Navigation and Guidance: Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar

Navigation and Guidance
Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar
Assistant Professor
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Powai, Mumbai, 400076 India
Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 Lecture 5 Navigation and Guidance 1 / 43
Sensor errors
Sensor errors
Fixed bias
Scale-factor errors
Cross-coupling errors
Vibro-pendulous error: When the sensor is subject to vibration along the
sensitive and pendulum axes simultaneously.
Broad categories of errors
Repeatability errors
Temperature dependent errors
Switch-on to switch-on variations
In-run errors
Measured acceleration
ãx = (1 + Sx )ax + My ay + Mz az + Bf + Bv ax ay + nx
where, Sx ,My , Mz ,Bf ,Bv and nx denote scale-factor error, cross axis
coupling factors, measurement bias, vibro-pendulous error coefficient and
random bias, respectively.
Pendulous Optical Fibre Accelerometers
Optical fibres: excellent

mechanical strength, elastic
modulus characteristics,
negligible thermal expansion
Selection based on
isoelastic properties
Sense of displacement using
laser light passing through
optical fibre and 2D
photo-sensitive array
Provide accelerations in two
dimensions
Factors affecting range of
sensor
Vibrating Beam Accelerometers
An elastic beam as the resonating

element in electromechanical
oscillator.
Crystalline quartz is the most
common material for the resonating
beam.
One end of the rigid beam attached
to the seismic mass and the other
end to the body-mounted casing. K: Beam stiffness
Resonant frequency of beam varies m: Mass of beam
as a function of applied acceleration. F : Acting force
Nonlinear force to frequency f0 , fn : Zero load freq. and resonant
conversion function freq. under load
C: Euler buckling load
Zero load frequency and resonant frequency

r
1 K
f0 =
2π m
r r r r
1 K + αM a 1 K 1 + αM a 1 + Ma
fn = = = f0
2π m 2π m K C
where, C= K/α.
C fn2
a= − 1 , Nonlinear relation
M f02
Acceleration difference
C fn21 C fn22 C fn21 − fn22

a = a1 − a2 = −1 − −1 =
M f02 M f02 M f02

C fn1 + fn2 f n1 − f n2
=
M f0 f0
Assuming fn1 = f0 + ∆f1 , fn2 = f0 − ∆f2 , we have

C f0 + ∆f1 + f0 − ∆f2 f0 + ∆f1 − (f0 − ∆f2 )
a=
M f0 f0

C 2f0 + ∆f1 − ∆f2 ∆f1 + ∆f2
=
M f0 f0
¯
4C ∆f
=
M f0
¯ = (∆f1 + ∆f2 )/2.
where, ∆f
Each beam vibrates at same

resonant frequency with no
acceleration.
With acceleration along the
sensitive axis, one beam experiences
compression whilst the other is
stretched
Compression and tension result in
decrease and increase in frequency,
respectively
Difference in frequency: Directly
proportional to the applied
acceleration
Symmetrical arrangement:
Cancellation of several errors that
exist if only one beam is used
Interferometric Accelerometers
Interferometric Accelerometers
With applied acceleration along the axis of optical fibre, a small proportional
change in length occurs.
Change in length can be detected by interferometric techniques similar to
FOG.
Two optical fibres allows each fibre to form an arm of the interferometer.
Nulling techniques enables greater sensitivity to be achieved, along with
compensation for temperature changes in the fibres.
It is necessary to constrain the proof mass to move only along the sensitive
axis of the instrument.
Sensitivity can be increased by using binding of coils ∝ number of coils
Intensities of the two light beams in the interferometer are detected
separately and compared in a differential amplifier.
Interference Accelerometers
Output of the differential amplifier ∝ applied acceleration.

Output signal can then be used to drive a piezoelectric device to null the
phase change introduced by distortion of sensing element.
Vibrating Fibre Accelerometers
An optical fibre is fastened and tensioned between two pivot points in a rigid
structure.
This structure is vibrated so that the optical fibre oscillates at its
fundamental frequency.
With no acceleration, displacements are symmetrical and maximum stretch
occurs at maximum displacement with relaxation as it passes the centre line.
With applied acceleration, the displacement of the fibre will now be
asymmetrical.
Navigation Systems
Navigation: Science of directing a vehicle to the destination by determining

its position from observation of landmarks, celestial bodies, or radio beams.
Inertial Navigation Systems:
Self-contained determination of the instantaneous position and other
parameters of motion of a vehicle
Using measuring specific force, angular velocity, and time in a selected
coordinate system.
Velocity and position are determined through real-time integration of the
governing differential equations, with measured specific force as an input.
Errors in INS
Initial condition errors
Gravitational mass attraction compensation errors
Coordinate frame transformation errors
Sensor errors such as accelerometers, gyroscopes, and external navigation aids
Complicated error equations due to the different coordinate frames involved
and the many error sources inherent in the instruments.
General Relative Motion Equations
Consider a rigid body fixed at point

O of fixed Cartesian coordinate
system XY Z, called as I-frame.
Assume a point in body with
position r and velocity ṙ relative to
origin O.
r =XI + Y J + ZK
dr
ṙ = = ẊI + Ẏ J + ŻK
dt
For a rigid body with fixed point,
ṙ =ω × r
where, angular velocity ω is given by
ω =ΩX I + ΩY J + ΩZ K
The components of velocity vector in fixed frame

I J K

ω × r = ΩX ΩY ΩZ
X Y Z
= (ΩY Z − ΩZ Y ) I + (ΩZ X − ΩX Z) J + (ΩX Y − ΩY X) K
| {z } | {z } | {z }
vX vY vZ
Assume a second coordinate system R-frame.

Consider P at any point in the body and O the origin of space axes.
Velocity of any point Q in the body w.r.t. space axes at O is given by
v Q = v P + ω × r Q/P
where, r Q/P is the relative distance of Q w.r.t. P .

Relative velocity of Q w.r.t. P is defined as
v Q/P = v Q − v P = ω × r Q/P
Vector function A(t) can be expressed in two coordinate frames as
A(t) =AX I + AY J + AZ K = Ax i + Ay j + Az k
Its derivatives are given by
dA(t)
Ȧ(t) = =ȦX I + ȦY J + ȦZ K
dt
=Ȧx i + Ȧy j + Ȧz k +Ax i̇ + Ay j̇ + Az k̇
| {z }
δA
= + Ax i̇ + Ay j̇ + Az k̇
δt
Derivative of unit vector in fixed frame
di dj dk
= ω × i, = ω × j, =ω×k
dt dt dt
where, ω is the angular velocity of coordinate axes.

Derivative of a vector in two frames XY Z and xyz are related as

dA(t) dA(t) δA
= = +ω×A
dt XY Z dt δt

dA(t) dA(t)
= +ω×A
dt XY Z dt xyz
where, ω is the angular velocity of xyz w.r.t. XY Z.

Alternatively,
δA dA(t) dA(t)
= −ω×A= + (−ω) × A
δt dt dt
where, (−ω) is the angular velocity of XY Z w.r.t. xyz.
From a kinematic point of view, it makes no difference which system is
considered as fixed and which one as rotating.
Consider two points P and Q with position vectors denoted by R and r,

respectively, w.r.t. the point O.
Relative position of Q w.r.t. P is denoted by p.
Relative equation of motion
r = R + p, ṙ = Ṙ + ṗ, r̈ = R̈ + p̈
Let XY Z with origin at O be fixed and xyz with origin at P is moving with
the angular velocity ω.
Derivative of relative position vector p
dp δp
ṗ = = +ω×p
dt δt
δ 2 p δ(ω × p)

dṗ δ ṗ δp
p̈ = = + ω × ṗ = 2 + +ω× +ω×p
dt δt δt δt δt
δ 2 p δω δp
= 2 + × p + 2ω × + ω × (ω × p)
δt δt δt
dω δω
As = = ω̇, we have
dt δt
δ2 p δp
p̈ = + ω̇ × p + 2ω × + ω × (ω × p)
δt2 δt
Complete relative equation of motion
r =R + p
dr dR δp
= + +ω×p
dt dt δt
d2 r d2 R δ 2 p δp
2
= 2
+ 2 + ω̇ × p + 2ω ×
dt |dt {z δt } | {z } | {z δt}
Tangential component due to ω̇
Linear acceleration terms Coriolis acceleration
+ ω × (ω × p)
| {z }
centripetal acceleration
General Navigation Equations
Differential equation of motion of inertial navigation of vehicle relative to

inertial frame
Ṙ = V

dV
= A + g m (R)
dt
I
where,
R = Geocentric postion vector

V = Velocity of the vehicle relative to the inertial frame
A = Non-gravitational specific force
g m (R) = Gravitational acceleration due to mass attraction,
considered positive toward the center of the Earth
Gravity effect of Moon, Sun, and other stars are neglected.
We can rewrite previous equation as

d2 R

A= − g m (R)
dt2 I

Specific force (accelerometer’s output) A is proportional to the inertial
acceleration of the system due to all forces except gravity.
Since the Earth is rotating and moving w.r.t. inertial space, a transformation
is necessary to relate measurements taken in inertial space to observations of
position, velocity, and acceleration in a moving vehicle.
An ideal accelerometer measures the specific force, that is, the difference
between the inertial acceleration and gravitational acceleration.
For Earth-centered inertial (ECI) system,
h I i
AP = C P I R̈ − g I
m (R)
where C P
I is the transformation matrix from inertial to platform coordinates.
Earth-centered inertial (ECI) acceleration in terms of specific force and

gravity can be written as

I I P I
R̈ = C P A + g m (R)

where C IP is the transformation matrix from platform to inertial coordinates.

Block diagram representation
For navigation at or near the surface of the earth, the position and velocity of
vehicle should be referred in an ECEF coordinate system.
From the Law of Coriolis, the expression relating ECI and ECEF velocities,

dR dR
= +Ω×R=V +Ω×R
dt I dt E
where, Ω is the angular rate of Earth relative to the inertial frame, and V is
true velocity of vehicle w.r.t. the Earth.
Coriolis acceleration is present when a vehicle is moving with some velocity
[dR/dt], w.r.t. the moving coordinate frame.
As angular rate of earth is constant, we have dΩ/dt = 0.
Differentiating w.r.t. inertial coordinates,
2
d R dV dR
= +Ω×
dt2 I dt I dt I
On substituting for [dR/dt]I ,

2
d R dV
= + Ω × V + Ω × (Ω × R)
dt2 I dt I
As output of accelerometer gives measurements in platform frame,

differentiation and integration need to be carried out in same frame.
Relation between derivatives of V w.r.t. platform and inertial space is

dV dV
= +ω×V
dt I dt P
where ω is the angular rate of platform w.r.t. inertial space (spatial rate).
2
d R dV
= + (Ω + ω) × V + Ω × (Ω × R)
dt2 I dt P
Finally, we have

dV
A= + (Ω + ω) × V + Ω × (Ω × R) − g m (R)
dt P
As the centripetal acceleration of Earth is a function of position of Earth

only, it can be combined with gravity term.
g(R) = g m (R) − Ω × (Ω × R) = ωs2 R

p
where ωs = g(R)/R is the Schuler angular frequency.
g(R) is dominant feedback term for principal mode of behavior of INS.
Generalized mechanization equation

dV
A= + (Ω + ω) × V − g(R)
dt P
It does not refer to any particular type of system coordinate frame.

Locally level platform coordinate frame: spatial rate being equal to sum of
Earth rate and vehicle (or platform) angular rate ρ w.r.t. Earth-fixed frame.
Term ρ is called as transport rate and mathematically, ω = ρ + Ω.
On rearranging, we get

dV
=A−(ρ + 2Ω) × V + g(R)
dt P
Generalized navigation equation of a vehicle, expressed in the platform or

computational frame, which is referenced to the Earth.
On expanding this equation,
V̇x =Ax −(ρy + 2Ωy )Vz + (ρz + 2Ωz )Vy + gx

V̇y =Ay −(ρz + 2Ωz )Vx + (ρx + 2Ωx )Vz + gy
V̇z =Az −(ρx + 2Ωx )Vy + (ρy + 2Ωy )Vx + gz
Gravitational Model
Gravitational model is based on a spherical harmonic expansion of the

gravitational potential.
Two commonly used expansions of the gravitational potential
Spherical or zonal harmonics: depend on the geocentric latitude only.
Tesseral and sectoral harmonics: depend on both latitude and longitude.
Tesseral and sectoral harmonics
Indicate deviations from rotational symmetry
Can be neglected without compromising system performance or accuracy
Derivation of the gravitational potential is based on the reference ellipsoid.
Assumptions
Earth’s mass distribution is symmetric about the polar axis.
Gravitational potential U (R, φ) in ECEF is at distance R from Earth’s center,
independent of longitude.
Gravitational Model
Gravitational potential in ECEF frame in terms of spherical harmonics

∞
" #
µ X a n
U (R, φ) = − 1− Jn Pn (sin φ)
R n=2
R
µ = Earth’s gravitational constant

a = Mean equatorial radius of the Earth (or semimajor axis)
R = Magnitude of the geocentric position vector
φ = Geocentric latitude
Jn = Coefficients of zonal harmonics of the Earth potential function
Pn (sin φ) = Associated Legendre polynomials of the first kind as functions
of φ and degree n
Gravitational Model
µ
denotes mean value and is simplified gravitational potential of the Earth.
R
It is due to spherically mass symmetric body.
Remaining terms account for asymmetricity of the Earth.
Second harmonics J2 : Earth flattening, the meridional cross-section being an
ellipse rather than a circle
Third harmonics J3 : tendency toward a triangular shape
Fourth harmonics J4 : tendency toward a square shape
If the symmetry w.r.t. equator is assumed then
J1 = J3 = J5 · · · = 0
As R is very large, all the terms within the are small as compared with unity.
Gravitational Model
Gravitation vector is given as the gradient of gravitational potential as

∂U ∂U ∂U
g(R) =[gx gy gz ]T , gx = gy = gz =
∂x ∂y ∂z
Assumptions: Direction of the gravity vector g ⊥ the reference ellipsoid,
positive in the downward direction.
g(R) = − gz 1z
For a spherical Earth model, g(R) = −µR/R3 and R = [x y z]T .

Components of the apparent gravity vector along the platform x, y axes can
be neglected because their magnitude is less than 10−5 g.
   
0 0
g(R) =  0  , R =  0 
gz z
Gravitational Model
Navigation in ECI coordinates involves integration of a simple set of

differential equations driven by the measured specific force A.
For most terrestrial applications, it is more convenient to refer the position
and velocity of the vehicle to ECEF, which rotates with the earth.
Equations of motion must account for the rotation of the coordinate frame.
In north-east-up (NEU) coordinate system,
Ω = |{z}
0 i + Ω cos φ j + Ω sin φ k
| {z } | {z }
Ωx ,ΩE Ωy ,ΩN Ωz ,ΩU
By using gravity and angular rate components,
V̇x =Ax − (ρy + 2Ωy )Vz + (ρz + 2Ωz )Vy

V̇y =Ay − (ρz + 2Ωz )Vx + ρx Vz
V̇z =Az − ρx Vy + (ρy + 2Ωy )Vx − gz
Latitude-Longitude Mechanization
Gyroscope torquing rate w.r.t inertial space

ωx =ωE = ρE
ωy =ωN = ρN + Ω cos φ
ωz =ωz = ρz + Ω sin φ
ωx , ωy : level angular rates of platform required to maintain platform level
ωz : platform azimuth rate to maintain platform orientation to north
To maintain platform level, gimbal axes must have
φ̇ = −ρE , λ̇ cos φ = ρN
Generalized mechanization equation

dV
A= + (Ω + ω) × V − g(R)
dt P

dV
⇒ =A − (Ω + ω) × V + g(R)
dt P
Level and vertical velocity equations

V̇E =AE − (ωN + Ω cos φ)Vz + (ωz + Ω sin φ)VN
V̇N =AN − (ωz + Ω sin φ)VE + ωE Vz
V̇z =Az − ωE VN + (ωN + Ω sin φ)VE − gz +K2 (hB − h)
where, ḣ = Vz + K1 (hB − h) and hB is barometric altitude.

For a spherical Earth model,
ωx =ωE = −φ̇
Vx
ωy =ωN = λ̇ cos φ + Ω cos φ =+ Ω cos φ
R
Vx
ωz =ωz = λ̇ sin φ + Ω sin φ = tan φ + Ω sin φ
R
To maintain platform level, longitude and latitude gimbal axes rates
Vy VN Vx VE
φ̇ = = , λ̇ = = sec φ
R R R cos φ R
Longitude and latitude computations

Z t
Vy
φ = φ(0) + t, λ = λ(0) + λ̇dt
R 0
Now torquing rate becomes

Vy
ωx = −
R
Vx Vy
ωy = + Ω cos φ(0) + t
R R

Vx Vy Vy
ωz = tan φ(0) + t + Ω sin φ(0) + t
R R R
Platform rotation rate relative to Earth, ρ = ω − Ω

Vy Vx Vx Vy
ρx = − ρy = , ρz = tan φ(0) + t
R R R R
Vertical Channel
INS: vertical velocity and position using integration of vertical channel

accelerometer output.
Inherently divergent: correction using an externally measured altitude
reference to stabilize the INS vertical channel.
Vertical channel: damped with measurements of altitude using Central Air
Data Computer (CADC) outputs.
Barometric and inertial altitude systems are complementary to each other.
Barometric system provides good altitude rate in nearly level flight.
INS needs to be bounded by an external reference for sustained periods, but
provides direct information about vertical acceleration and a good short-term
reference for use during climbing or diving in high-performance aircraft.
To avoid vertical channel instability, INS vertical channel is frequently not
implemented.
In systems for high-performance aircraft, vertical channel is usually slaved to
barometric height data.
Definitions of Altitudes
Absolute altitude: Height above surface of Earth at any given surface

location.
True altitude: Actual height above standard sea level.
True altitude is the sum of absolute altitude and the elevation above sea level
of ground below the aircraft.
Definitions of Altitudes
Pressure altitude: Height in a model atmosphere above standard pressure

datum plane (sea level)
Temperature variations which occur constantly on surface of Earth, due to
changing weather phenomena, is not considered.
System altitude: Obtained by correcting CADC pressure altitude for

non-standard day variations of temperature with altitude.
Refinement by combining CADC and INS data through a weighted mixing
function.
Achievement of long-term stability of air data system with short-term accuracy
of INS.
Adjustment of weighing function to minimize air data computer sensor lag and
angle of attack effects during maneuvers.
Air data computation uses an open-loop integration on pressure, while INS
computations involve integration of inertially sensed vertical velocity.
Vertical Channel Damping
Goal: To minimize altitude and vertical velocity output errors, and to achieve
a satisfactory system response time to aircraft disturbances.
INS accepts input accelerations from inertial measurement unit (IMU) and
generates velocity and position outputs by two vector integrations.
Vertical component of this mechanization is inherently unstable because of
the need for gravity correction.
Altitude data from INS is used to transform three-axis acceleration data into
local horizontally referenced coordinate frame to obtain measurements of
aircraft’s vertical and horizontal acceleration components.
Difference between the indicated system altitude derived from baroinertial
mixing and the measured system altitude can be used to correct the
baroinertial altitude.
V̇z = Az − ρx Vy + (ρy + 2Ωy )Vx − gz
Vertical channel mechanization: Third order is common at present.

Reduction of errors originating from accelerometer (or other sources) biases
Achieves better response characteristics
Consider the simplest error model as below.

2g
∆V̇z = ∆h + Az + w(t)
R0
∆ḣ =∆Vz
Consider the second order error model as below.

δ Ẋz = δVz − C1 (δXz + δhB )
δ V̇z = δAz + 2ωs2 δXz − C2 (δXz + δhB )
1
δ ḣB = − δhB + w(t)
τc
where, τc and w(t) is correlation time and white noise driving process.
Characteristic equation of this loop

2g
s2 + C1 s + C2 − =0
R0
The loop will be stable provided
2g
C1 > 0, C2 >
R0
To have two real poles at s = −1/τ ,
2 1
C1 = , C2 = 2ωs2 + 2
τ τ
Text/References
Reference
1 G. M. Siouris, Aerospace Avionics Systems: A Modern Synthesis, Academic
Press, Inc. 1993.
2 D. H. Titterton and J. L. Weston, Strapdown Inertial Navigation Technology,
Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 207, ed. 2, ch. 4.
Thank you for your attention !!!

Navigation and Guidance: Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar

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Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar

Optical fibres: excellent

An elastic beam as the resonating

Zero load frequency and resonant frequency

Assuming fn1 = f0 + ∆f1 , fn2 = f0 − ∆f2 , we have

Each beam vibrates at same

Output of the differential amplifier ∝ applied acceleration.

Navigation: Science of directing a vehicle to the destination by determining

Consider a rigid body fixed at point

where, angular velocity ω is given by

The components of velocity vector in fixed frame

Assume a second coordinate system R-frame.

where, r Q/P is the relative distance of Q w.r.t. P .

Vector function A(t) can be expressed in two coordinate frames as

Its derivatives are given by

where, ω is the angular velocity of coordinate axes.

Derivative of a vector in two frames XY Z and xyz are related as

where, ω is the angular velocity of xyz w.r.t. XY Z.

Consider two points P and Q with position vectors denoted by R and r,

Differential equation of motion of inertial navigation of vehicle relative to

R = Geocentric postion vector

Gravity effect of Moon, Sun, and other stars are neglected.

We can rewrite previous equation as

Earth-centered inertial (ECI) acceleration in terms of specific force and

where C IP is the transformation matrix from platform to inertial coordinates.

On substituting for [dR/dt]I ,

As output of accelerometer gives measurements in platform frame,

As the centripetal acceleration of Earth is a function of position of Earth

g(R) = g m (R) − Ω × (Ω × R) = ωs2 R

It does not refer to any particular type of system coordinate frame.

Generalized navigation equation of a vehicle, expressed in the platform or

V̇x =Ax −(ρy + 2Ωy )Vz + (ρz + 2Ωz )Vy + gx

Gravitational model is based on a spherical harmonic expansion of the

Gravitational potential in ECEF frame in terms of spherical harmonics

µ = Earth’s gravitational constant

Gravitation vector is given as the gradient of gravitational potential as

For a spherical Earth model, g(R) = −µR/R3 and R = [x y z]T .

Navigation in ECI coordinates involves integration of a simple set of

By using gravity and angular rate components,

V̇x =Ax − (ρy + 2Ωy )Vz + (ρz + 2Ωz )Vy

Gyroscope torquing rate w.r.t inertial space

Level and vertical velocity equations

where, ḣ = Vz + K1 (hB − h) and hB is barometric altitude.

Longitude and latitude computations

Now torquing rate becomes

Platform rotation rate relative to Earth, ρ = ω − Ω

INS: vertical velocity and position using integration of vertical channel

Absolute altitude: Height above surface of Earth at any given surface

Pressure altitude: Height in a model atmosphere above standard pressure

System altitude: Obtained by correcting CADC pressure altitude for

V̇z = Az − ρx Vy + (ρy + 2Ωy )Vx − gz

Vertical channel mechanization: Third order is common at present.

Consider the second order error model as below.

Thank you for your attention !!!

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