in pounds (]b). With area
measured in square inches, the units for stress are pounds per square inch
(lb/in.2), frequently abbreviated as psi. Since "kip" is often used to represent
kjlopound (I kip = I0cO lb, 2 kips = 2000 lb, etc.)` "ksi" is used as an abbrevi-
ation for I kip per square inch (1000 lb/in.2), for example, 8 ksi = 80cO psi. In
certain applications, such as soil mechanics, it is also common to measure stress
in units of i}ounds per square foot (lb/ft2), abbreviated as per.
Although the expression in Eq. (I-I) is fairly simple, it requires careful
discussion. Dividing load by area does not give the stress at all points in the
cross-sectional area; it merely detemines the 4verqgc stress. A more precise
definition of stress is obtained ty dividing the differential load dp by the differ-
ential area over which it acts:

a=# ,I-la,
Next. let us see under what conditions a. = I/A will acountely define the
stress at all points of the cross section. The condition under which the stress is
constant or unifonn is known as sz'mp/a sfr€ss. We shall show now that a uniform

• Some ¢ngineen use the terms S/ifes or lolal Slress as synonymous with load or rorec, and
unl.. sirfes or SirrSg i.worirty when referring to the intcndfy of load per unit arta. In this boot stuns
will ®\m\rs det\ole f ionee per unlL aTca.
 1-90"as
=gcee:::;:u:f°decancmsecrist=q:n¥.theresultantoftheediedloadspssesthrou8h
Suppose that a cutting I)lane isolates the lower half Of one Of the bars in
Fig. I-5. Then, as shown in Fig. IJi, the resisting foae over the cut section
must balance the applied load P. A typical resisting force is dp. Apdying the
force and moment conditions or equilibrium. we obtain

IZF„ P=/dp=/ad4

[Z;M,=0] flb=/xdp=/I(odd)

Figne 1< For unirom 8tess, P m`ist

pass thro`igb the ccatroid C.

If we specify that the stress distribution is to be constant over the cut

section, dr may be whtten outside the integrals in the preceding equation to
obtain
p=o/di=ul
and thcrcfore
pb=(nd)b=o/xdi

Then. canceling the common factor or, we obtain

b--J#--i
from.whichthecoordinateZ7ofthepointCislcoognirdasbdngthejcoooREnac
ofthecentroidOfthesection.Bytakingamonentsummationaboutthc]:aria,

p"5;#ho¥##°=toecapcaapqudeal##tocainuedeedbvyftyT=offfi£
(scc p. 7).
iB siwpu: mE8s

ve could similarly chour that j defines the }/ Coordinate Of C. Wc conclude that

a unifolm stles dirdbuton is obtained only when the fesultant Of the appfied
loads passes througb the eentroid Of that Surface.
It docs not follour. however, that positioning tl]e load throuch the ccntroid
of the section a/ways results in a urifom stress distribution. For example, Fig.
I-7 show/a the, profile of a flat bar of constant thichess. Tbe load P is applied at
the ccntcriine of the bar. At sections A-b and/-/ the stress distribution is uniform
and illustrates the principle disc`issed earlier; but at the other indicated seedons
the stresses are not uniform.

Fi8une I-7 Exceplious to ul)ifom stress

distribution ooctir at sectiods a-a, cLc.
d-d. wl eve.

At section a-c, the stress distribution is not uniform because the line of
action of P obviously does not pass through the centroid of the section. Nor are
the stresses uniformly distributed across sections a-a and did because, although
the action line Of p does pass through the eentroids Of`these seetions, here there
are abrupt changes in section. At such eectious the stresses are usually highly
loedized and can be detem]ined only by the mathematical theory of elasticity
or some expchmental method. such as photoclasticity. Also, the stres is nco
unifom aco§s section ad because here the section is too close to the point
where the [oed is appued. Unless a section is located at a distance from the end r
Of the rod at least equal to the minimum width of the rod, ve will not obtain a
unifom stem diedb`ition.-
In order to visualize why sections c-c, dLd, and a-a do tiot have unifom
stng imagine that the applied force P produces stress lines that radiate out
from the load and distribute themselves throughout the body as shown by the
• se S. Ti"rfuto and J. N. Goodier. 7ncapi a/A/dgivmy. 2nd ed., MCGnw-Him, Nctv
yonL 195i.`p. 33.
 i~ 8TFtEes
dashed lines in the fig`ire. Although this conogiv is not actually conecb it doe
indicate the existence of stress concentration whcaever the shape Of the body
interferes with the "free flow/" of the stress hoes. The bunching Of these hic3
about the hole in section c-c, and around the shar|) comer of section did, whicl)
indicates stress concentration, contrasts with the rchtively smooth flow of stress
around the radius between seetious a-a and /-/

I LLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

101. A composite bar consists of an aluminum seedon tiddly fastened tx* eon a bronze
seetion and a steel section as showrn in Fig. I-8a. Axial loads are applied at the
positions indicated. Determine the stress in each section.

40cOJb ~ Par
4000 lb

4000 lb

(b)

|`igure 1€

Solution: To calculate the stresses, we must first determine the axial load in each
section. The appropriate free-body diagrams are clown in Fig. I-8b, from which wc `
determine Pb, = 4cOO lb (tension), Pd i 5000 lb (compression), and Pd = 7000 Ib
(compression). The free-body diagrams have been drawn by isolating the portiol]
of the bar ly]TIg to the left of imaginary cutting planes. [dcotical results would be
obtained if pordons lying to the right of the cutting planes had been considcnd.
The stresses in each section are

[a=£] odr=g:=?=3330pso (tension) Aus.

ad=#=2780pst (compression) Aus.

on=#=4380pri (compresfron) j4us.

iLLus"^1rvE pFioBLFMS

Note that i]cithcr the lenglhs of the sections nor the materials from which the
seedous are made afect the calc`ilation of the stresses.
As you can see from this example, the first step in calculating the stress in a
member is to dctemine the internal foroe carried by the member. This determirmtion
is accomplished by the analysis of corrco//y draw free-body diagrams. Note that in
this erample, it would have been easier to deterlnine the load in the steel portion
by taking the section lying to the rz.gAf Of the exploratory section in the steel.

8 ®D.I

3tm®A
H111
'1I,w c'EkN70 -GkNIH.v
•!

I. - 4pd.L'.,I b-]O,I, .I
(a)

A4ac A
Ay

+4m =:= 4m
(b) (c)

Figu,e I-9

102. For the tniss sho`m in Fig. I-9a, determine the stress in members AC' and qp. The
cross-sectional aTca of each member is 900 mm2,

Solutioli: The three assumptions used in the elementary analysis of trusses are as
follous:

I. Weights of the members are neglected.

2. All connections are smooth pins.
3. All external loads ae applied directly to the pins.

Using these three assumptions, the members of the truss may be analyzed as lwo-
/once members-the internal foroe system carried by any member reduces to simply
a single force (tension or compression) acting along the line of the member.
The free-body diagram of the entire truss is sho`rmi in Fig. I-9a. An equilibrium
analysis Of this free-body diagram results in the following values for the external
reactions: A, = 40 kN, Jr, = 60 kN, and Zr] = 0.
10 -8T-
To dctcminc the force in mmbcr AC ve pas. an €megi±±ry ndqe pl.ae
which isolates joint .4 (Section ® . Ft I-9a} The froebody diapm Ofjoint A i.
showtL in FqL I-9b. Has 44iB and ]4C repre.em tlie foroea in tDembeii AB and AC.
rcqurdvely.Nctethatbctbncmt"havebccnaBmmedfobeinindon.And)wh.
the free-body diagram in Fq} I-9b, ve have

[ZF,=O) ®.4,+!dz}=O
ac = -!A, = -i(4o) = rf6.7 EN

Z;FJ,t=0, ©`C+|apB0
4C = |Azr = -i(-66.7) = 53.4 EN
The minus tign indicates that the 66.7 kN foroe in member AB is comprcsrive. The
force in member AC is 53.4 kN, tension.
To deternrine the fofce in member '4D, wc pass an iThegimry c`iting dane
that exposes the force in member J}D (section
or the pordon of the tniss to the left Ofsection 8.isE#9a±¥f=r#¥,
of the tniss to the right of sechon©could also have been used.) The fort# in
members BD, BE, and CF are assulned to be tensile. To calc`ilate the force iBD, tre
elininate the forces IBE and CE by tahi8 a tnotnent slmmation chout their point
of intersection, E, and `whte

tz;W,B=0) © -i4,(8)+30(4)-BJX3)=0
3BD = -On, + i2O = -8(40) + i2O
- -200
BD = rfu] EN
Therefore the force in member JrD is 66.7 kN, comprcsrion.
The stresses in members f4C and 40 are
53.4 EN 53.4 X lo. N
[o=zl aAC= 9comm2 900X 10~ m2
= 59.3 X |06 N/D2 = 59,3 Mpa Ans.
(tension)
66.7kN 66.7x|o3N
orAD:=
goo tnm2 = rfu 10~ D2
= 74.I x loo N/m2 = 74.I Mph
(compreedon)
In truss analysis, the method of andyzing a rintle joint, as shorn in FqT }
I-9b, is referred to as the marAad a//.oi'urs. The anal)tis of a seedon of tbc tniss
compesed of two or moo joints, as chore in Fig. I-9c, is called the flcfAed Qr
Scrri.our. It must be feempbarized that the force intemal to a memtxit ore truss lice
along the line of the member only because s`ifficient assumptions ac mde that
reduce all members to twchforoe ncznber8. A8 disciissed in Art I-2, the internal
forces for an arbitrarily loaded member are coridcobly rote coDplicaed than
simp]y an axial force.
±|LgrFI^mAE nc±±ae 11

len The block oflripi Pyin Ft I-lea haap fro the rip d ]1. The tin iliB and AC
aethBe4®tliea)poftaleaBdC.Thearcoac800drfforABand400tnm'
far AC. Nedeedq8 the ld8m orthe I.an dcttrDine tlie baxim`m safe value Of
tyif the 8tres. in AJ} i. linite4 to Ilo MP& alid that in ilc to 120 lfu

pA¥
W

(b)
Ffro I-10

Schnbe The pipeormocted bars AB and .4C are twoforce tncmtes Snee their
wcigivc ac ncgivble and My is applied at a pin. Thus the intcrDal force givm in
cwh bar is a edo€le for\oc acting along the line Of the bar. Anal!rfu8 the free"y
di-ofjoiut .I in Fig. I-lob, ve othin
(ZF" © froco60°-I.„ces4o®=o
(I;F,=o] ® p«drco®+p„sin4OO-w=O
Solving sinu]taneouly, ire have
J'~go.508W ul P,a-O.778Mr
The value Of W/that who cause the sbess in each bar to cqilal its maximum Safe
oagitude is dclcrlnined es follouB.
For AI..
(I>-ul] O.sO8rv-(ilox iofN/m3x8oox io-rf)
Hy= 173 X 10. N -173 IN
For AC..
[P=.+I] O.778Hy-(120X lo`N/m2X400X loim')
W-61.7 X 10' N -61.7 IB`t

1bedrduneafewhueofnristhemallc[ofthcprdin8twovduN#
qpr I 61.7 IN Jtr.

wiq]destesin]4C.bchgtbelinilingoonditioD.nevalueW-mINnu8tbe
dipdedbcaueethestfesinJCve`ildexoeedifeHni6n8vdueof120rmfor
H,= 173 IN.
 12 irtyMae 8TFuae

PROBLEMS

104. A hollow steel tube with an inside diancter of loo Inn must cany a tensil. load
of 400 kN. Determine the outside diameter of the tube if the stress is linited to
`20 MN/m2.
Aus. Il9mm
105. A homogeneous 800-kg bar AB is supported at either end by a cable as thorn in
Fig. P-105. Calculate the smallest area of each cable if the stress is not to exceed
90 Mpa in bronze and 120 Mpa ia steel.
Aws. Ab, = 43.6 mm2; Aa = 32.7 mm2

A Ion 8 Flgue P-105

106. The homogeneous bar shown in Fig. P-106 is supported t)y a smooth pit) at C' and
a cable that runs ftom A to 8 around the Smooth peg at D. Find the stress in the
cable if its diameter is 0.6 in. and the bar weighs 6000 It).

Flgure P-106

107. A rod is composed of an aluminum section riSdly attached between steel and bronze
sections, as shown in Fig. P-107. Axial loads are apphed at the positions indicated.
If P = 3000 Ib and the cross-sectional arcs of the rod is 0.5 in.2, detemine the stress
in each section.
.4ms. os, i old = 24.0 ksi; ortr = 18,0 kri

108. An aluminum rod is rigidly attached bctveen a steel rod and a bronze rod as clown
in Fig, P-108. Axial loads are applied at the positions indicated. Find the maximum
value off that win not exceed a stress in steel of 140 Mpa, in aluminum of90 Mpa.
or in bronze of loo Mpa,
Aus. P-10.OIN
Fir+i±_ng ®

10?. haemine the langcst `rdgbt Py that can be sup|ior(ed by the two wires chowm in
Fur P-109. The stftso in tithcr wire is trot to eloeed 30 ksi, The crosscectional afcas
of wires AB and .4C ate 0.4 in.2 and 0.5 in.2, respectively.
Aus. W317.1 kilns

Fgiv P-log
Ilo. A 12-in. Square steel bearing plate lip betwreen an 8-in. diameter wooden post and
a concrete footing as chown in Fng. P-I 10. Ibermine the maximum value of the
axial load P if the stft5s i,[i wood is linited to 1800 psi and that in concrete to
6sO pal

Ffro P-Ilo
 -8-
Ill. For the to -in FqL P.I 11. cilc`ilne tl]c 8bcca in ncbtm CE, OE .nd
I)F. " codofiond uea of c.ch lnenbc. i8 I.8 iD.I. Indicate torioB in or
cODprfua(a.Arty.drce.926origiv..ce-222hi0;.pr-'8jhi(a

a
Ftry P-Ill

llz. Dcthine tl]e croeaeectiooal afca8 Of Dedibco .4C, ec, alld CF fu the tr`]sS shcron
inFqLP-112.ThcstreseeeacncttocgtceedsOksiinecai±onor14hiinconperion.
A reduced ftoess in comprerion i8 specified to feduce the dancer of t)uckling.
Ans. ]1Ac -I.17 in.2: 444c -5,15 in.2.,.4c€ a I.43 in.2

Ftp P-112
1. ei-^mo ariii=as 15

113. Fh4 the dta-in DeBho Ja AZ), .I]d ap fr tlie in chom i-B. I-I 13.
Ii`difate the mrion er comfndoo. Tl]e cmndoBd in Of e-ch dNXBtB il
1600mn ..,- ' ,

Fqppep-113

11.. The hoDoemeo`i8 bar AJraE) droum ill FqL P-I 14 is copped by . cable that runi
froni(to8aroundtbeaBocthfBdIE.`utcalc]blcatC,.nd.moothinclined
8`irfuce at D. haminc the muB Of chc hcavicd hr tin can be supported if the
8qtse in cach cute is hind to loo I\th The arm Of crtye JJJ is 2sO rm2 .nd
thal of tbc cat)le at C' ia 300 nD2.
Arty. 6.47ng

Ftm P-||,

1+ enE^Rive sTREse
Sbearing8bt3sdifrofrotxthfarileaodcompftalvedtainthatitiscmued
try foftxs aedng done or panllct to the area rdring the fonB wheea. emalle
•nd comrivc 8bt33cs are ourd ty fro pcmdicu]ar to the areas on
which they act Far this fcaaon, m8ile .rd compnrive 8qese3 .re froqucaqy
c.llednoma/givz=sses,whcmea8hearing-mqrbecalledaAangcofla/aness.
^8hearingmisprodiiedvtheac`rathcappGedtoadscaineoneaeedon
Of . body to tod to dike pst ib agivoeBt 9ectiob Se`ml cxadule8 ale 8lioun
h Fqr I-11. h (.) the ri`ut fee char acre fro cmedon.I rty whataa
16
1qupL£S"EBS

pHIp
(a) ®
FTque I-ll Examples ofshcar.

in the clevis at (b) the troll resists shear across two cross-seedonal amas: case (a)
may be called sl.wg/a sAcar and case (b) done/c f*car. In (c) a circular slug is
about to be punched out of a plate; the resisting arcs is similar to the tnilled

gagde.oE:,:£;;nfc£,¥#:cfs#:a¥::rsc::%atnt#h##:a:T:#¥t
may occur over sections inchned with the I'esultant load, as was ntustrated in
Fig. 14a.
Thediscussionconcerningunifomnomalstressesinthepreedingarticle
mightleadustoconcludealsothatauniformshearingstresswillexistwhenthe
resultant shearing force ypasses througb the centroid of the crass section being
sheared.Ifthiswerefroe,theshearingstressT(Greeklovercaselctterfa«)could
be found from
y (I-2)
7=7

Actually,theshearingsqesacroseasectionisprachcallyneverunifomlydis-
tributed(e.g.,seeA]rt.5-7),soEq.(I-2)mustbeintaprctedasrivingmerelythc
averqgeshtalngstress.ThisdcesnotlimittheusefuhessOfEq.(I-2)provided
veuseanavera8eshearingstressthattakesintoaccounttheactualnonunifam

#nfo#&ndeM=un;th##e=nedfaie£DL=##=+
cherfu8 area are sndl. These are the conditions that pwil in Fi8. I-11 and
in the followhg problems.

PROBLEMS

115.Whatforcei8"uindtopprda20-iaqurdiaDedrbdein.dtetbei.25dD
thictn The 8bear-rfugiv i8 350 EN/di].
rfu 5soIN
pRcdeMs
17

116. As in Ft8. I-I lc, a hole is to be punched out of a plate having a thcaring strength
of40kri.Thecompressivestressinthcpunchisumitedto50lch(a)Cbmputethc
maximumthicknessofplatefromwhichahole2.Sin.india-canbepunchch
®) If the phte is 0.25 in. thick, detemine the diancter Of the sad)est hole (hat
can be punched.
.4us. (a)i= O.78l in.;(b)d= O.800in.
117. Find the smallest diameter bolt that can be used in the clevis in Fig. I-I lb if p =
4cO kN. The shearing strengLb for the bolt is 3cO Mpa.
I 18. A 200-mm-diancter pulley is prevented from rotating relative to a 60-Dtndiamcter
shaft by a 70-mm-long key. as clown in FTig, P-I 18. If a torque r = 2.2 kN . in is
applied to the shaft. detertrfue the width b ir the allounb]e Shearing stress in the
key is 60 Mpa. ,` -

200 tnm die.

FTqzue P-Ilo

119. Compute the shearing stress in the pin at 8 for the member supported as cho`un in
Fig. P-I 19. The pin diameter is 20 mln.
Aus. 94.I Mpa

40kN

+260rm+
Ffro P-||9 Ftw P-|cO
120. Tbe melnbenD orthe structul`e in file. P-120 weigh 200 tbAl.De¢crminc the mallca
diancter pin that can be used at A if the cheating doss i8 fritod to 5000 pri.
Assume rinds char.
rfu. o`52oin
1®
1-Owm
12l..drtoFqLP-121.conputethequinunforcoJ.thatoube~tytbe
qrdine ape.cur if the drearing g(real in the pin at Jr and the axid - in the
control nd 8t C ale liniied to 4ooo pri a.rd Sooo ri flspeedvdy. Ike di.mcco
ac 025 in. for the pin, and O.so in. for the contrd rd ^as`ine sindc 8hcp for
lhcpinatB.
•r,--ii±-P.
,\ €=`.,.'h -1 ,''

Ffro P-12|

122. Two blocks Of wood. width w and thiclmcss I, ae tlued to8ethcr along the joint
inclined at the angle 0 as ch®rm in Fq} P-122. Udrg the fiee-body dia8ran con-
ccpt murfuted in Fig. 14a. chow that the chcaring stes on the duet joint is T =
P Sin 20/2A. where A is the ctossedonal am

Ffro p-i22

ii =1.
loo hm
Flrm P-123

123. A rccogiv pice of `rood. sO inn by loo nm in aes scedao. is urd-q .

ootnpncssion block as chom in FIB. P-123. ±ine the maximon onid f-J!
thtcanbesafelyappliedtothcblockifthcoomprivc8tREinthelndi.linm
to 20 MN/n2 and. the cheering stDcss pmlltl to the grain is linith o 5 MN/D2.
The grain nalics in an8lc or 20® with tl]c hohaontal. ae droum. (mRi.. U- de
ults of P~ 122.)
Arty. P-77.8IN
 qJJJSTFt^TIVE PF`OBLEM 19

1-5 BEAFtlNG STRESS

Bearing stress differs from compressive stress in that the latter is the internal
stress caused by a compressive force, whereas the folmer is a contact press`ire
between separate bodies. Some examples of bearing stress are the soil pressure
beneath piers and the forces on bearing I)lates. We now consider the contact
pressures between an axle and its bearing, or between a rivet or bolt and the
contact surface of the plate against which it I)ushes.
In Fig. I-12, the result of an excessive bearing stress is to cause yielding of
the plate or of the rivet, or both. The intensity with which the rivct bears against
the rivet hole is not constant, but it actually varies from zero at the edges of the

11 Projected area Of
rivet hole

Figure I-]2 Exaggerated bearing deformation of upper plate. Pb = ,1bob = (/d)ob.

hole to a maximum direet[y in back of the rivet. The difficulty inherent in a

variable stress distribution is avoided by the common practice of assuming the
bearing stress ob to be uniformly distributed over a reduced area equal to the
projected area of the rivet hole. Then the bearing load is expressed by
P. = Apb = (tdtob (I-3)
This result is analog'uus to that for a cylinder subjected to a uniform internal
pressure (see the next article, espccia)ly Fig. I-15). There, as we s?all see, the net
force is equal to the uniform pressure multiplied by the projected arcs.

ILLUSTRATIVE PFtoBIEM

124. Figure I-13 shows a W460 X 97 beam riveted to a W610 X 125 girder by loo
X 90 X IO-mm angles with l9-mmrdianeter rivets. There are two angles, one on
eithersideofthebcam.(RefertoAppendix8fortheproperiesofstrucfuralsections.)
For each rivet. assume r = 80 Mpa and ob = 170 Mpa. The web bf the riTder is
I I.9 mm thick, and the web of the beam is I I.4 mm thick. Detemine the allowable
end reacti`on.
 I /S"PLE STflESS
20

Flgure I-13 Streng(h of bean and glider connection.

Sk}lution: At the girder, the shearing resistance is that of eight rivets in siatle shear,
hence we have

[P=47] P=8(=)(19X |O-3)2(80x 106)= |8|kN

The beanng resistance at the girder depends on the minimum .hicknes§ of

the connection, which in this case is the lo-mm thickness of the clip angle. We
obtain for eight rivets in bearLng:

[P=Aob] P=8(19Xlo-}Xlox lo-}X170X 106)

= 258 kN

Atthebeam,lherearefourrivetsindoubleshear,givingatotalofeightsingle-
shear areas Therefac the shear resistance here is identical to that at the drder.
Thebearingresistanceatthebeamdependsonthewebthicknessofthebeam.
Sincethisissmallerthanthecombinedthicknessofthetwoclipangles,forthefour
rivets in bearing. we obtain '

[P=zloo] P=4(19X 10-}Xll.4X lo-'X170X 106)

- 147 kN

The safe beam reaction is the smallest of these values, that is. 147 kN; it is
limited by the bearing of the rivets a8ailist the WcO X 97 txan.

PFtoBLEMS

IZ5.InFig.I-12,assumethata20-mmrdianeterrivetjutnstheplatesthatarecach110
mmwide.Theallowhlestrcsscsae120rmforbcaringintheplatematanand
PF'Ch- `-I 21

60 Mn for cheering of the ri`th haemine (a) the minimum thickocss of each
I)late: and a) the laqgiv average tensile stress in the plates.
Aus. (a) 7.85 mm; (b) 26.7 Mfa
126. The lapjoint clown in Fig. P-126 is fastened by four +in.rdiameter rivets. Calculate
the marinum safe load P that can be applied if the sheanng stress in the rivets is
limited to 14 ksi and the bearing stress ill tl]e plates is limited to 1§ kri, Assume the
applied load is unifomly distributed among the four rivets.

|illm
Ffro p-i26

127. In the clevis cho`rm in fig. I-I lb on page 16, find the minimum bolt diameter and
the minimum thickness of each ycke that will support a load P = 14 kips withoiit
exceeding a cheating stress of 12 ksi and a bearing stress of 20 ksi.
4ms. d= 0.862 in.;/ = 0.406iii,

128. A Wl8 X 86 beam is riveted to a W24 X 117 girder by a connection similar to th8.
iri Fig. I-13. The diameter of the ri`nets is i in., and the angles are each 4 X 3! X i

Find the allo`rable load on the connection.

]„.:n§:,°nr:C±nctvgto¥,:mhae:¥gtath:°ct¥rb;:==cotaro:::t]h5:ano:,;°b;7:',;`i;[f`s
used to fasten two timbers together as shown in Fig, P-129. The Dqu is tightened to
cave a tensile stress of 18 ksi in the bolt. Compute the shearing stress in the head
of the tx)lt and in the tlneads, Also, determine the outride diameter of the washers
if their inside diancter is i in. and the bearing stress is Limited to 800 psi.

Ffro p-i29
22 1/SIMPLE STflESS

130. Figure P-130 shows a roof truss and the dctail of the riveted connection a. joint 8.
Using allowable stresses of 7 = 7¢ Mm and a, = 140 Mpa, how many l9-mm-
diameter rivets are required to fasten member BC to the gusset I)late? Member B£?
What is the largest average tensile or com|)ressive stress in BC and BE?
Ams. For BC, 7 rivets; for BE, 5 rivets

96kN 2cokN 96kN

(a)

Figure P-130 and P-13l

]31. Repeat PToblem 130 if the rivet diameter is 22 mm and all other data remain
unchanged.

14 THIN-WALLED PF`ESSUF`E VESSELS

A cylindrical tank carrying a gas or fluid under a pressure p is subjected to tensile

forces that resist the bursting forces developed across lonritudinal and transverse
settions. Consider first a typical longitudinal section 4-A through the pressure-
londed i`ylinder in Fig. I-14a. A free-body diagram of the half-cylinder isolated
by th.` cutting plane ,4-.4 is shown in Fig. I-14b.

(a) a)
FLpe I-I. Analytinl deendmtion Of b`trfuf foroe F.
I. Timiw^u£D pREssuFtE vEssErs 23

The elementary force acting normal to an element of the cylinder located

at an antle 0 from the horiziontaJ diameter is
/
dF--pdA-_pLD±do

A similai. force (not shown) acts on the symmetrically placed element on the
other side of the vertical centerlinc, Since the horizontal components of such
pairs of forces cancel out, the bursting force F is the summation of the vertical
components of these elementary forces:

F=J(p£3do)sino=p£:[-caso|

which reduces to
F -- p D L
It is apparent that the total bursting force F, acting normal to the cutting
plane .4-.4, is resisted by the equal foroes P acting on each out surface of the
cylinder wall. Applying a vertical summation of forces, we obtain

[ZfD=0] F=|JD£ = 2P (14)

A simpler method of determining the bursting force F is indicated in Fig.
I-15. Here the lower half of the cylinder is cecupied by a fluid. Since a fluid
transmits pressure eqtially in all directions, the pressure distribution on the cyl-
inder is the same as that in Fig. I -14. From the accompanying free-body diagram,
it is apparent that the bursting force F, acting over the flat surface of the fluid,
equals the pressure intensity p multiplied by the area Df over which it acts, or
F--pDLastxifore.

(a) a)
Fi8ue I-ls Direct evquntion of bundng fque F.

The stres in the longivdinal section that resists the bursting force F is
obtained by dividing it by the alca of the t`ro cut surfaces. This dives

[o-:] .,-p#
24 pr8"Ese
•,-'£ (|JD

This stress is us`ially called the ¢angen!&a/ ms bccaiise it acts tangmt to the
surface Of the cyunder. other common names are circumfcmtial stress, hoop
s(rcss, and Srth sbess, The stress computed by Eq. (I-5) is the avenqgp stress;
for cylinders having a i]pll thickness equal to I/10 or less of the inner rrdius, it
is practically eq`ial to the maxim`im stres at the inside s`irfuce. (See Art 13-I I
for the stress distribution in thick-`railed cylinders.)
If we consider next a free-body diagram of a transverse sechon (FqL I-16),
we see that the bursting force arfug over the end of the cylinder is restseed by
the resultant P of the tearing forces aedng over the transverse section. The area
Of a transverse section is the wall thickness multiplied by the tiiean tiro`imference,

Flpire I-16 BUJtin8 foroe on a tml)s-

vcrse 8eedon.

or A(I) + /).,. if / is small compared to I), it is closely approrimated by rDl. Thus

we obtain

p--F, *Dt®,--%p

a'' =J,D
I; (|Ji)

Where at .denotes what is called the /ongi.fndi.na/ £fle4S t"use it acts parallel to
the longitudinal axis of the cylinder.
Comparing Eqs. ( I-5) and (1<) shous that the longiv]dinal stress is one-
half the value of the tangential stress. In erect, this is equivalent to stating that.
if the pressure in a cylinder is raised to the bursting point. failure will aceur
along a longit`rdinal section or longivudinal sean of the cylinder. When a cynn-
dricaltackiscomposedoftwoshectsrivetedtogether,asinFig.I-17.thestreDgth
of the longivudiml joint should be twice the strength of the ¢Ith joint. In other
words, if, as is often the case, the lontitudinal joint is not twice as strong as the
tirth joint, the permissible internal pressure will depend on the strength Of the
longivudind joint.
1 e TiilNJw^Lm pf`E8s`iF`E vEssEis 25

Di8hed OT

Rounded or
convex end
Figue I-17 Ffro I-18

When the ends of the cylinder are not squared off as in Fig. I-17, but are
rounded or dished as in Fig. I -18, the bursting force on a transverse section may
still be computed as the product of the internal pressure multiplied by the pro-
jected area of the transverse section. Thus, using the concept discussed in con-
nection with Fig.I-15. we may imagine, in Fig.I-18, that the volume between
the transverse section A-4 and the rounded end is filled with a fluid. The resultant
longitudinal force will equal the product of the pressure intensity mLltiplied by
the shaded area of the transverse section.
Using an analysis similar to that for cylinders, we can easily derive the
expression for the stress in the wall of a thin-walled spherical pressure vessel. As
shown in Fig. I-19, the bursting force F = p7rD2/4 (the product of pressure and
projected area). The bursting force is resisted by the force P distributed across

A©:=2© ®
(a) (b) (c)
Figure I-19

the thickness of the vessel. We again use ITD/ to approximate the aca of the
transverse section. Thus the stress or in the wall of the vessel is given by

(J,-F] OWD,-p¥
J'D (I-7)
a'--TIT

Notcthatthisequationisidenticaltothatforthelongivdinalstressinacylinder,
Eq. (life).-
 ae 1-8Ti®
As another application of the conogiv of a fluid to transmit presllre, cob
sider a pump chamber cast in se`unl parts, with projecting flanees that ac
bolted together as show/n iD Fq} I-20. The bursting foroe to be redsted by the
bolts in section A-A is proportional to the crossrsectiona] area at 4-.4 and is
expressed by F, = p(7rDi/4); similarly, the bursting force redsted by the bole
in section 8-8 is F2 = p(TD2/4).

F-in?u.

Ffro I-21 Ftt»body diagrun of oBb

Figure I -ae halfofrotafroriBg.

The principles just discussed for dctermining the tangential stress in thin-
walled cylinders may also be applied to computing the contact pressure exerted
by hoops shlunk upon cylinders or the tensile stress developed in a thin I.otrfug
ring. In the latter case, for example, the bursting foroe is generated by the cen-
trifugal force developed in one-half the rilig. Its value qny be obtained (Ei8.
I-21) by assuming the mass of the half-ring is concentrated at its center Of
gravity, located by i Therefore we have
F -= mfu2 (a)
in which ai is the angular velocity in radians per second and in is the mass of
one half the ring. For a thin ring, in is given try

in - pV -- prA'e
where p (Greek lowercase letter who) is the mass per unit volunre of the ring, A
is the crossrsectional area of the ring, and rc is the radius of the mean cirmm-
ferencc. For a semicirmilar ring, i = 2rc/T. Substituting these values redues
Eq. (a) to

F=",a(=cly=2ed02 (b)

where tj = rcaj is the peripheral velocity of the ring.

From equilibrium of the free-body diagram in Fig. I-21 v`re have

i i -- F
±±±BRA;"E fnc±IE!£ 27

H- the stres is

an. : :i: ¥ ,le,

Thus the stress varies directly with the mass density and the square Of the pe-
ril)beral velocity. In applying Eq. (I-8), care must be taken to use consistent
urit8.

n.LusoiIATivE pF`OBu=M

»L A large pipe, called a penstcek in hydraulic work, is I.5 in in diameter. Here it is

oonposed of wooden staves bound together by steel hoops, each 300 mm2 in Cross-
sectioml area, and .Ls used to cond`Lct `rater from a reservoir to a powerhouse. If
the maxinum tensile stress pemitted in the hoops is 130 Mpa, what is the maximum
specing bcoreen hoops under a head of `i/ater Of 30 in? (The mass density of water
is looo rtym3.)

Soml®o: The press`me Corresponding to a head of water of 30 in is given by

I/}= pgA) p= (1000kg/m'X9.8l in/s2X30m)

= 294 X 10. N/m2 = 294 kpa

lf the majtimutn spacing bet`reen hoops is denoted by I, theti, as sho`rm in

FIB. I-22, each hoop m`ist resist the bursting foroe on the lenglh A. Since the tensile
foncc in a hoop is given by P = .4¢, `]/e obtain from the free-body diagram

L4+4J Flgue I-22 Sparing of hoops in a pensoocL

[J,Z'£ a 2J) I
(294 X lo'Xl.5P = 2(SOD X IO+X130 X loo)

wh fro i-O,177m I 177 mm .Arty.

28 irtyMFLE 8TREss

PROBLEMS
133. A cylindncal steel pressui€ vessel 400 mm in diameter with a wall thickness or 20
mm. is subjected `o an internal pressure of 4.5 MN/n2. (a) Calculate the tangei]tial
and longitudinal stresses jn the steel. (b) To what value may the internal pressure
bc increased if the stress in the steel is linited to 120 MN/m2? (c) Ir the intcmal
pressure were increased until the vessel b`lrst, sketch the type of fracture that would
aeur.
Aus. (a) 45.0 MN/m2, 22.5 MN/m2; (b) |2.0 MN/m2
134. The wall thickness of a 4-ftrdiametcr spherical tank is ± in. Calculate the allowable
internal pressure if the stress is limited to 8000 psi.
4us. 208psi
135. Calculate the minimum wall thicincss for a eylindrical vessel the( is to carry a gas
at a pressure of 1400 pst. The diameter of the vessel is 2 ft, and the stress is limited
to 12 ksi.

136. A cylindncal pressure vessel is fabricated from steel plating that has a thickness. of
20 mm. The diameter of the pressure vessel is 450 mm and its length is 2.0 in.
Determine the maximum internal pressure that can be a|)plied if the ]ongitudinal

37.S;I::,:Sr`:mn[::::°ft`,:dra:a;:::sthmeacd`:Cfi:::e::t,'::=.::`t`''£'¢r,nt:::ckT::;a
the ma]timum heigh`t lo which the tank may be filled if the circumferential Stress is
limited to 6000 psi. The speeific weiglit of water is 62.4 lb/ft'.
Ans. 52.4ft
138. The strength of the lonStudinal joint in Fig.I-17 is 33 kips/ft, whereas for the tirlh
joint it is 16 kips/ft. Calculate the maximum diameter of the cylindrical tank if the
internal pressure js 150 psi.
.4„J. 35.6in.

I.9. Find the limiting peripheral velocity of a rotating steel ring if the allowable stress is
20 ksi and steel weighs 490 lb/ft'. At what revolutions per minute (rpm) will the
Stress reach 30 ksi if the mean radius is 10 in.?
140. At what angular velcoity will the stress in a rotating steel ring equal 150 Mpa if its
mean radius is 220 mm? The densily of steel is 7.85 Mg/m'.
Aas. 628nd|s
141. The tank shown in Fig. P-14l is fabricated from I-in. steel plate. Calculate the
maximum longitudinal and circumferential stress caused by dn internal pressure of
125 psi. ,-

F+2ft-
Fbe P-14|
8L- 29

I.2. A pipe canting steam at 3.5 Mpa has an outride diancter of 450 mm and a `rall
thickness Of 10 mm. A gasket is inserted between the nangc at one cnd of the pipe
nd a flat plate used to cap the end. flow many 40-mmdiamcter bolts must be
ued to hold (he cap on if the allowhlc strcs8 in the bolts is 80 Mpa, of which 55
Mpa is the initial stf`es8? What circumf€rential stress is developed in the pipe? Why
isitnc-ytoti8htentheboltinitially,andwhatwillhappenirthesteampfessure
thould cans the stress in the bolts to be twice the value of the initial stress?
• Ans. 17bolts;75.3Mpa

SuMAAARY

Arial loads result in a uniform stress distribution that may be determined from

a-:,,-
Shearing stresses and bearing stresses are also computed by dividing the
lord by the resisting area, but the results represent average values. In parlicular`
the beatng area of a rivet against a plate is given by the projected area of the
rivet hole.
Stre± in thin-walled pessure vessels are assumed to be unit.ormly die-
tributed and may be obtained by applying the equilibrium conditioiis to apt.ro-
priate free-body diagrams, for example, see Fig. I -14. For a cylindi`r` {liamc.tcr
a and wall thickness j, the tangential stress ar, and the longitudiiial stress a./ arc
given by
a' = J,D
3i (I-5)

J,D
O''--I; (lJ`)

For spperical vessels, the stress is

D
EE/
a'--3i (I-7)

/1`1