Atoms and Molecules

Atoms
 Smallest particle of matter non-divisible by chemical means.
 Composed of protons (+) and neutrons (neutral) in the nucleus and electrons (-)
outside the nucleus.
 The smallest unit of an element to enter into chemical reactions.
 All atoms of an element have a particular number of protons (atomic number).
 Electrically neutral because the umber of protons equals the number of electrons.
 Atomic weight depends on the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
 Chemical properties depend on the number of electrons in the outer shell.

Molecules
 Form when two or more atoms of the same element react with one another or
combine with atoms of another element.
 The smallest part of a compound that still has the properties of that compound.
 Could be inorganic or organic molecules.

Chemical Bonding
 Interactions involving atoms of elements combining with one another.
 Determined by the electrons that surrounds the nucleus.
 An atom may bond with another atom by either gaining, losing or sharing
electrons.

Types of Chemical Bonds

1. Covalent Bond
 Electrons are shared; characteristic of most chemicals in living things; smallest
particle formed are called molecules.

2. Ionic Bond
 An electron is transferred from one atom to another; ions (charge particles) are
formed; cations, when electron is lost; anions, when electron is gained.

3. Hydrogen Bond
 When hydrogen combines with oxygen or with another electronegative atom;
weak and can easily be formed or broken; very important in biological system;
important in determining the structure of DNA, and proteins.

INORGANIC MOLECULES
 Usually contain positive and negative ions.
 Atoms are usually held together by ionic bond.
 Usually composed of short chains.
 Often associated with non-living things.
 Includes water, acids and bases, salt, and gases.
Water
 The most abundant component of the protoplasm.
 Inorganic compound composed of two atoms of hydrogen and an atom of
oxygen.

Physical Properties of Water

 Universal solvent
 High degree of thermal conductivity
 Immiscible with lipids
 Neutral pH
 Liquid in form at room temperature
 High surface tension

Physiological Properties of Water

 Dissolves or holds in suspension the materials of the protoplasm.
 Furnishes a medium for some vital processes.
 Moistens surfaces for gas diffusion.
 Regulates body temperature.
 Helps in the functions of the sense organs.
 Serves as lubricant for movable surfaces.
 Serves as cushion for the brain and spinal cord.

Acids and Bases

 Acids are molecules that raise the hydrogen ion concentration (H+) when added
to a solution, such as HCl.
 Bases are molecules that lower the hydrogen ion concentration (H+) when added
to a solution, such as NaOH.
 pH scale is used to measure the acidity and alkalinity of a solution.
 As the pH number decreases, acidity increases.
 As the pH number increases, alkalinity increases.
 Most organisms maintain a neutral pH (pH 7).
 A much higher or lower pH may cause illness.

Salts
 Formed from the neutralization of an acid and a base.
 Occur in the form of soluble chlorides, sulfates, phosphates, and carbonates of
sodium, calcium, potassium, and magnesium.
 Important in vital processes such as irritability of muscles and nerves, growth and
repair of tissues, etc.
 Act as buffers or regulators of acid-base balance.

Gases
 Important in oxidation of food molecule in order to release energy; two important
gases are oxygen and carbon dioxide.
ORGANIC MOLECULES
 Always contain carbon and hydrogen
 Atoms are usually held together by covalent bond
 Usually composed of long chains
 Usually associated with living things
 Includes carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

A. Carbohydrates
 Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in definite ratio, 1:2:1, with a
general formula of CH2O
 The main source of energy in the body; building blocks are glucose molecules.

Types of Carbohydrates
1. Monosaccharide
 Simple sugar
 Important source of energy for the cells.
 Glucose – blood sugar or dextrose
 Fructose – fruit sugar
 Galactose – milk sugar

2. Disaccharide
 Double sugar
 Two monosaccharides bonded together
 Principal sugar transported throughout the bodies of land plants.
 Lactose – milk sugar (glucose + galactose)
 Maltose – malt sugar (glucose + glucose)
 Sucrose – table sugar (glucose + fructose)

3. Polysaccharide
 Complex sugar
 Manny monosaccharides (usually glucose) bonded together
 Starch – energy storage in plants
 Glycogen – energy storage in animals
 Cellulose – structural material in plants

B. Lipids
 Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen with no definite ratio, the number of
oxygen atoms is very much less compared to hydrogen atoms.
 Storage of energy and important component of the cell membrane.
  Building blocks are fatty acids and glycerol

Types of Lipids
1. Simple Lipids
 Composed of three fatty acids bonded to glycerol
 Also called triglyceride (ex. Oils and fats)
 Include stearin, palmitin, olein and waxes.

2. Compound Lipids
 Composed of lipids found in combination with other compounds.
 Lipoproteins – with protein
 Glycolipids – with carbohydrates
 Phospholipids – with phosphoric acid

3. Steroids
 Composed of four fused rings of carbon atoms with functional groups attached.
 Include cholesterol, a common component of membranes of eukaryotic cells.

C. Proteins
 Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen plus other elements such
as sulfur, iron, iodine, etc.
 For growth and repair of tissues, component of the cell membrane, acts as
organic buffer, and lay a major role in chemical reactions as enzymes, in
protection of the body as antibodies.
 Building blocks of amino acids, which are united by means of peptide linkage to
form polypeptide chains.

Types of Proteins
1. Fibrous Protein
 The polypeptides are arranged parallel along a single axis to produce long fibers
or sheets.
 Keratin – principal component of hair, skin and nails;
 Silk – pleated sheet protein produced by silk moths and spiders.

2. Globular Protein
 The polypeptides are so tightly folded into spherical or globular shapes, such as
hemoglobin, the component of vertebrate blood used to transport oxygen.

3. Conjugated Protein
 Simple proteins in union with other substances.
 Nucleoprotein – with nucleic acids (ex. histones)
 Glycoprotein – with carbohydrates (ex. mucin)
 Lipoprotein – with fatty acids (ex. serum and brain tissue)
  Chromoprotein – with pigments (ex. cytochrome)

D. Nucleic Acids
 Composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen and phosphorus
 Important in protein synthesis as RNA, and in heredity as DNA.
 Building blocks are the nucleotides, which are made up of a pentose sugar
(ribose or deoxyribose), a nitrogen base (pyrimidine or purine), and phosphoric
acid.
 In DNA, purines are adenine and guanine; pyrimidines are cytosine and thymine.
 In RNA, thymine is replaced by uracil.